104-459: Mere Christianity is a Christian apologetical book by the British author C. S. Lewis . It was adapted from a series of BBC radio talks made between 1941 and 1944, originally published as three separate volumes: Broadcast Talks (1942), Christian Behaviour (1943), and Beyond Personality (1944). The book consists of four parts: the first presents Lewis's arguments for the existence of God ;
208-614: A biblical basis for Christian apologetics is God's entreaty in the Book of Isaiah : "Come now, let us reason together." Other scriptural passages which have been taken as a basis for Christian apologetics include Psalm 19 , which begins "The heavens declare the glory of God; the skies proclaim the work of his hands," and Romans 1 , which reads "For since the creation of the world God's invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made, so that men are without excuse." There are
312-422: A case for the historicity of the resurrection of Christ per current legal standards of evidence or undermining the pagan myth hypothesis for the origin of Christianity. Regarding evidence for the historicity of the Book of Acts , A. N. Sherwin-White states that: For Acts, the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. Acts is, in simple terms and judged externally, no less of a propaganda narrative than
416-572: A classic of Lewis's career, as well as of religious literature, particularly in the category of Christian apologetics. Commentators have also seen it as a guide to the basics of the Christian faith and to his theology. The book, along with his arguments for the existence of God, have frequently received academic evaluation, either complimenting or critical. Analysing Lewis's books, the Australian archeologist Warwick Ball believed Mere Christianity
520-634: A copy of the book given by his friend, Thomas L. Phillips (the chairman of the board of the Raytheon Company ). His story became popular, enhanced by the release of his autobiography in 1976, which was consequently declared the "Year of the Evangelicals" by the Newsweek magazine. Catholic converts include the British philanthropist Leonard Cheshire , the German economist E. F. Schumacher ,
624-565: A liar or lunatic, one of which is that his disciples misinterpreted his words. The philosopher Victor Reppert replied to Beversluis in C. S. Lewis's Dangerous Idea (2003), noting that Beversluis was correct in pointing out that many of Lewis's arguments are not strictly logical but overestimating the degree to which Lewis rested his case for Christianity on reason alone. Reppert continued that Lewis, in his autobiography, Surprised by Joy (1955), realised Christianity rests on far more than solely reason. Mere Christianity has been referred to as
728-444: A moral law whose source cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver." Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason, which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it. A related argument is from conscience; John Henry Newman argued that
832-457: A preference, but imply that the obligation will stand, regardless of other factors or interests. For morality to be binding, God must exist. In its most general form, the argument from moral normativity is: Some arguments from moral order suggest that morality is based on rationality and that this can only be the case if there is a moral order in the universe. The arguments propose that only the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived could support
936-459: A profound piece of theology, while it is, as was designed to be, only a primer". Describing the book as "a rare gift", Edward Skillin of the Commonweal magazine commented of Lewis's ability to make "complicated matters" more accessible especially to laypeople. On a passage of the book, Edward D. Myers of Theology Today noted, "This is clear, it is simple, it is eminently Christian, and it
1040-463: A quagmire of fine philosophical distinctions. Mere Christianity is an informal handshake to begin a more formal acquaintance and conversation." —Alister McGrath on the book's readability The author Colin Duriez praised it as easy to understand, and the biographer Thomas C. Peters opined that his straightforward language makes the book fit to a wide audience. There had been also criticism, which
1144-442: A span to allow the mythical tendency to prevail over the hard historic core. Moral apologetics states that real moral obligation is a fact. Catholic apologist Peter Kreeft said, "We are really, truly, objectively obligated to do good and avoid evil." In moral apologetics, the arguments for man's sinfulness and man's need for redemption are stressed. Examples of this type of apologetic would be Jonathan Edwards ' sermon " Sinners in
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#17327659909331248-643: A tool of evangelism, it has been translated into over thirty languages, and cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion to Christianity. Several "biographies" of the book have also been written. After reading Lewis's The Problem of Pain James Welch, the Director of Religious Broadcasting for the BBC, wrote Lewis the following: I write to ask whether you would be willing to help us in our work of religious broadcasting ... The microphone
1352-533: A variety of Christian apologetic styles and schools of thought. The major types of Christian apologetics include historical and legal evidentialist apologetics, presuppositional apologetics, philosophical apologetics, prophetic apologetics, doctrinal apologetics, biblical apologetics, moral apologetics, and scientific apologetics. Biblical apologetics include issues concerned with the authorship and date of biblical books, biblical canon , and biblical inerrancy . Christian apologists defend and comment on various books of
1456-457: A wide readership decades following its release, and contributed to establishing its author's reputation as "one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith" in the 20th century. The work, with Lewis's arguments for God's existence in it, continued to be examined in scholarly circles. Mere Christianity has retained popularity among Christians from various denominations, and appeared in several lists of finest Christian books. Often used as
1560-706: A writer of the relationship between religion and science , featured it in his "5 Books That Bring Science and Christianity Together" listing. Mere Christianity has influenced other Christian publications, with the scholar Gary L. Tandy noting that it remains the standard for assessing them, mainly the apologetic ones. Subsequent publications with allusion to the book in their titles include N. T. Wright 's Simply Christian (2006) and McGrath's Mere Apologetics (2012). The American pastor Tim Keller referred to his apologetic The Reason for God (2012) as " Mere Christianity for dummies". The bimonthly ecumenical Christian magazine Touchstone , which started publication in 1986,
1664-459: Is 13.8 billion-years-old and Earth is 4.54 billion-years-old. Old Earth creationists, such as astrophysicist Hugh Ross , see each of the six days of creation as being a long, but finite period of time, based on the multiple meanings of the Hebrew word yom (day light hours/24 hours/age of time) and other Biblical creation passages. Argument from morality The argument from morality
1768-552: Is a branch of Christian theology that defends Christianity . Christian apologetics have taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle in the early church and Patristic writers such as Origen , Augustine of Hippo , Justin Martyr and Tertullian , then continuing with writers such as Thomas Aquinas , Duns Scotus , William of Ockham and Anselm of Canterbury during Scholasticism . Blaise Pascal
1872-572: Is a limiting, and rather irritating, instrument, but the quality of thinking and depth of conviction which I find in your book ought sure to be shared with a great many other people. Welch suggested two potential subjects. Lewis responded with thanks and observed that modern literature, the first, did not suit him, choosing instead the Christian faith as Lewis understood it. In the preface to later editions, Lewis described his desire to avoid contested theological doctrine by focusing on core beliefs of
1976-495: Is abundantly seasoned with common sense, his humor and his irony are always at the service of the most serious purposes, and his originality is the offspring of enthusiastically loyal orthodoxy." " Mere Christianity is a popular, not an academic, book, which is not directed towards a readership of academic theologians or philosophers. It is simply unfair to expect Lewis to engage here with detailed philosophical debates, when these would clearly turn his brisk, highly readable book into
2080-520: Is accepted, human morality cannot be described as absolute and objective because moral statements cannot be right or wrong. Despite this, Lewis argued, those who accept evolutionary naturalism still act as if objective moral truths exist, leading Lewis to reject naturalism as incoherent. As an alternative ethical theory, Lewis offered a form of divine command theory which equated God with goodness and treated goodness as an essential part of reality, thus asserting God's existence. J. C. A. Gaskin challenges
2184-618: Is also a considerable readership in China, with 60,000 copies had been sold there as of 2014. The book has also been cited by a number of public figures as their influence to their conversion, or re-conversion, to Christianity as well as other Christian denominations. The American geneticist Francis Collins related his story of conversion from atheism in his book, The Language of God (2006), and described Mere Christianity as having influenced him to embrace Christianity. The American attorney Charles Colson 's conversion happened after him reading
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#17327659909332288-487: Is an argument for the existence of God . Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order. Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this, concluding that God must exist. Arguments from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe. They claim that, for this moral order to exist, God must exist to support it. The argument from morality
2392-419: Is incoherent, and atheism too simple. Eventually, he arrives at Jesus Christ , and invokes a well-known argument now known as Lewis's trilemma . Lewis, arguing that Jesus was claiming to be God, uses logic to advance three possibilities: either he really was God, was deliberately lying, or was not God but thought himself to be (which would make him delusional and likely insane). The book goes on to say that
2496-566: Is more effective than Mr. C. S. Lewis." The Clergy Review 's G. D. Smith opined that Lewis "shows himself a master in the rare art of conveying profound truths in simple and compelling language". J. H. Homes of the New York Herald Tribune Weekly Book Review wrote that "his clarity of thought and simplicity of expression have a magic about them which makes plain the most abstruse problems of theological speculation". The Guardian said: "His learning
2600-488: Is not within the power of humans to bring the summum bonum about, because we cannot ensure that virtue always leads to happiness, so there must be a higher power who has the power to create an afterlife where virtue can be rewarded by happiness. Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible. He also argues that alternative conceptions of morality exist which do not rely on
2704-532: Is noteworthy in that one cannot evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in meta-ethics . German philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason . Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue (the summum bonum ) and believed that an afterlife must be assumed to exist in order for this to be possible, and that God must be assumed to exist to provide this. Rather than aiming to prove
2808-814: Is perhaps his most influential and widely read apologetic work; the American philosopher C. Stephen Evans called his moral argument the "most widely-convincing apologetic argument of the twentieth century"; McGrath considered it "perhaps as outstanding an example of a lucid and intelligent presentation of the rational and moral case for Christian belief as we are ever likely to see". Mere Christianity has retained popularity years after its publication, and has been compared to other well-known Christian works, including Augustine 's The City of God and G. K. Chesterton 's The Everlasting Man (1925). The BBC journalist Justin Phillips observed that it "continues to transform
2912-545: Is perhaps the best known modern, English speaking Eastern Orthodox apologist. Among the Evangelicals there is the Anglican C. S. Lewis (who popularized the argument now known as Lewis's trilemma ). Among Protestant apologists of the 19th century there was William Paley who popularized the Watchmaker analogy . In the first half of the 20th century, many Christian fundamentalists became well known apologists. Some of
3016-616: Is popular in Calvinist circles. Others include William Lane Craig , Douglas Groothuis , Josh McDowell , Hugo Anthony Meynell , Timothy J. Keller , Francis Collins , Vishal Mangalwadi , Richard Bauckham , Craig Evans , Darrell Bock , Frank Turek , John F. MacArthur , R.C. Sproul , Michael R. Licona , Ravi Zacharias , Allister McGrath and John Lennox . The original Greek apologia ( ἀπολογία , from Ancient Greek : ἀπολογέομαι , romanized : apologeomai , lit. 'speak in return, defend oneself')
3120-608: Is subtitled A Journal of Mere Christianity . Paul McCusker 's C. S. Lewis & Mere Christianity , which provides insights to the work in its historical context, was published in 2014; it was praised for being well-researched but was criticised for its factual errors. Another "biography" of the book, C. S. Lewis's Mere Christianity , written by Marsden, was released in 2016, and received a positive reception from critics, with some criticism to its conclusion. Chapters Christian apologetics Christian apologetics ( Ancient Greek : ἀπολογία , "verbal defense, speech in defense")
3224-581: Is true. To remedy this, we must begin by showing that religion is not contrary to reason; that it is venerable, to inspire respect for it; then we must make it lovable, to make good men hope it is true; finally, we must prove it is true." Christian apologetics continues in modern times in a wide variety of forms. Among Catholics there are Bishop Robert Barron , G. K. Chesterton , Ronald Knox , Taylor Marshall , Arnold Lunn , Karl Keating , Michael Voris , Peter Kreeft , Frank Sheed , Dr. Scott Hahn , and Patrick Madrid . The Russian Orthodox Seraphim Rose
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3328-545: Is typical of the ease with which Mr. Lewis puts great matters into plain language." Joseph McSorley of The Catholic World found Lewis writing "with his customary clarity and incisiveness, and with proofs that the average man will find convincing. It is a delight to see him demolish in a paragraph many of the heresies which have contributed to our present ghastly condition." The Tablet , a Catholic magazine, wrote: We have never read arguments better marshalled and handled so that they can be remembered, or any book more useful to
3432-433: The conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest. Newman argued that, because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths, God must exist to give authority to these truths. Contemporary defenders of the argument from morality are Graham Ward , Alister McGrath and William Lane Craig . All variations of
3536-419: The great secrets : when one acts as if he loves others, he will presently come to love them. Initial reviews of Mere Christianity generally show enthusiasm, and most of them were from Christian publications. However, combining them with the reviews published decades later indicated a more mixed reception. The historian Stephanie L. Derrick observed that the book's literary elements, such as its eloquence, were
3640-681: The transcendental argument for the existence of God . Clark held that the Scriptures constituted the axioms of Christian thought, which could not be questioned, though their consistency could be discussed. A consequence of this position is that God's existence can never be demonstrated, either by empirical means or by philosophical argument. In The Justification of Knowledge , the Calvinist theologian Robert L. Reymond argues that believers should not even attempt such proofs. In his book Science Speaks , Peter Stoner argues that only God knows
3744-544: The American author Sheldon Vanauken , the American columnist Ross Douthat , the American theologian Peter Kreeft , and the American philosopher Francis J. Beckwith . Mere Christianity has been featured in several lists. It was included in the 2000 book, 100 Christian Books That Changed the Century , by William J. Petersen and Randy Petersen. In 2000 and 2006, the evangelical magazine Christianity Today 's editorial board included Mere Christianity in its "Books of
3848-665: The Bible. Some scholars who have engaged in the defense of biblical inerrancy include Robert Dick Wilson , Gleason Archer , Norman Geisler and R. C. Sproul . There are several resources that Christians offer defending inerrancy in regard to specific verses. Authors defending the reliability of the Gospels include Craig Blomberg in The Historical Reliability of the Gospels , Mark D. Roberts in Can We Trust
3952-609: The Catholic Church. Creationist apologetics aims to defend views of origins such as Young Earth creationism and Old Earth creationism that run counter to mainstream science. Young Earth creationists believe the Bible teaches that the Earth is approximately 6,000 years old, and reject the scientific consensus for the age of the Earth . They apply a literal interpretation to the primordial history in Genesis 1–11 – such as
4056-488: The Century" and "The Top 50 Books That Have Shaped Evangelicals", respectively. In a 2013 article to Christianity Today , McGrath ranked it the first among the five books by Lewis he liked the most. In the same year's "The Best Christian Book of All Time Tournament", run by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship , Mere Christianity was voted as the all-time, best Christian book, only after Augustine's autobiography Confessions . In 2018, Christianity Today 's Greg Cootsona,
4160-716: The Christian Faith. Every Wednesday from 7:45 pm to 8 pm during August 1941, Lewis gave live talks entitled "Right or Wrong: A Clue to the Meaning of the Universe" which would become the first book in Mere Christianity . The first set of talks became very popular and flooded Lewis with responses from an adoring and irate public. This feedback led to Lewis's going back on air to answer listeners' questions. The following January and February, Lewis gave
4264-413: The Christian beliefs/theology to everyone, and "has become synonymous with Lewis". The academic Bruce L. Edwards noted that it contributes to shaping Lewis's reputation as "a witty, articulate proponent of Christianity". The author Marvin D. Hinten wrote: "When people are asked which C. S. Lewis book has most influenced them spiritually, the most common answer is Mere Christianity ." According to Peters,
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4368-637: The Christian, in the Army or elsewhere, who finds himself called upon to argue briefly from first premises, to say why morality is not herd-instinct, why there is a special and unique character attaching to the sense of obligation, why the conviction that there is a law of right and wrong and a transcendent morality is only intelligible if there is a God. The Times Literary Supplement wrote of Lewis's "quite unique power" of making theology interesting, even "exciting and (one might almost say) uproariously funny". The reviewer added: "No writer of popular apologetics today
4472-740: The Contemplative Life and more explicitly in Josephus ' Against Apion . Christian apologetics first appear in the New Testament (e. g. Paul's preaching on Mars Hill in Acts 17:22–31). During the subapostolic age Christianity was already competing with Judaism as well as with various other religions and sects in the Greco-Roman world. Christian apologetics can be first seen in the ''Preaching of Peter'' ( Gospel of Peter ), but
4576-510: The English-spoken " Lord Hawhaw " during any dead air. Due to the timing of the fourth set of talks (10:20 pm), Lewis said he could not do them all live and would have to record some. The core of the first section centres on an argument from morality , the basis of which is the "law of human nature", a "rule about right and wrong," which, Lewis maintained, is commonly available and known to all human beings. He cites, as an example,
4680-426: The Gospels, liable to similar distortions. But any attempt to reject its basic historicity, even in matters of detail, must now appear absurd. Roman historians have long taken it for granted.... The agnostic type of form-criticism would be much more credible if the compilation of the Gospels were much later in time.... Herodotus enables us to test the tempo of myth-making, [showing that] even two generations are too short
4784-413: The Gospels? Richard Bauckham , Craig Evans and Darrell Bock . Experiential apologetics is a reference to an appeal "primarily, if not exclusively, to experience as evidence for Christian faith." Also, "they spurn rational arguments or factual evidence in favor of what they believe to be a self-verifying experience." This view stresses experience that other apologists have not made as explicit, and in
4888-554: The Greek rationalist tradition. In the 2nd century, apologetics was a defense or explanation of Christianity, addressed to those standing in opposition and those yet to form an opinion, such as emperors and other authority figures, or potential converts. The earliest martyr narrative has the spokesman for the persecuted present a defense in the apologetic mode: Christianity was a rational religion that worshiped only God, and although Christians were law-abiding citizens willing to honor
4992-601: The Hands of an Angry God ." The Four Spiritual Laws religious tract (Campus Crusade for Christ) would be another example. C. S. Lewis, Norman Geisler, William Lane Craig and Christians who engage in jurisprudence Christian apologetics have argued that miracles are reasonable and plausible wherever an all-powerful Creator is postulated. In other words, it is postulated that if God exists, miracles cannot be postulated as impossible or inherently improbable. Philosophical apologetics concerns itself primarily with arguments for
5096-455: The Saviour was on earth, but also after his death, they were alive for quite a while, so that some of them lived even to our day. ( Church History iv. 3. 2) One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus , who wrote The True Word ( c. 175 CE ), a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society. In response,
5200-649: The argument from morality begin with an observation about moral thought or experiences and conclude with the existence of God. Some of these arguments propose moral facts which they claim evident through human experience, arguing that God is the best explanation for these. Other versions describe some end which humans should strive to attain that is only possible if God exists. Many arguments from morality are based on moral normativity, which suggests that objective moral truths exist and require God's existence to give them authority. Often, they consider that morality seems to be binding – obligations are seen to convey more than just
5304-620: The aspect most frequently noted by contemporary publications. The historian George M. Marsden summarised that Mere Christianity "has been hated as well as loved. Nonetheless, as a popular presentation of the faith it has drawn less systematic criticism than would a book that purported to be a definitive treatise on Christian apologetics and theology." On the general reception to the book, the Lewis biographer Margaret Patterson Hannay described it as his "most popular and ... most disparaged" work, adding that "probably because its fans have spoken of it as
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#17327659909335408-479: The assumptions that Kant makes – he cites utilitarianism as an example which does not require the summum bonum . Nicholas Everitt argues that much moral guidance is unattainable, such as the Biblical command to be Christ-like. He proposes that Kant's first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable. Both theists and non-theists have accepted that
5512-606: The author of the Epistle to Diognetus . Augustine of Hippo was a significant apologist of the Patristic era. Some scholars regard apologetics as a distinct literary genre exhibiting commonalities of style and form, content, and strategies of argumentation . Others viewed it as a form of discourse characterized by its tone and purpose. R. C. Sproul, quoting the First Epistle of Peter , writes that "The defense of
5616-405: The best known are R. A. Torrey and John Gresham Machen . Evangelical Norman Geisler, Lutheran John Warwick Montgomery and Presbyterian Francis Schaeffer were among the most prolific Christian apologists in the latter half of the 20th century and into the 21st, while Gordon Clark and Cornelius Van Til started a new school of philosophical apologetics called presuppositionalism , which
5720-608: The book is more popular among Christians of various denominations, including Catholic, Latter-day Saint, Orthodox, and Protestant, but less among non-Christians. It is often used as an evangelistic tool, predominantly in Christian-majority countries, including the United States, where its influence is most felt. Furthermore, its influence is strengthened by the publication of its translations; according to Marsden, it has been translated to about thirty-six languages. In
5824-450: The case of Nazi Germany , writing: This law was called the Law of nature because people thought that everyone knew it by nature and did not need to be taught it. They did not mean, of course, that you might not find an odd individual here and there who did not know it, just as you find a few people who are colour-blind or have no ear for a tune. But taking the race as a whole, they thought that
5928-416: The church father Origen published his apologetic treatise Contra Celsum , or Against Celsus , which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability. In the treatise, Origen writes from the perspective of a Platonic philosopher, drawing extensively on the teachings of Plato . Contra Celsum is widely regarded by modern scholars as one of
6032-404: The colour of their hair. On a mundane level, it is generally accepted that stealing is a violation of this moral law. Lewis argues that the moral law is like scientific laws (e.g. gravity) or mathematics in that it was not contrived by humans. However, it is unlike scientific laws in that it can be broken or ignored, and it is known intuitively, rather than through experimentation. After introducing
6136-492: The community explain their beliefs and justify positions. Origen 's apologetic Contra Celsum , for instance, provided a defense against the arguments of a critic dead for decades to provide answers to doubting Christians lacking immediate answers to the questions raised. Apologetic literature was an important medium for the formation of early Christian identity. In addition to Origen and Tertullian, early Christian apologists include Justin Martyr , Clement of Alexandria , and
6240-457: The country", a criticism mounted by J. L. Mackie, who argued that the conscience should be seen as an "introjection" of other people into an agent's mind. Michael Martin challenges the argument from conscience with a naturalistic account of conscience, arguing that naturalism provides an adequate explanation for the conscience without the need for God's existence. He uses the example of the internalization by humans of social pressures, which leads to
6344-399: The cut material back into the next book and added several more chapters. The fourth set of talks did not take place until 1944. The script drafts had a much wider scope originally, and Lewis prepared for 10-minute talks when the BBC was giving him 15. The timing of these talks was important and strictly adhered to due to technology and World War II, Germany would broadcast propaganda through
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#17327659909336448-400: The development of human morality which suggests that it is neither objective nor absolute. This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse , proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism. According to the theory, the human experience of moral obligations was
6552-657: The emperor, their belief in a single divinity prevented them from taking the loyalty oaths that acknowledged the emperor's divinity . The apologetic historiography in the Acts of the Apostles presented Christianity as a religious movement at home within the Roman Empire and no threat to it and was a model for the first major historian of the Church , Eusebius. Apologetics might also be directed to Christians already within
6656-507: The end of that particular society and any chance for future survival of offspring. Scottish empiricist David Hume made a similar argument, that belief in objective moral truths is unwarranted and to discuss them is meaningless. Because evolutionary naturalism proposes an empirical account of morality, it does not require morality to exist objectively; Linville considers the view that this will lead to moral scepticism or antirealism . C. S. Lewis argued that, if evolutionary naturalism
6760-483: The end, the concept that the Holy Spirit convinces the heart of truth becomes the central theme of the apologetic argument. A variety of arguments has been forwarded by legal scholars such as Simon Greenleaf and John Warwick Montgomery , by expert forensic investigators such as cold case homicide detective J. Warner Wallace , and academic historical scholars, such as Edwin M. Yamauchi . These arguments present
6864-457: The existence of God , although they do not exclusively focus on this area. They do not argue for the veracity of Christianity over other religions but merely for the existence of a Creator deity . Omnipotence and omniscience are implied in these arguments to greater or lesser degrees: some argue for an interventionist god, some are equally relevant to a Deist conception of God. They do not support hard polytheism , but could be used to describe
6968-424: The existence of God as orthodoxly conceived, so God must exist. In his Critique of Pure Reason , German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that no successful argument for God's existence arises from reason alone. In his Critique of Practical Reason he went on to argue that, despite the failure of these arguments, morality requires that God's existence is assumed, owing to practical reason. Rather than proving
7072-426: The existence of God, Christian apologists have also attempted to respond successfully to arguments against the existence of God. Two very popular arguments against the existence of God are the hiddenness argument and the argument from evil. The hiddenness argument tries to show that a perfectly loving God's existence is incompatible with the existence of nonresistant nonbelievers. The argument from evil tries to show that
7176-401: The existence of God, Kant was attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists. Kant argued that humans are obliged to bring about the summum bonum : the two central aims of moral virtue and happiness, where happiness arises out of virtue. As ought implies can , Kant argued, it must be possible for the summum bonum to be achieved. He accepted that it
7280-443: The existence of God, however, Kant was simply attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists, and therefore that we are entitled to make such an assumption only as a regulative principle rather than a constitutive principle (meaning that such a principle can guide our actions, but it does not provide knowledge). In his book Mere Christianity , C. S. Lewis argued that "conscience reveals to us
7384-479: The existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God ( polytheism is a viable alternative). Martin also argues that a non-objective account of ethics might be acceptable and challenges the view that a subjective account of morality would lead to moral anarchy. William Lane Craig has argued for this form of
7488-557: The existence of evil renders God's existence unlikely or impossible. Presuppositional apologetics is a Reformed Protestant methodology which claims that presuppositions are essential to any philosophical position and that there are no "neutral" assumptions from which a Christian can reason in common with a non-Christian. There are two main schools of presuppositional apologetics, that of Cornelius Van Til (and his students Greg Bahnsen and John Frame ) and that of Gordon Haddon Clark . Van Til drew upon but did not always agree with,
7592-419: The existence of moral order in the universe, so God must exist. Alternative arguments from moral order have proposed that we have an obligation to attain the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue. They attest that whatever we are obliged to do must be possible, and achieving the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue is only possible if a natural moral order exists. A natural moral order requires
7696-399: The existence of objective moral truths might entail the existence of God. Atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie accepted that, if objective moral truths existed, they would warrant a supernatural explanation. Scottish philosopher W. R. Sorley presented the following argument: Many critics have challenged the second premise of this argument, by offering a biological and sociological account of
7800-509: The faith is not a luxury or intellectual vanity. It is a task appointed by God that you should be able to give a reason for the hope that is in you as you bear witness before the world." The verse quoted here reads in full: "but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you; yet do it with gentleness and respect." Another passage sometimes used as
7904-485: The first explicitly apologetic work comes from Quadratus of Athens ( c. 125 CE ) in which he writes a defense of the faith to emperor Hadrian . Only a fragment, quoted by Eusebius , has survived to our day: But the works of our Saviour were always present, for they were genuine:—those that were healed, and those that were raised from the dead, who were seen not only when they were healed and when they were raised, but were also always present; and not merely while
8008-408: The first god who created many other gods; however, the arguments are only relevant when applied to the first god (the first cause , pure act and unmoved mover ; it is a contradiction a priori to suppose a plurality of "pure acts" or "first causes" or "unmoved movers"). These arguments can be grouped into several categories: Other philosophical arguments include: In addition to arguments for
8112-402: The first premise of the argument from moral objectivity, arguing that it must be shown why absolute and objective morality entails that morality is commanded by God , rather than simply a human invention. It could be the consent of humanity that gives it moral force, for example. American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail
8216-471: The future and that Biblical prophecies of a compelling nature have been fulfilled. Apologist Josh McDowell documents the Old Testament prophecies fulfilled by Christ, relating to his ancestral line, birthplace, virgin birth, miracles, death, and resurrection. Apologist Blaise Pascal believed that the prophecies are the strongest evidence for Christianity. He notes that Jesus not only foretold, but
8320-566: The greatness of the Creator." The theologian and mathematician Marin Mersenne used celestial mechanics as evidence in his apologetic work, while Matteo Ricci engaged in scientific apologetics in China. In modern times, the theory of the Big Bang has been used in support of Christian apologetics. Several Christian apologists have sought to reconcile Christianity and science concerning
8424-444: The human experience of morality because people avoid acting immorally, even when it might be in their interests. Newman proposed that, to explain the conscience, God must exist. British philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people's consciences would lead to contradictions. Locke also noted that the conscience is influenced by "education, company, and customs of
8528-537: The human idea of decent behaviour was obvious to everyone. And I believe they were right. If they were not, then all the things we said about the war were nonsense. What was the sense in saying the enemy were in the wrong unless Right is a real thing which the Nazis at bottom knew as well as we did and ought to have practised? If they had had no notion of what we mean by right, then, though we might still have had to fight them, we could no more have blamed them for that than for
8632-536: The integration of educated Christians into the cultural life of the Roman Empire , particularly during the "little peace" of the 3rd century , and of their participation in the Greek intellectual movement broadly known as the Second Sophistic . The Christian apologists of the early Church did not reject Greek philosophy , but attempted to show the positive value of Christianity in dynamic relation to
8736-500: The latter two possibilities are not consistent with Jesus' character and it was most likely that he was being truthful. The next third of the book explores the ethics resulting from Christian belief. He cites the four cardinal virtues : prudence , justice , temperance , and fortitude . After touching on these, he goes into the three theological virtues : hope , faith , and charity . Lewis also explains morality as being composed of three layers : relationships between man and man,
8840-401: The lives of those who read it. There is no reason why it won't continue to be potent for decades to come." According to the authors Roger Lancelyn Green and Walter Hooper , its success led to the acknowledgment of Lewis as "one of the most 'original' exponents of the Christian faith" of the 20th century. The book, Hooper continued, shows Lewis's ability of providing a comprehensible guidance of
8944-513: The long life spans of people such as Methuselah , the Flood , and the Tower of Babel . Among the biggest young Earth creation apologetic organizations are Answers in Genesis , Institute for Creation Research , and Creation Ministries International . Old Earth creationists believe it is possible to harmonize the Bible's six-day account of creation with the scientific consensus that the universe
9048-418: The moral argument. Related to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience, associated with eighteenth-century bishop Joseph Butler and nineteenth-century cardinal John Henry Newman . Newman proposed that the conscience , as well as giving moral guidance, provides evidence of objective moral truths which must be supported by the divine. He argued that emotivism is an inadequate explanation of
9152-463: The moral law, Lewis argues that thirst reflects the fact that people naturally need water, and there is no other substance which satisfies that need. Lewis points out that earthly experience does not satisfy the human craving for "joy" and that only God could fit the bill; humans cannot know to yearn for something if it does not exist. After providing reasons for his conversion to theism, Lewis explicates various conceptions of God. Pantheism , he argues,
9256-432: The most important works of early Christian apologetics. Other apologists from this period are Aristides of Athens , the author of the Epistle to Diognetus , Aristo of Pella , Tatian , Justin Martyr , Melito of Sardis , Athenagoras of Athens , Theophilus of Antioch , Irenaeus , Origen , Hippolytus of Rome , Tertullian , Minucius Felix , Cyprian , and Victorinus of Pettau . Anselm of Canterbury propounded
9360-722: The motivations and attitudes of the man himself, and contrasting worldviews. Lewis also covers such topics as social relations and forgiveness, sexual ethics and the tenets of Christian marriage, and the relationship between morality and psychoanalysis . He also writes about the great sin : pride, which he argues to be the root cause of all evil and rebellion. His most important point is that Christianity mandates that one "love your neighbour as yourself." He points out that all persons unconditionally love themselves. Even if one does not like oneself, one would still love oneself. Christians, he writes, must also apply this attitude to others, even if they do not like them. Lewis calls this one of
9464-571: The next decades, Mere Christianity is continued to be reprinted and sold by Christian and online booksellers. For instance, soon after the dissolution of the Soviet Union , it was translated into the several native languages of its breakaway states , which was done by Orthodox Christians to rebuild their influence. As of 2010, the book had been in BookScan Religion Bestseller's list for 513 weeks, consecutively. There
9568-417: The next set of talks on what would become "What Christians Believe". The talks remained popular and because of the success of the newly released The Screwtape Letters , Lewis’s publisher was happy to publish the broadcast talks as books that year. In Autumn 1942, the third series of talks were, ironically, cut down from 15 to 10 minutes. Due to a miscommunication, Lewis had prepared for 15 minutes, but added
9672-575: The ontological argument in his Proslogion . Thomas Aquinas presented five ways , or arguments for God's existence, in the Summa Theologica , while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work. Aquinas also made significant criticisms of the ontological argument which resulted in its losing popularity until it was revived by René Descartes in his Meditations . Blaise Pascal outlined an approach to apologetics in his Pensées : "Men despise religion; they hate it and fear it
9776-555: The question of origins. Theistic evolution claims that classical religious teachings about God are compatible with the modern scientific understanding about biological evolution and that the Creator God uses the process of evolution. Denis Lamoureux , in Evolutionary Creation: A Christian Approach to Evolution , states that "This view of origins fully embraces both the religious beliefs of biblical Christianity and
9880-443: The result of evolutionary pressures , which attached a sense of morality to human psychology because it was useful for moral development; this entails that moral values do not exist independently of the human mind. Morality might be better understood as an evolutionary imperative in order to propagate genes and ultimately reproduce. No human society today advocates immorality, such as theft or murder, because it would undoubtedly lead to
9984-421: The scientific theories of cosmological, geological, and biological evolution. It contends that the Creator established and maintains the laws of nature, including the mechanisms of a teleological evolution ." One of the most influential examples of a Christian-evolutionary synthesis is the work of Pierre Teilhard de Chardin , which was intended as apologetics to the world of science, but was later condemned by
10088-562: The second contains his defence of Christian theology, including his notable " Liar, lunatic, or Lord " trilemma; the third has him exploring Christian ethics , among which are cardinal and theological virtues ; in the final, he writes on the Christian conception of God . Mere Christianity was published in the United Kingdom by Geoffrey Bles on 7 July 1952. While initial reviews to the book were generally positive, modern reviewers were more critical of it, and its overall reception
10192-463: The work of Dutch Calvinist philosophers and theologians such as D. H. Th. Vollenhoven , Herman Dooyeweerd , Hendrik G. Stoker , Herman Bavinck , and Abraham Kuyper . Bahnsen describes Van Til's approach to Christian apologetics as pointing out the difference in ultimate principles between Christians and non-Christians and then showing that the non-Christian principles reduce to absurdity. In practice, this school utilizes what has come to be known as
10296-429: Was a formal verbal defense, either in response to accusation or prosecution in a court of law. The defense of Socrates as presented by Plato and Xenophon was an apologia against charges of "corrupting the young, and ... not believing in the gods in whom the city believes, but in other daimonia that are novel". In later use 'apologia' sometimes took a literary form in early Christian discourse as an example of
10400-400: Was an active Christian apologist during the 17th century . In the modern period, Christianity was defended through the efforts of many authors such as John Henry Newman , G. K. Chesterton and C. S. Lewis , as well as G. E. M. Anscombe . According to Edgar J. Goodspeed in the first century CE Jewish apologetic elements could be seen in works such as The Wisdom of Solomon , Philo 's On
10504-540: Was foretold, unlike in other religions, and that these prophecies came from a succession of people over a span of four thousand years. Many Christians contend that science and the Bible do not contradict each other and that scientific fact supports Christian apologetics. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states that "The question about the origins of the world and of man has been the object of many scientific studies which have splendidly enriched our knowledge... These discoveries invite us to even greater admiration for
10608-588: Was mistaken about his identity should have gotten into consideration of alternatives. Scathing criticism came from the philosopher John Beversluis, in his book C. S. Lewis and the Search for Rational Religion (1985). Beversluis analysed Lewis's arguments for Christianity, arriving in the conclusion that each of them is built on faulty logic. He argued that Lewis made his arguments convincing by creating false analogies , with an instance in his trilemma. Beversluis said there are more alternatives in addition to Jesus being
10712-441: Was primarily directed towards Lewis's "Liar, lunatic, or Lord" trilemma. The Lewis biographer and Christian apologist Alister McGrath , while commending the book in general, felt that his trilemma is a weak defence for the doctrine of the divinity of Jesus , calling this the book's "most obvious concern". He wrote his argument is mostly unsupported by the modern biblical scholarship , and argued that others options such as that Jesus
10816-400: Was relatively mixed. The praise was primarily directed to Lewis's humorous, straightforward style of writing; the criticism was primarily around the validity of his trilemma, which defends the Christian doctrine of the divinity of Jesus , and how he should have considered providing more choices. Deemed a classic in Lewis's career and religious literature, Mere Christianity has often received
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