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103-596: MAF is one of the largest manufacturing plants in the world with 43 environmentally controlled acres—174,000 m (1,870,000 sq ft)—under one roof, and it employs more than 4,200 people. From September 1961 to the end of the Apollo program in December 1972 the site was utilized by Chrysler Corporation to build the first stages of the Saturn I and Saturn IB , later joined by Boeing Corporation to build

206-443: A wind tunnel which has thousands of changes per hour. The highest air change rates are for crowded spaces, bars, night clubs, commercial kitchens at around 30 to 50 air changes per hour. Room pressure can be either positive or negative with respect to outside the room. Positive pressure occurs when there is more air being supplied than exhausted, and is common to reduce the infiltration of outside contaminants. Natural ventilation

309-680: A 2005–2006 refit of Endeavour included: Endeavour flew its final mission, STS-134, to the International Space Station (ISS) in May 2011. After the conclusion of STS-134, Endeavour was formally decommissioned. STS-134 was intended to launch in late 2010, but on July 1 NASA released a statement saying the Endeavour mission was rescheduled for February 27, 2011. "The target dates were adjusted because critical payload hardware for STS-133 will not be ready in time to support

412-487: A building in a high dust environment, or a home with furry pets, will need to have the filters changed more often than buildings without these dirt loads. Failure to replace these filters as needed will contribute to a lower heat exchange rate, resulting in wasted energy, shortened equipment life, and higher energy bills; low air flow can result in iced-over evaporator coils, which can completely stop airflow. Additionally, very dirty or plugged filters can cause overheating during

515-736: A building that was not designed to receive it) because of the bulky air ducts required. (Minisplit ductless systems are used in these situations.) Outside of North America, packaged systems are only used in limited applications involving large indoor space such as stadiums, theatres or exhibition halls. An alternative to packaged systems is the use of separate indoor and outdoor coils in split systems . Split systems are preferred and widely used worldwide except in North America. In North America, split systems are most often seen in residential applications, but they are gaining popularity in small commercial buildings. Split systems are used where ductwork

618-481: A central location such as a furnace room in a home, or a mechanical room in a large building. The heat can be transferred by convection , conduction, or radiation . Space heaters are used to heat single rooms and only consist of a single unit. Heaters exist for various types of fuel, including solid fuels , liquids , and gases . Another type of heat source is electricity , normally heating ribbons composed of high resistance wire (see Nichrome ). This principle

721-549: A circulator, which is a pump, to move hot water through the distribution system (as opposed to older gravity-fed systems ). The heat can be transferred to the surrounding air using radiators , hot water coils (hydro-air), or other heat exchangers. The radiators may be mounted on walls or installed within the floor to produce floor heat. The use of water as the heat transfer medium is known as hydronics . The heated water can also supply an auxiliary heat exchanger to supply hot water for bathing and washing. Warm air systems distribute

824-527: A facility to be heated and cooled by a single piece of equipment by the same means, and with the same hardware. Free cooling systems can have very high efficiencies, and are sometimes combined with seasonal thermal energy storage so that the cold of winter can be used for summer air conditioning. Common storage mediums are deep aquifers or a natural underground rock mass accessed via a cluster of small-diameter, heat-exchanger-equipped boreholes. Some systems with small storages are hybrids, using free cooling early in

927-747: A few of the tanks from Endeavour for reuse as storage containers for potable water on the International Space Station. On May 28, 2015, NASA donated the ET-94 external tank , the last mission-ready one in existence as all others were destroyed during launch. On April 12, 2016, the tank was transported by barge from the Michoud Assembly Facility in New Orleans , Louisiana , across the Panama Canal , and

1030-410: A heat pump system in which a compressor is used to drive thermodynamic refrigeration cycle , or in a free cooling system that uses pumps to circulate a cool refrigerant (typically water or a glycol mix). It is imperative that the air conditioning horsepower is sufficient for the area being cooled. Underpowered air conditioning systems will lead to power wastage and inefficient usage. Adequate horsepower

1133-416: A heating cycle, which can result in damage to the system or even fire. Because an air conditioner moves heat between the indoor coil and the outdoor coil, both must be kept clean. This means that, in addition to replacing the air filter at the evaporator coil, it is also necessary to regularly clean the condenser coil. Failure to keep the condenser clean will eventually result in harm to the compressor because

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1236-459: A huge difference for the environment and help expand the knowledge of using different methods. HVAC is based on inventions and discoveries made by Nikolay Lvov , Michael Faraday , Rolla C. Carpenter , Willis Carrier , Edwin Ruud , Reuben Trane , James Joule , William Rankine , Sadi Carnot , Alice Parker and many others. Multiple inventions within this time frame preceded the beginnings of

1339-475: A larger district heating (DH) or district cooling (DC) network, or a combined DHC network. In such cases, the operating and maintenance aspects are simplified and metering becomes necessary to bill for the energy that is consumed, and in some cases energy that is returned to the larger system. For example, at a given time one building may be utilizing chilled water for air conditioning and the warm water it returns may be used in another building for heating, or for

1442-564: A nod to its 25 space missions during its career. On October 30, 2012, the Space Shuttle Endeavour was opened to the public. The shuttle was display inside the temporary Samuel Oschin Pavilion, where guests offered to not only walk around Endeavour, but also under it, as the vehicle was displayed in the horizontal atop four friction-pendulum seismic isolators to protect it from earthquakes. The shuttle remained inside

1545-400: A portion of the facility to Big Easy Studios, a New Orleans film studio. This deal has been criticized by competing studios as violating NASA's rule that any deal with an outside entity must serve the agency's mission and must not compete with the private sector. NASA officials defend the agreement, stating that this helps to offset the cost of unused space on the facility and that their pricing

1648-494: A room for the purpose of reducing the perceived temperature by increasing evaporation of perspiration on the skin of the occupants. Because hot air rises, ceiling fans may be used to keep a room warmer in the winter by circulating the warm stratified air from the ceiling to the floor. Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without using fans or other mechanical systems. It can be via operable windows, louvers, or trickle vents when spaces are small and

1751-700: A suburb of Montreal, where it was to be placed on display. In a Canadian poll on which science or aerospace museum should be selected to display the Canadarm, originally built by SPAR Aerospace , the Canadian Space Agency's headquarters placed third to last with only 35 out of 638 votes. Endeavour ' s Canadarm has since gone on permanent display at the Canada Aviation and Space Museum in Ottawa . In August 2015, NASA engineers removed

1854-403: Is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza, meningitis or COVID-19. Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide

1957-406: Is a new building that is under construction, will serve as Endeavour's new permanent home. The Space Shuttle will be in a 20-story-tall display mounted on with the ET-94 tank, and solid rocket boosters, as it looks like its were about to make one more flight. Once finished, it will be the only Space Shuttle mounted vertically in launch position . Originally slated to open in 2015, construction on

2060-599: Is a retired orbiter from NASA 's Space Shuttle program and the fifth and final operational Shuttle built. It embarked on its first mission, STS-49 , in May 1992 and its 25th and final mission, STS-134 , in May 2011. STS-134 was expected to be the final mission of the Space Shuttle program, but with the authorization of STS-135 by the United States Congress , Atlantis became the last shuttle to fly. The United States Congress approved

2163-410: Is air change rate or air changes per hour : the hourly rate of ventilation divided by the volume of the space. For example, six air changes per hour means an amount of new air, equal to the volume of the space, is added every ten minutes. For human comfort, a minimum of four air changes per hour is typical, though warehouses might have only two. Too high of an air change rate may be uncomfortable, akin to

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2266-526: Is also used for baseboard heaters and portable heaters . Electrical heaters are often used as backup or supplemental heat for heat pump systems. The heat pump gained popularity in the 1950s in Japan and the United States. Heat pumps can extract heat from various sources , such as environmental air, exhaust air from a building, or from the ground. Heat pumps transfer heat from outside the structure into

2369-877: Is channeled through the space to enhance cooling and ventilation. Cross ventilation is most effective when there are clear, unobstructed paths for airflow within the building. In more complex schemes, warm air is allowed to rise and flow out high building openings to the outside ( stack effect ), causing cool outside air to be drawn into low building openings. Natural ventilation schemes can use very little energy, but care must be taken to ensure comfort. In warm or humid climates, maintaining thermal comfort solely via natural ventilation might not be possible. Air conditioning systems are used, either as backups or supplements. Air-side economizers also use outside air to condition spaces, but do so using fans, ducts, dampers, and control systems to introduce and distribute cool outdoor air when appropriate. An important component of natural ventilation

2472-683: Is dropped, as in HACR (as in the designation of HACR-rated circuit breakers ). HVAC is an important part of residential structures such as single family homes, apartment buildings, hotels, and senior living facilities; medium to large industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers and hospitals; vehicles such as cars, trains, airplanes, ships and submarines; and in marine environments, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated with respect to temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors. Ventilating or ventilation (the "V" in HVAC)

2575-443: Is home to the first stage of the last-constructed Saturn V, SA-515, built by The Boeing Company. The factory's ceiling height limitation - 12 meters, was unable to allow the construction of the bigger Saturn C-8 direct Moon vehicle, and therefore was one of the major reasons why the smaller C-5 (later renamed Saturn V) was chosen instead of the originally planned Moon vehicle. The runway was slowly transformed into Saturn Boulevard in

2678-481: Is inexpensive. Natural ventilation is not practical in much of the infrastructure because of climate. This means that the facilities need to have effective mechanical ventilation systems and or use Ceiling Level UV or FAR UV ventilation systems. Ventilation is measured in terms of Air Changes Per Hour (ACH). As of 2023, the CDC recommends that all spaces have a minimum of 5 ACH. For hospital rooms with airborne contagions

2781-499: Is known as room air distribution . In modern buildings, the design, installation, and control systems of these functions are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings, contractors normally estimate the capacity and type of system needed and then design the system, selecting the appropriate refrigerant and various components needed. For larger buildings, building service designers, mechanical engineers, or building services engineers analyze, design, and specify

2884-612: Is located 600 meters southwest of the main manufacturing building. Transporting vehicles carrying manufactured SLS components move down Saturn Blvd, past large open fields, to the pier - where the Pegasus Barge is docked. This is where the components are shipped to either their final destination - Kennedy Space Center , or rarely back to the main Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama, or

2987-581: Is needed to improve the performance of ventilation in terms of ... In scenarios where outdoor pollution would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be necessary. Methods for ventilating a building may be divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. Mechanical, or forced, ventilation is provided by an air handler (AHU) and used to control indoor air quality. Excess humidity , odors, and contaminants can often be controlled via dilution or replacement with outside air. However, in humid climates more energy

3090-450: Is not feasible or where the space conditioning efficiency is of prime concern. The benefits of ductless air conditioning systems include easy installation, no ductwork, greater zonal control, flexibility of control, and quiet operation. In space conditioning, the duct losses can account for 30% of energy consumption. The use of minisplits can result in energy savings in space conditioning as there are no losses associated with ducting. With

3193-554: Is not yet announced. Following their May 30, 2020, launch on board the SpaceX Crew Dragon Demo-2 vehicle, the crew announced in orbit that they had named their spacecraft Endeavour . Astronauts Bob Behnken and Doug Hurley said the name has a dual meaning: first, after the "incredible endeavor" put forth by SpaceX and NASA after the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet in 2011 ; and second, because both Hurley and Behnken each flew their first flight aboard

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3296-436: Is required for any air conditioner installed. The refrigeration cycle uses four essential elements to cool, which are compressor, condenser, metering device, and evaporator. In variable climates, the system may include a reversing valve that switches from heating in winter to cooling in summer. By reversing the flow of refrigerant, the heat pump refrigeration cycle is changed from cooling to heating or vice versa. This allows

3399-458: Is required to remove excess moisture from ventilation air. Kitchens and bathrooms typically have mechanical exhausts to control odors and sometimes humidity. Factors in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and exhaust vent size) and noise level. Direct drive fans are available for many applications and can reduce maintenance needs. In summer, ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within

3502-497: Is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control the temperature or remove any combination of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, or carbon dioxide, and to replenish oxygen. It plays a critical role in maintaining a healthy indoor environment by preventing the buildup of harmful pollutants and ensuring the circulation of fresh air. Different methods, such as natural ventilation through windows and mechanical ventilation systems , can be used depending on

3605-408: Is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality which involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment, and removal of moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other gases. Ventilation removes unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduces outside air, keeps interior building air circulating, and prevents stagnation of

3708-460: Is the use of various technologies to control the temperature , humidity , and purity of the air in an enclosed space. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality . HVAC system design is a subdiscipline of mechanical engineering , based on the principles of thermodynamics , fluid mechanics , and heat transfer . " Refrigeration " is sometimes added to the field's abbreviation as HVAC&R or HVACR , or "ventilation"

3811-566: Is vetted by state and local economic development agencies to ensure it is not competing with the private market. Portions of Ender's Game , G.I. Joe: Retaliation , and Dawn of the Planet of the Apes were filmed at the factory. On May 24, 1988, TACA Flight 110 operated with a Boeing 737-300 jetliner made a successful emergency landing on a grassy levee in the Michoud grounds after power

3914-671: The Columbia Accident Investigation Board (CAIB) for the shuttle's return to flight following the loss of Columbia during reentry on February 1, 2003. The STS-118 mission, Endeavour ' s first since the refit, included astronaut Barbara Morgan , formerly assigned to the Teacher in Space project , and later a member of the Astronaut Corps from 1998 to 2008, as part of the crew. Morgan

4017-772: The John C. Stennis Space Center in Mississippi for testing. The Michoud Assembly Facility also houses other organizations such as the National Finance Center operated by the United States Department of Agriculture , the United States Coast Guard , and GE . The factory complex is open to the public (though through pre-booking in advance). Visitors must sign in at main reception and clear security. NASA planned to use

4120-723: The Kennedy Space Center on September 19, 2012, heading to the Los Angeles International Airport , with some refueling stops in Ellington Field and Edwards Air Force Base . After low level flyovers above NASA and civic landmarks across the country and in California, it was delivered to LAX on September 21. It was then hoisted off the aircraft and placed inside a United Airlines hangar to prepare for its transportation through

4223-534: The LAFD and LACoFD to treat heat exhaustion victims as Endeavour made its way through the city. Endeavour was sometimes parked for a few hours at certain places, such as Randy's Donuts , and The Forum where it was available for viewing. Endeavour 's biggest part of the journey was crossing the Manchester Boulevard Bridge over Interstate 405 . However, due to weight restrictions of

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4326-468: The Orion spacecraft , whose crew module is also being built at Michoud, but by Lockheed Martin . It has 50% more volume than the Apollo command capsule and will carry four to six astronauts. The first launch occurred on November 16, 2022. The facility did not experience significant flooding during Hurricane Katrina due to a natural ridge that runs along its northwestern boundary, the levee that makes up

4429-470: The Unity Module to the International Space Station . Endeavour ' s last Orbiter Major Modification period began in December 2003 and ended on October 6, 2005. During this time, Endeavour received major hardware upgrades, including a new, multi-functional, electronic display system, often referred to as a glass cockpit , and an advanced GPS receiver, along with safety upgrades recommended by

4532-568: The dew point , moisture in the air condenses on the evaporator coil tubes. This moisture is collected at the bottom of the evaporator in a pan and removed by piping to a central drain or onto the ground outside. A dehumidifier is an air-conditioner-like device that controls the humidity of a room or building. It is often employed in basements that have a higher relative humidity because of their lower temperature (and propensity for damp floors and walls). In food retailing establishments, large open chiller cabinets are highly effective at dehumidifying

4635-652: The 1940s and briefly as a National Guard field in 1949, but became inactive by 1952. During the Korean War it made engines for Sherman and Patton tanks, and boasted a 1,700-metre (5,500 ft) paved runway. It came under the management of NASA in 1961, and was used for the construction of the S-IC first stage of the Saturn V rockets and the S-IB first stage of the Saturn IB rockets built by Chrysler Corporation. It

4738-529: The 1960s with the middle becoming a heliport and decommissioned by the 1970s. The majority of the NASA factory's history was focused on construction and production of NASA's Space Shuttle external tank (ET). Beginning with the rollout of ET-1 on June 29, 1979, which flew on STS-1 , 136 tanks were produced throughout the Space Shuttle program, ending with the flight-ready tank ET-122, which flew on STS-134 , rolled out on September 20, 2010. A single tank produced at

4841-674: The British HMS Endeavour , the ship which took Captain James Cook on his first voyage of discovery (1768–1771). This is why the name is spelled in the British English manner, rather than the American English ("Endeavor"). This has caused confusion, including when NASA itself misspelled a sign on the launch pad in 2007. The Space Shuttle carried a piece of the original wood from Cook's ship inside

4944-421: The CDC recommends a minimum of 12 ACH. The challenges in facility ventilation are public unawareness, ineffective government oversight, poor building codes that are based on comfort levels, poor system operations, poor maintenance, and lack of transparency. UVC or Ultraviolet Germicidal Irradiation is a function used in modern air conditioners which reduces airborne viruses , bacteria , and fungi , through

5047-462: The HVAC systems. Specialty mechanical contractors and suppliers then fabricate, install and commission the systems. Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are normally required for all sizes of buildings Although HVAC is executed in individual buildings or other enclosed spaces (like NORAD's underground headquarters), the equipment involved is in some cases an extension of

5150-484: The ISS and paused at a distance of 200 metres (660 ft). Italian astronaut Paolo Nespoli took a series of photographs and videos of the ISS with Endeavour docked. This was the second time a shuttle was photographed docked and the first time since 1996. Commander Mark Kelly was the last astronaut off Endeavour after the landing, and the crew stayed on the landing strip to sign autographs and pose for pictures. STS-134

5253-497: The International Space Station. STS-134 did not launch until May 16 at 08:56 EDT . Endeavour landed at the Kennedy Space Center at 06:34 UTC on June 1, 2011, completing its final mission. It was the 25th night landing of a shuttle. Over its flight career, Endeavour flew 122,883,151 miles (197,761,262 km) and spent 299 days in space. During Endeavour's last mission, the Russian spacecraft Soyuz TMA-20 departed from

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5356-417: The Space Shuttle was then moved into its position, thus completing the stack. Once all components are mounted into place, construction on the building continues, as it will be built a complex diagrid structure around it. Construction work on the building is scheduled to be completed in mid-2025. It will take several more years to install the artifacts and exhibits inside the building. An official grand opening

5459-433: The air inside. Initially, heat pump HVAC systems were only used in moderate climates, but with improvements in low temperature operation and reduced loads due to more efficient homes, they are increasing in popularity in cooler climates. They can also operate in reverse to cool an interior. In the case of heated water or steam, piping is used to transport the heat to the rooms. Most modern hot water boiler heating systems have

5562-484: The architecture permits. ASHRAE defined Natural ventilation as the flow of air through open windows, doors, grilles, and other planned building envelope penetrations , and as being driven by natural and/or artificially produced pressure differentials. Natural ventilation strategies also include cross ventilation , which relies on wind pressure differences on opposite sides of a building. By strategically placing openings, such as windows or vents, on opposing walls, air

5665-483: The blood, forming carboxyhemoglobin, reducing the blood's ability to transport oxygen. The primary health concerns associated with carbon monoxide exposure are its cardiovascular and neurobehavioral effects. Carbon monoxide can cause atherosclerosis (the hardening of arteries) and can also trigger heart attacks. Neurologically, carbon monoxide exposure reduces hand to eye coordination, vigilance, and continuous performance. It can also affect time discrimination. Ventilation

5768-472: The bridge, the shuttle was moved from the robotic transporters to a lighter non-powered dolly and was towed across the bridge by an unmodified Toyota Tundra . Once it had completely crossed the bridge, the shuttle was then returned to the robotic transporters to continue its course. Toyota used the footage of Endeavour crossing the bridge in a commercial for the 2013 Super Bowl , and the Tundra used to pull

5871-440: The building design and air quality needs. Ventilation often refers to the intentional delivery of the outside air to the building indoor space. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor air quality in buildings. Although ventilation is an integral component of maintaining good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone. A clear understanding of both indoor and outdoor air quality parameters

5974-511: The cockpit. The name also honored Endeavour , the command module of Apollo 15 , which was also named for Cook's ship. On May 30, 2020, Dragon 2 capsule C206 was named Endeavour during the Crew Dragon Demo-2 mission by astronauts Doug Hurley and Bob Behnken in honor of the shuttle, on which both astronauts took their first flights ( STS-127 and STS-123 respectively). On its first mission, it captured and redeployed

6077-520: The components of HVAC systems went hand-in-hand with the Industrial Revolution , and new methods of modernization, higher efficiency, and system control are constantly being introduced by companies and inventors worldwide. Heaters are appliances whose purpose is to generate heat (i.e. warmth) for the building. This can be done via central heating . Such a system contains a boiler , furnace , or heat pump to heat water, steam, or air in

6180-413: The condenser coil is responsible for discharging both the indoor heat (as picked up by the evaporator) and the heat generated by the electric motor driving the compressor. HVAC is significantly responsible for promoting energy efficiency of buildings as the building sector consumes the largest percentage of global energy. Since the 1980s, manufacturers of HVAC equipment have been making an effort to make

6283-555: The construction of Endeavour in 1987 to replace the Space Shuttle Challenger , which was destroyed in 1986 . NASA chose, on cost grounds, to build much of Endeavour from spare parts rather than refitting the Space Shuttle Enterprise , and used structural spares built during the construction of Discovery and Atlantis in its assembly. The space shuttle will soon be on display in

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6386-446: The control system will open (fully or partially) the outside air damper and close (fully or partially) the return air damper. This will cause fresh, outside air to be supplied to the system. When the outside air is cooler than the demanded cool air, this will allow the demand to be met without using the mechanical supply of cooling (typically chilled water or a direct expansion "DX" unit), thus saving energy. The control system can compare

6489-415: The cooling season, and later employing a heat pump to chill the circulation coming from the storage. The heat pump is added-in because the storage acts as a heat sink when the system is in cooling (as opposed to charging) mode, causing the temperature to gradually increase during the cooling season. Some systems include an "economizer mode", which is sometimes called a "free-cooling mode". When economizing,

6592-646: The emission of carbon monoxide , nitrogen oxides , formaldehyde , volatile organic compounds , and other combustion byproducts. Incomplete combustion occurs when there is insufficient oxygen; the inputs are fuels containing various contaminants and the outputs are harmful byproducts, most dangerously carbon monoxide, which is a tasteless and odorless gas with serious adverse health effects. Without proper ventilation, carbon monoxide can be lethal at concentrations of 1000 ppm (0.1%). However, at several hundred ppm, carbon monoxide exposure induces headaches, fatigue, nausea, and vomiting. Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin in

6695-593: The facility and probably were the reason that the rocket factory suffered very little damage. These employees were each awarded the NASA Exceptional Bravery Medal , NASA's highest bravery award. On September 16, 2005 NASA announced that the repairs were progressing faster than anticipated, and so they would continue to use Michoud for external tank work. On October 3, 2005, the facility officially reopened for essential personnel, though some key personnel had returned earlier. On October 31, 2005,

6798-470: The facility reopened to all personnel. On February 7, 2017, an EF3 tornado carved a path through Orleans Parish , in which the factory is located. Two major buildings including the main manufacturing building were damaged, with multiple broken windows. 5 people were injured, and resulting repairs and other factors contributed to the delay of the first SLS launch until late 2022. The facility consists of various buildings in one complex: The shipping port

6901-481: The facility, ET-94, was not used in spaceflight and remained at Michoud as a test article . Modular parts for the International Space Station were fabricated at the facility in the mid-1990s until 2010. The factory is now the location for the Space Launch System (SLS)'s core and future second stage construction by Boeing. SLS is the most powerful rocket in the history of spaceflight. It carries

7004-610: The first comfort air conditioning system, which was designed in 1902 by Alfred Wolff (Cooper, 2003) for the New York Stock Exchange, while Willis Carrier equipped the Sacketts-Wilhems Printing Company with the process AC unit the same year. Coyne College was the first school to offer HVAC training in 1899. The first residential AC was installed by 1914, and by the 1950s there was "widespread adoption of residential AC". The invention of

7107-617: The first stage of the Saturn V rockets. From September 5, 1973, to September 20, 2010, the factory was used for the construction of the Space Shuttle 's external fuel tanks by Martin Marietta Corporation . The facility was originally constructed in 1940 at the village of Michoud, Louisiana , by the Higgins-Tucker division of Higgins Industries under the direction of Andrew Jackson Higgins . Construction

7210-433: The greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and

7313-417: The heated air through ductwork systems of supply and return air through metal or fiberglass ducts. Many systems use the same ducts to distribute air cooled by an evaporator coil for air conditioning. The air supply is normally filtered through air filters to remove dust and pollen particles. The use of furnaces, space heaters, and boilers as a method of indoor heating could result in incomplete combustion and

7416-568: The interior air. Methods for ventilating a building are divided into mechanical/forced and natural types. The three major functions of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning are interrelated, especially with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance costs. HVAC systems can be used in both domestic and commercial environments. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, and maintain pressure relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and removal from spaces

7519-494: The internal air. Conversely, a humidifier increases the humidity of a building. The HVAC components that dehumidify the ventilation air deserve careful attention because outdoor air constitutes most of the annual humidity load for nearly all buildings. All modern air conditioning systems, even small window package units, are equipped with internal air filters. These are generally of a lightweight gauze-like material, and must be replaced or washed as conditions warrant. For example,

7622-477: The main manufacturing building was breached and debris damaged ET-122 stored inside; that tank was refurbished and later flew on the final flight of Space Shuttle Endeavour , STS-134 . Thirty-eight NASA and Lockheed Martin employees stayed behind during Hurricane Katrina to operate the pumping systems, knowing that if not activated and sustained, the facility would have been destroyed. The workers pumped more than one billion gallons (3,800,000 m) of water out of

7725-454: The move. The power had to be turned off and power carrying poles had to be removed temporarily as the orbiter crept along the streets. News crews lined the streets along the path with visible news personalities in the news trucks. Police escorts and other security personnel, among them including the LAPD , LASD , CHP , and NASA officials, controlled the large crowds gathered, with support from

7828-619: The new building started on June 1, 2022. Meanwhile, the ET-94 tank underwent some restoration after being used to analyze the foam on its sister tank, ET-93, which was a factor during the STS-107 mission, which resulted in the Columbia disaster . On July 20, 2023, the assembly of the stack began with the aft skirts (bottom segments of the rocket boosters) being precisely positioned on a concrete slab supported by six base isolators that will protect Endeavour from earthquakes. The motors for

7931-522: The new orbiter. Assembly was completed in July 1990, and the new orbiter was rolled out in April 1991. As part of the process, NASA ran a national competition for schools to name the new orbiter—the criteria included a requirement that it be named after an exploratory or research vessel, with a name "easily understood in the context of space"; entries included an essay about the name, the story behind it and why it

8034-400: The opening of this vent. Typical fresh air intake is about 10% of the total supply air. Air conditioning and refrigeration are provided through the removal of heat. Heat can be removed through radiation , convection, or conduction . The heat transfer medium is a refrigeration system, such as water, air, ice, and chemicals are referred to as refrigerants . A refrigerant is employed either in

8137-572: The overall heating-portion of the DHC network (likely with energy added to boost the temperature). Basing HVAC on a larger network helps provide an economy of scale that is often not possible for individual buildings, for utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar heat, winter's cold, the cooling potential in some places of lakes or seawater for free cooling , and the enabling function of seasonal thermal energy storage . By utilizing natural sources that can be used for HVAC systems it can make

8240-517: The previously planned 16 September launch," NASA said in a statement. With the Discovery launch moving to November, Endeavour mission "cannot fly as planned, so the next available launch window is in February 2011," NASA said, adding that the launch dates were subject to change. The launch was further postponed until April to avoid a scheduling conflict with a Russian supply vehicle heading for

8343-539: The rocket boosters were installed on October 11, which was in storage at the Mojave Air and Space Port . The rocket boosters was fully assembled when the tops were added on December 5. On January 3, 2024, Endeavour was protected in a shrink wrap, likely to stay on until construction is complete. The ET-94 tank was then moved into its position in January 16 and was mounted to the rocket boosters. On January 30,

8446-576: The rocket factory to build the structure for several components of the cancelled Constellation program , including the Orion spacecraft , the Ares I Upper Stage , and the Ares V Core Stage. Under the Obama administration, the Constellation Program was cancelled in 2010, but was replaced with SLS a year later to continue space exploration efforts. NASA has an agreement in place to rent out

8549-406: The rooms. Split systems are more efficient and the footprint is typically smaller than the package systems. On the other hand, package systems tend to have a slightly lower indoor noise level compared to split systems since the fan motor is located outside. Dehumidification (air drying) in an air conditioning system is provided by the evaporator. Since the evaporator operates at a temperature below

8652-498: The shuttle was donated to the Science Center, where it became part of an exhibit on leverage. Having taken longer than expected, Endeavour reached the Science Center on October 14 at 7:30pm. Prior to its arrival, a building was constructed on the side of the museum to temporary house the Space Shuttle. The Space Shuttle's entire journey through the streets of Los Angeles was often dubbed as Mission 26: The Big Endeavour ,

8755-424: The shuttle's wide wings between telephone poles, apartment buildings and other structures. Many street light standards and traffic signals were temporarily removed as the shuttle passed through. It was necessary to remove over 400 street trees as well, some of which were fairly old, leading to concern. However, the removed trees were replaced two-for-one by the Science Center, using part of the $ 200 million funding for

8858-400: The southern and eastern boundaries, and the work of the pump operators who stayed to protect the facility during the storm. Several buildings sustained wind and rainwater damage. All shifts were initially canceled up to September 26, 2005, potentially setting back future Shuttle flights. All the buildings and the shuttle hardware within survived the hurricane without grave damage, but the roof of

8961-438: The split system, the evaporator coil is connected to a remote condenser unit using refrigerant piping between an indoor and outdoor unit instead of ducting air directly from the outdoor unit. Indoor units with directional vents mount onto walls, suspended from ceilings, or fit into the ceiling. Other indoor units mount inside the ceiling cavity so that short lengths of duct handle air from the indoor unit to vents or diffusers around

9064-499: The stranded Intelsat VI communications satellite. The first African-American woman astronaut, Mae Jemison , was launched into space on the mission STS-47 on September 12, 1992. Endeavour flew the first servicing mission STS-61 for the Hubble Space Telescope in 1993. In 1997 it was withdrawn from service for eight months for a retrofit, including installation of a new airlock. In December 1998, it delivered

9167-426: The streets of Los Angeles. On October 11 at 11:30pm, Endeavour left the hangar on four self-propelled robotic transporters and the orbiter was slowly left the airport and was carefully transported through the streets of Los Angeles. The Space Shuttle's 12-mile (19 km) journey was meticulously measured and each move was carefully choreographed. In multiple locations, there were only inches of clearance for

9270-447: The system intended to maintain constant indoor air conditions. Outside, fresh air is generally drawn into the system by a vent into a mix air chamber for mixing with the space return air. Then the mixture air enters an indoor or outdoor heat exchanger section where the air is to be cooled down, then be guided to the space creating positive air pressure. The percentage of return air made up of fresh air can usually be manipulated by adjusting

9373-632: The systems they manufacture more efficient. This was originally driven by rising energy costs, and has more recently been driven by increased awareness of environmental issues. Additionally, improvements to the HVAC system efficiency can also help increase occupant health and productivity. In the US, the EPA has imposed tighter restrictions over the years. There are several methods for making HVAC systems more efficient. Space Shuttle Endeavour Space Shuttle Endeavour ( Orbiter Vehicle Designation : OV-105 )

9476-588: The temperature of the outside air vs. return air, or it can compare the enthalpy of the air, as is frequently done in climates where humidity is more of an issue. In both cases, the outside air must be less energetic than the return air for the system to enter the economizer mode. Central, "all-air" air-conditioning systems (or package systems) with a combined outdoor condenser/evaporator unit are often installed in North American residences, offices, and public buildings, but are difficult to retrofit (install in

9579-516: The temporary pavilion until December 31, 2023. A companion exhibit inside the Science Center features images and artifacts that related the Space Shuttle program to California , where the orbiters were originally constructed. After its decommissioning, Endeavour ' s Canadarm (formally the 'Shuttle Remote Manipulator System') was removed in order to be sent to the Canadian Space Agency's John H. Chapman Space Centre in Longueuil , Quebec ,

9682-587: The upcoming Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center at the California Science Center . Following the loss of Challenger in 1986, NASA was authorized to begin the procurement process for a replacement orbiter. A major refit of the prototype orbiter Enterprise was looked at and rejected on cost grounds, with instead the cache of structural spares that were produced as part of the construction of Discovery and Atlantis earmarked for assembly into

9785-467: The upper school division. They were honored at several ceremonies in Washington, D.C., including a White House ceremony where President Bush presented awards to each school. Endeavour was delivered by Rockwell International Space Transportation Systems Division in May 1991 and first launched a year later, in May 1992, on STS-49 . Endeavour cost $ 1.7 billion to build. The orbiter is named after

9888-525: The use of a built-in LED UV light that emits a gentle glow across the evaporator. As the cross-flow fan circulates the room air, any viruses are guided through the sterilization module’s irradiation range, rendering them instantly inactive. An air conditioning system, or a standalone air conditioner, provides cooling and/or humidity control for all or part of a building. Air conditioned buildings often have sealed windows, because open windows would work against

9991-637: Was appropriate for a NASA shuttle, and the project that supported the name. Amongst the entries, Endeavour was suggested by one-third of the participating schools, with President George H.W. Bush eventually selecting it on the advice of the NASA Administrator, Richard Truly . The national winners were Senatobia Middle School in Senatobia, Mississippi , in the elementary division and Tallulah Falls School in Tallulah Falls, Georgia , in

10094-528: Was done on behalf of the United States government for the war production during World War II of plywood C-76 cargo planes and the Higgins Boat landing craft . The project cost $ 180 million ($ 2.8 billion in 2018). Production of the C-76 never commenced and instead produced 2 Curtiss C-46 Commando in 1943 and remaining order cancelled in 1944. The facility was referred to as Michoud (Factory) Airfield in

10197-455: Was lost in both engines during a severe thunderstorm. The aircraft was towed into the Michoud facility, where its engines were replaced. On 6 June, it took off, with a crew of two and minimal fuel, using the former runway at Michoud, which had been reused as a road, Saturn Boulevard. It was flown the short distance to New Orleans International Airport, where it was fully repaired. HVAC Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning ( HVAC )

10300-703: Was safely docked in Marina del Rey on May 15. The tank was delivered to the Science Center on May 21. It was displayed outside the Samuel Oschin Pavilion until 2023. On March 28, 2017, both Northrop Grumman and NASA donated a pair of flight-proven solid rocket boosters for Endeavour exhibit. The rocket parts were delivered on September 11, 2020, and was temporarily stored in the Mojave Air and Space Port in Mojave , California until construction begins. The Samuel Oschin Air and Space Center ,

10403-555: Was supported by a Vehicle Manager for the same spacecraft. Space Shuttle Endeavour ' s Flow Directors were: After more than twenty organizations submitted proposals for the display of an orbiter, on April 12, 2011, NASA announced that the Space Shuttle Endeavour would go to the California Science Center in Los Angeles . The Space Shuttle was mounted on the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft and departed from

10506-449: Was the backup for Christa McAuliffe who was on the ill-fated mission STS-51-L in 1986. As it was constructed later than its elder sisters, Endeavour was built with new hardware designed to improve and expand orbiter capabilities. Most of this equipment was later incorporated into the other three orbiters during out-of-service major inspection and modification programs. Endeavour ' s upgrades include: Modifications resulting from

10609-593: Was the penultimate Space Shuttle mission; STS-135 was added to the schedule in January 2011, and in July Atlantis flew for the final time. ‡ Longest shuttle mission for Endeavour The Flow Director was responsible for the overall preparation of the Shuttle for launch and processing it after landing, and remained permanently assigned to head the spacecraft's ground crew while the astronaut flight crews changed for every mission. Each Shuttle's Flow Director

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