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104-793: The abolition of Mihna is significant both as the end of the Abbasid Caliph's pretension to decide matters of religious orthodoxy , and as one of the few instances of religious persecution among fellow Muslims in Medieval Islam. In 827, the caliph al-Ma’mun issued the proclamation of the doctrine of Quranic createdness . The proclamation was followed by the institution of the Mihna six years later, approximately four months before his sudden death in 833. The Mihna continued under his successors, al-Mu’tasim and al-Wathiq, before al-Mutawakkil abolished it between 848 and 851. This particular doctrine

208-509: A concubine named "Husn", who bore him a female girl "Zainab", then twins, "Al-Hasan" and "Al-Hussein", who died after their birth. Then she bore "Al-Hasan" and "Muhammad", and then she bored him "Saeed". Among his sons, Salih and Abdullah excelled in jurisprudence , while Saeed later became the judge of Kufa . Ibn Hanbal studied extensively in Baghdad, and later traveled to further his education. He started learning jurisprudence under

312-408: A Form is Kufr (disbelief). He also believed that God created Adam "according to His form". Censuring those who alleged that this was referring to the form of Adam , Ibn Hanbal asserted: "He who says that Allah created Adam according to the form of Adam, he is a Jahmi (disbeliever). Which form did Adam have before He created him?" One of Ibn Hanbal's most famous contributions to Sunni thought

416-458: A Muslim could not truly be a wali of Allah except that they were upon Ibn Hanbal's creed ; despite praise from his contemporaries as well, Yahya ibn Ma'in noted that Ibn Hanbal never boasted about his achievements. There have some alleged views that his juristic views were not always accepted. Qur'anic exegete Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari , who at one time had sought to study under Ibn Hanbal, later stated that he did not consider Ibn Hanbal

520-504: A book on juridical differences ... which he had named The Core of Divergence ( Lubāb al-Ikhtilāf )," Ibn Hanbal advised him to name the work The Book of Leeway ( Kitāb al-Sa'a ) instead. The following books are found in Ibn al-Nadim's Fihrist : Ibn Hanbal has been extensively praised for both his work in the field of prophetic tradition ( hadith ), jurisprudence, and his defense of orthodox Sunni theology. Abdul-Qadir Gilani stated that

624-762: A book titled Ibn Hanbal: Hayatuhu wa `Asruhu Ara'uhu wa Fiqhuh, and there he mentioned the heavy praises of various other classical scholars towards Ibn Hanbal and his school of jurisprudence. It is reported that Ibn Hanbal has reached the title of al Hafidh of Hadith according to Jamal al-Din al-Mizzi classification, as the title bestowment were approved by Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani that Ibn Hanbal has memorized at least 750,000 hadith during his life, more than Muhammad al-Bukhari and Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj who each memorized 300,000 hadith, and Abu Dawud al-Sijistani who memorized 500,000 hadith. Abu Zur'ah mentions that Ibn Hanbal has memorized 1,000,000 hadith, 700,000 among them are related to jurisprudence. While according to

728-610: A close bond with. Ibn Hanbal became a judge in his old age. Through his students, the Hanbali school of jurisprudence was established, which is now most dominant in Saudi Arabia and Qatar . Unlike the other three schools—Hanafi, Maliki , and Shafi'i —the Hanbali school remained largely Athari in its theology. In addition to his scholastic enterprises, Ibn Hanbal was a soldier in the war frontiers and performed pilgrimage five times in his life, twice on foot. Ibn Hanbal

832-450: A firm belief in the principles of religion, and his creed was approved by all the [theologians]." Both non-Hanbali and Hanbali Sufi hagiographers such as Hujwiri and Ibn al-Jawzi , respectively, also alluded to Ibn Hanbal's own gifts as a miracle worker and of the blessedness of his grave. For example, Ibn Hanbal's own body was traditionally held to have been blessed with the miracle of incorruptibility , with Ibn al-Jawzi relating: "When

936-586: A group of the pious ancestors" from the Mansak of al-Marwazī as his source. As there exist historical sources indicating patently "mystical elements in his personal piety" and documented evidence of his amiable interactions with numerous early Sufi saints, including Maruf Karkhi , it is recognized that Ibn Hanbal's relationship with many of the Sufis was one of mutual respect and admiration. Qadi Abu Ya'la reports in his Tabaqat : "[Ibn Hanbal] used to greatly respect

1040-497: A jurist and gave his views in the field no weight, describing him as an expert in prophetic tradition only. However this must be seen in context of its time, as Ibn Hanbal's school was still at its infancy and not followed by so many people yet compared to the other schools and the students had conflict with Al-Tabari's school. Consider how the Masa'il of Imam Ahmad, i.e. the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's question and answers,

1144-570: A link between the two in the event of al-Ma’mun's Mihna. Furthermore, it is inconclusive whether Shi’ism during this period had fully embraced the notion of the createdness of the Qur'an, or whether it is a retrojection from later times after Sunni and Shi’ism had developed its doctrines. While some scholars argue that the prevailing view among Shi’ite theologians at this time followed the teachings of Ja’far as-Sadiq, who believed in its uncreatedness, other sources challenge whether Imam Ja’far as-Sadiq held such

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1248-562: A literal meaning. Furthermore, Ibn Hanbal "rejected the negative theology ( taʿṭīl ) of the Jahmiyya and their particular allegorizing exegesis ( taʾwīl ) of the Quran and of tradition, and no less emphatically criticized the anthropomorphism ( tas̲h̲bīh ) of the Mus̲h̲abbiha, amongst whom he included, in the scope of his polemics, the Jahmiyya as unconscious anthropomorphists." Ibn Hanbal

1352-474: A man comes to me and confirms that this is his, I will get rid of it and give it to him". Ahmad ibn Hanbal did not marry until he reached the age of forty. It is said that this was because he was busy with knowledge, or because he traveled a lot and was away from his country for a long time. When he reached the age of forty and became closer to settling down than before, and he thought about marriage. Ibn al-Jawzi said about this: "He, may God be pleased with him,

1456-465: A much wider role in non-monotheistic (and particularly, non-scriptural) religion. The prevailing governing norm within polytheism is often orthopraxy ('right practice') rather than the "right belief" of orthodoxy. Ahmad ibn Hanbal Ahmad ibn Hanbal ( Arabic : أَحْمَد بْن حَنْبَل , romanized :  Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal ; November 780 – 2 August 855) was a Muslim scholar , jurist , theologian , traditionist , ascetic and eponym of

1560-446: A painful torment be inflicted on them.' Do you know what that fitna is? That fitna is shirk . Maybe the rejection of some of his words would cause one to doubt and deviate in his heart, and thereby be destroyed." It is narrated by Abū Bakr al-Marwazī in his Mansak that Ibn Hanbal preferred one to make tawassul or "intercession" through Muhammad in every supplication, with the wording: "O God! I am turning to Thee with Thy Prophet,

1664-432: A period of several centuries to try to formalize these doctrines. The most significant of these early decisions was that between the homoousian doctrine of Athanasius and Eustathius (which became Trinitarianism ) and the heteroousian doctrine of Arius and Eusebius of Nicomedia ( Arianism ). The homoousian doctrine, which defined Jesus as both God and man with the canons of the 431 Council of Ephesus , won out in

1768-549: A problem could be referred to as unorthodox , while a common and 'normal' mainstream way of solving a problem might be referred to as orthodox . The concept of orthodoxy pre-supposes some degree of agreed cultural standardisation - a system of social norms - whereby opinion can distinguish "correct" belief or doctrine from their "incorrect" equivalents. Where world-views or religious sentiment have not developed standardised, generally accepted systems of thought, orthodoxy cannot take root. The development of writing facilitated

1872-405: A prominent Mu’tazilite who became Chief Qadi during his rule. Due to Ibn Abi Du’ad's background as a Kalam scholar and his rigorous advocacy of the Mihna under the subsequent two caliphs, some scholars have concluded that his influence led to al-Ma’mun finally taking action and implementing the Mihna during the last year of his life. However it remains unclear whether the appointment of Ibn Abi Du’ad

1976-539: A school of jurisprudence, but theology as well. Because of Ibn Hanbal's refusal to accept the Mu'tazili doctrine, he was imprisoned in Baghdad throughout the reign of al-Ma'mun. In an incident during the rule of al-Ma'mun's successor, al-Mu'tasim , Ibn Hanbal was flogged to unconsciousness; however, this caused great upheaval in Baghdad and forced al-Mu'tasim to release him. After al-Mu'tasim's death, al-Wathiq became caliph and continued his predecessors' policies of enforcing

2080-606: A shrewd decision to consolidate his religious authority during a time where the ulama were starting to be seen as the true guardians of religious knowledge and the Prophet's traditions. Explanation 1: Al-Ma’mun and Mu’tazilism Scholars who ascribe the Mihna to al-Ma'mun ’s Mu'tazilite persuasion point to his close association with leading Mu’tazilites of the era. Among the Mu’tazilites al-Ma’mun appointed to high positions within his administration include Ahmed ibn Abi Du’ad ,

2184-469: A strict criterion for ijtihad or independent reasoning in matters of law by muftis and the ulema . One story narrates that Ibn Hanbal was asked by Zakariyyā ibn Yaḥyā al-Ḍarīr about "how many memorized ḥadīths are sufficient for someone to be a mufti [meaning a mujtahid jurist or one capable of issuing independently reasoned fatwas ]." According to the narrative, Zakariyyā asked: "Are one-hundred thousand sufficient?" to which Ibn Hanbal responded in

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2288-438: A third on his tongue." Sufi scholar Gibril Haddad reports from al-Dhahabi that Ibn Hanbal "used to seek blessings from the relics of the Prophet." Citing the aforementioned report of Ibn Hanbal's devotion towards Muhammad's hair, al-Dhahabī then goes onto staunchly criticize whoever finds fault with the practices of tabarruk or seeking blessings from holy relics, saying: "Where is the quibbling critic of Imām Ahmad now? It

2392-455: A view. Explanation 3: Mihna as an Assertion of Caliphal Authority Some of the more recent scholarship on the Mihna suggests that al-Ma’mun may have used it as an opportunity to reassert his religious authority as Caliph. In a series of letters to his governors, al-Ma’mun's elaborated on the caliph's role as the guardian of God's religion and laws. He appeared to draw upon the Shi’ite notion that

2496-406: Is Sanatana Dharma , but which at best can be translated to mean "ageless traditions", hence denoting that they are accepted not through doctrine and force but through multi-generational tests of adoption and retention based on circumstantial attrition through millennia. Still, the concepts of āstika and nāstika of Indian philosophy are quite similar to orthodoxy and heterodoxy respectively,

2600-470: Is a cause or reflection of al-Ma’mun's plans to institute the Mihna. Explanation 2: Al-Ma’mun's Pro-Shi’ite Tendencies More so than other caliphs, Al-Ma’mun demonstrated a closeness with members of the Alid family and some of their doctrines, leading some scholars to suggest that he may have adopted some of their views. A distinguished religious scholar himself, al-Ma’mun's letters to his prefects to initiate

2704-473: Is also authentically established that Abd Allāh [Ibn Hanbal's son] asked his father about those who touch the pommel of Muhammad's pulpit and touch the wall of his room, and he said: 'I do not see any harm in it.' May God protect us and you from the opinion of the dissenters and from innovations!" When asked by his son Abdullah about the legitimacy of touching and kissing Muhammad's grave in Medina , Ibn Hanbal

2808-587: Is also used to cover both full heresies and minor errors. Doctrine or practices not regarded as essential to faith, with which Christians can legitimately disagree, are known as adiaphora . The concept of orthodoxy is prevalent in many forms of organized monotheism . However, orthodox belief is not usually overly emphasized in polytheistic or animist religions, in which there is often little or no concept of dogma , and varied interpretations of doctrine and theology are tolerated and sometimes even encouraged within certain contexts. Syncretism , for example, plays

2912-422: Is an Imam in eight fields: he is an imam in hadith , jurisprudence, Al-Qur'an, Al-Lughah, Al-Sunnah, Al-Zuhd, Al-Warak, and Al-Faqr ". Al-Dhahabi , one of the most major Islamic biographers, notes in his masterpiece Siyar A'lam Nubala that Ibn Hanbal's status in jurisprudence is alike Al-Layth ibn Sa'd , Malik ibn Anas , Al-Shafi'i , and Abu Yusuf . Muhammad Abu Zahra , a contemporary Hanafi scholar, wrote

3016-477: Is evident that Ibn Hanbal "believed in the power of relics," and supported the seeking of blessing through them in religious veneration. Indeed, several accounts of Ibn Hanbal's life relate that he often carried "a purse ... in his sleeve containing ... hairs from the Prophet." Furthermore, Ibn al-Jawzi relates a tradition narrated by Ibn Hanbal's son, Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who recalled his father's devotion towards relics thus: "I saw my father take one of

3120-508: Is known to have been called before the Mihna of the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun, who wanted to assert his religious authority by pressuring scholars to adopt the Mu'tazili doctrine of the Quran being created, rather than uncreated. According to Sunni tradition, Ibn Hanbal was one of the foremost scholars in resisting the caliph's interference and his imposed doctrine. Ibn Hanbal's stance led to the Hanbali school establishing itself firmly as not only

3224-456: Is not a centralized denomination. Relations between its different subgroups are sometimes strained and the exact limits of Orthodoxy are subject to intense debate. Very roughly, it may be divided between Haredi Judaism , which is more conservative and reclusive, and Modern Orthodox Judaism , which is relatively open to outer society. Each of those is itself formed of independent streams. They are almost uniformly exclusionist, regarding Orthodoxy as

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3328-480: Is reported in the treatise Fath al-Majid by Hanbali judge Abd al-Rahman ibn Hasan (1782–1868). Comparing taqlid to polytheism ( shirk ), Ibn Hanbal states: "I am amazed at those people who know that a chain of narration is authentic, and yet, in spite of this, they follow the opinion of Sufyan, for God says, 'And let those who oppose the Messenger's commandment beware, lest some fitna should befall them, or

3432-704: Is said to have approved of both these acts as being permissible according to sacred law. According to Hanbali scholar Najm al-Din Tufi (d. 716 A.H/ 1316 C.E), Ahmad ibn Hanbal did not formulate a legal theory; since "his entire concern was with hadith and its collection". More than a century after Ahmad's death, Hanbali legalism would emerge as a distinct school; due to the efforts of jurists like Abu Bakr al-Athram (d. 261 A.H/ 874 C.E), Harb al-Kirmani (d. 280 A.H/ 893 C.E), 'Abd Allah ibn Ahmad (d. 290 A.H/903 C.E), Abu Bakr al-Khallal (d. 311 A.H/ 923 C.E) etc., who compiled Ahmad's various legal verdicts. Ibn Hanbal also had

3536-413: Is the most accepted one. Ibn Hanbal lost his father when he was a young child. His father died young at the age of thirty only. Then his mother raised him under the care of those who remained from his father's family. His father had left him a property in Baghdad in which he lived, and another which yielded him a small rental income sufficient for his living. The reports are conflicting about whether it

3640-600: Is to be sought…only among those who are called Catholic or orthodox Christians, that is, guardians of truth and followers of right." Over time, the Western Church gradually identified with the "Catholic" label, and people of Western Europe gradually associated the "Orthodox" label with the Eastern Church (in some languages the "Catholic" label is not necessarily identified with the Western Church). This

3744-535: Is what later came to be known as "traditionalist thought," which emphasized the acceptance of only the Quran and hadith as the foundations of orthodox belief. He did, however, believe that it was only a select few who were properly authorized to interpret the sacred texts. Ibn Hanbal understood the perfect definition of God to be that given in the Quran , whence he held that proper belief in God constituted believing in

3848-573: The Mihna ; would mark the stage for the empowerment and centering of corporealist ideas in the Sunnite orthodoxy. Ibn Hanbal also recognized "Divine Form ( Al-Şūrah )" as a true attribute of God. He disagreed with those speculative theologians who interpreted the Divine Form as something that represents pseudo-divinities such as the sun, moon, stars, etc. For Ibn Hanbal, to deny that God truly has

3952-575: The Hanbali school of Islamic jurisprudence —one of the four major orthodox legal schools of Sunni Islam. The most highly influential and active scholar during his lifetime, Ibn Hanbal went on to become "one of the most venerated" intellectual figures in Islamic history, who has had a "profound influence affecting almost every area" of the traditionalist perspective within Sunni Islam. One of

4056-626: The orthodox designation as a symbol of their theological traditions. Lutheran orthodoxy was an era in the history of Lutheranism , which began in 1580 from the writing of the Book of Concord and ended at the Age of Enlightenment . Lutheran orthodoxy was paralleled by similar eras in Calvinism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Lutheran scholasticism

4160-748: The Church and was referred to as orthodoxy in most Christian contexts, since this was the viewpoint of previous Christian Church Fathers and was reaffirmed at these councils. (The minority of nontrinitarian Christians object to this terminology.) Following the 1054 Great Schism , both the Western Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church continued to consider themselves uniquely orthodox and catholic . Augustine wrote in On True Religion : "Religion

4264-454: The Hanbali reform movement known as Wahhabism has cited him as a principal influence along with the 13th-century Hanbali reformer Ibn Taymiyya . However, it has been argued by certain scholars that Ibn Hanbal's own beliefs actually played "no real part in the establishment of the central doctrines of Wahhabism," as there is evidence, according to the same authors, "the older Hanbali authorities had doctrinal concerns very different from those of

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4368-462: The Hanbali school "[attacked] Sufism in itself any more than any other school," and it is evident that "during the first centuries some major Sufis [such as Ibn Ata Allah , Hallaj , and Abdullah Ansari ] ... followed the Hanbalite school of law." By the twelfth-century, the relationship between Hanbalism and Sufism was so close that one of the most prominent Hanbali jurists, Abdul Qadir Jilani ,

4472-545: The India. It is a record of the accepted teachings of each of thousands of gurus , who others equate to prophets, and has no founder, no authority or command, but recommendations. The term most equivalent to orthodoxy at best has the meaning of "commonly accepted" traditions rather than the usual meaning of "conforming to a doctrine", for example, what people of middle eastern faiths attempt to equate as doctrine in Hindu philosophies

4576-478: The Mu'tazili doctrine and, in this pursuit, banished Ibn Hanbal from Baghdad. It was only after al-Wathiq's death and the ascent of his brother al-Mutawakkil , who was much more tolerating of the traditional Sunni beliefs, that Ibn Hanbal was welcomed back to Baghdad. His appearance according to Siyar A'lam al-Nubala' is: Ibn Dharih al-'Ukbari said: "I requested to see Ahmad bin Hanbal. So, I greeted him, and he

4680-529: The Prophet of Mercy. O Muhammad! I am turning with you to my Lord for the fulfillment of my need." This report is repeated in many later Hanbali works, in the context of personal supplication as an issue of jurisprudence. Ibn Qudamah , for example, recommends it for the obtainment of need in his Wasiyya . In the same way, Ibn Taymiyyah cites the Hanbali fatwa on the desirability of Muhammad's intercession in every personal supplication in his Qāida fil-Tawassul wal-Wasiīla where he attributes it to "Imām Ahmad and

4784-405: The Prophet's descendant Abū Ja'far ibn Abī Mūsā was buried next to him, Ahmad ibn Hanbal's tomb was exposed. His corpse had not putrified and the shroud was still whole and undecayed." Although there is a perception that Ibn Hanbal or his school were somehow adverse to Sufism, scholars such as Eric Geoffrey have asserted that this opinion is more partial than objective, for there is no proof that

4888-507: The Prophet's hairs, place it over his mouth, and kiss it. I may have seen him place it over his eyes, and dip it in water and then drink the water for a cure." In the same way, Ibn Hanbal also drunk from Muhammad's bowl (technically a "second-class" relic) in order to seek blessings from it, and considered touching and kissing the sacred minbar of Muhammad for blessings a permissible and pious act. Ibn Hanbal later ordered that he be buried with Muhammad's hairs he possessed, "one on each eye and

4992-424: The Prophet's traditions. However, in the longer trend of pre-modern Islamic history, religious authority would become the exclusive purview of the scholars, while the caliph was reduced first to a political authority, and gradually to a symbolic entity. This explanation for the Mihna is the position taken up by most modern scholars. al-Ma'mun died in 833, but his policy was continued by al-Mu'tassim. In that same year

5096-414: The Sufis. According to one tradition, Sālih said: "My father would send for me whenever a self-denier or ascetic ( zāhid aw mutaqashshif ) visited him so I could look at him. He loved for me to become like this." As for the Sufis' reception of Ibn Hanbal, it is evident that he was "held in high regard" by all the major Sufis of the classical and medieval periods, and later Sufi chroniclers often designated

5200-561: The Sūfīs and show them kindness and generosity. He was asked about them and was told that they sat in mosques constantly to which he replied, 'Knowledge made them sit.'" Furthermore, it is in Ibn Hanbal's Musnad that we find most of the hadith reports concerning the abdal , forty major saints "whose number [according to Islamic mystical doctrine] would remain constant, one always being replaced by some other on his death" and whose key role in

5304-681: The Three Great Jurisprudent Imâms about the main representatives of Sunni jurisprudence. However, Ibn 'Abd al-Barr actually has praised Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence by saying "He is very powerful in the fiqh of the madhab of the ahl al-hadith and he is the Imam of the 'ulama of ahl al-hadith." Be that as it may, the vast majority of other scholars do recognize Ibn Hanbal's prowess as a master jurist worthy of one whose methodology became foundation for its own school of jurisprudence. Imam Shafi'i said, among many other praises, "Ahmad

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5408-483: The Wahhabis," due to medieval Hanbali literature being rich in references to saints, grave visitation, miracles, and relics. In this connection, scholars have cited Ibn Hanbal's own support for the use of relics as one of several important points on which the theologian's positions diverged from those adhering to Wahhabism. Other scholars maintain he was "the distant progenitor of Wahhabism", who also immensely inspired

5512-499: The apparently anthropomorphic texts while concomitantly affirming the doctrine of the "incorporeal, transcendent deity". Although he argued for literalist meanings of the Qur'anic and prophetic statements about God, Ibn Hanbal was not a fideist and was willing to engage in hermeneutical exercises. The rise of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal and the Ashab al-Hadith , whose cause he championed, during

5616-601: The caliph exercised his religious authority in defining orthodoxy, and enforced his views upon others through his coercive powers as ruler. Al-Ma’mun's motivations for imposing his beliefs upon the members of his government (such as his judges, for the scope of the Mihna was not extended to examining the beliefs of the commoners in the manner of the European Inquisitions) were attributed to his Mu'tazilite intellectual tendencies, his sympathies towards Shia Islam , or

5720-423: The caliph's frustration with the powerful and influential juristic culture. It lasted about fifteen years, after which the domains of authority of both the political and religious orders became more well-defined. This does not mean that confrontation was the hallmark of the relationship between both orders. The relationship was more nuanced and involved not only confrontation but also collaboration. Generally speaking,

5824-405: The caliph-imam alone possessed esoteric knowledge, and used this to emphasis his role as an educator to lead the people out of ignorance in religious matters. Al-Ma’mun's Mihna appeared to be an effort to wrestle authority over religious knowledge from the scholars (‘ulama), notably from traditionalists such as Ahmed ibn Hanbal whose authority to interpret the religion was rooted in their expertise in

5928-500: The caliphs for his unflinching adherence to the traditional doctrine, Ibn Hanbal's fortitude in this particular event only bolstered his "resounding reputation" in the annals of Sunni history. Ibn Hanbal later came to be venerated as an exemplary figure in all traditional schools of Sunni thought, both by the exoteric scholars and ascetic Sufis , with the latter often designating him as a saint in their hagiographies. The 12th-century jurist and theologian Ibn al-Jawzi relates he "was

6032-551: The celebrated judge of Hanafi jurisprudence, Abu Yusuf , who was the student and companion of Abu Hanifa . After completing his studies with him, Ibn Hanbal began traveling throughout Arabia to collect narrations of Muhammad. Ibn al-Jawzi stated Ibn Hanbal had 414 traditionists whom he narrated from. With this knowledge, he became a leading authority in the field, leaving behind an immense encyclopedia of narrations, al-Musnad . After several years of travel, he returned to Baghdad to study Islamic law under al-Shafi'i, with whom he formed

6136-591: The commentaries such as the Visuddhimagga . Hence, the Theravada school came to be considered the most orthodox of all Buddhist schools, as it is known to be highly conservative especially within the discipline and practice of the Vinaya . In classical Christian use, the term orthodox refers to the set of doctrines which were believed by the early Christians . A series of ecumenical councils were held over

6240-558: The context of religion, the term orthodoxy is often used to refer to any commonly held belief or set of beliefs in some field, in particular when these tenets - possibly referred to as " dogmas " - are being challenged. In this sense, the term "orthodox" can have a mildly pejorative connotation. Among various "orthodoxies" in distinctive fields, the most commonly used terms include: The terms orthodox and orthodoxy are also used more broadly by English-speakers to refer to things other than ideas and beliefs. A new and unusual way of solving

6344-531: The crucial role he played in the Mihna instituted by the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun toward the end of his reign, in which the ruler gave official state support to the Mu'tazili doctrine of the Quran being created , a view that contradicted the orthodox position of the Quran being the eternal, uncreated word of God. Living in poverty throughout his lifetime working as a baker, and suffering physical persecution under

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6448-474: The day of resurrection etc., were to be literally affirmed as "realities" ( ḥaqq ). As for those attributes called "ambiguous" ( mutas̲h̲ābih ), such as those which spoke of God's hand, face, throne , and omnipresence , vision by the believers on the day of resurrection , etc. they were to be understood in the same manner. Ibn Hanbal treated those verses in the scriptures with apparently anthropomorphic descriptions as muhkamat (clear) verses; admitting to only

6552-410: The description which God had given of Himself in the Islamic scripture. To begin with, Ibn Hanbal asserted that God was both Unique and Absolute and absolutely incomparable to anything in the world of His creatures. As for the various divine attributes , Ibn Hanbal believed that all the regular attributes of God , such as hearing, sight, speech, omnipotence, will, wisdom, the vision by the believers on

6656-457: The early ascetic saint Bishr the Barefoot and his sister as two exceptional devotees of God, and of his sending people with mystical questions to Bishr for guidance. It is also recorded that Ibn Hanbal said, with regard to the early Sufis, "I do not know of any people better than them." Moreover, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal's son, Sālih, being exhorted by his father to go and study under

6760-451: The edict was in part rooted in his antagonism towards the Alids. However, this depiction of using the createdness of Qur'an as a litmus test for Mu’tazilism or Shi’ism can be misleading. While there is an overlap between the two schools of thought on this question, Mu’tazilism and Shi’ism were not the only theological currents to subscribe to this belief, therefore there may not necessarily be

6864-462: The famous religious scholar Ahmad ibn Hanbal was put to the question, to which he answered that the Qu'ran was uncreated. Al-Mu'tassim removed him from his post, imprisoned him, and had him flogged until he was unconscious. However, the people of Baghdad threatened to riot at the news of ibn Hanbal's arrest, and al-Mu'tassim had him released. al-Mu'tassim was afterwards preoccupied with the construction of

6968-449: The foremost classical proponents of relying on scriptural sources as the basis for Sunni Islamic law and way of life, Ibn Hanbal compiled one of the most significant Sunni hadith collections, al-Musnad , which has continued to exercise considerable influence on the field of hadith studies up to the present time. Having studied jurisprudence and hadith under many teachers during his youth, Ibn Hanbal became famous in his later life for

7072-456: The foremost in collecting the prophetic way and adhering to it." He was further praised by the 14th-century historian and traditionist al-Dhahabi , who referred to Ibn Hanbal as "the true shaykh of Islam and imam of the Muslims in his time; the traditionist and proof of the religion'." In the modern era, Ibn Hanbal's name has become controversial in certain quarters of the Islamic world, as

7176-525: The gradual canonisation of written scriptures and supra-national philosophies in the increasingly monotheistic Abrahamic Near East, but literacy traditions in South Asia and in East Asia did not prevent the growth of religious and political pluralism . Medieval Europe and the post-colonial West saw a turn - subsequently spreading elsewhere - to coercive interest in the belief -systems of

7280-428: The holy texts. One of the creeds attributed to Ibn Hanbal opens with: "Praise be to God, who in every age and interval between prophets ( fatra ) elevated learned men possessing excellent qualities, who call upon him who goes astray (to return) to the right way." It has been pointed out that this particular creed "explicitly opposes the use of personal judgement ( raʾy ) ... [as basis] of jurisprudence ." Ibn Hanbal

7384-446: The individual ( McCarthyism exemplifies a peak in this trend) and in their regulation or "correction" via social control - in the interests of ideological purity and state homogeneity. Orthodoxy is opposed to heterodoxy ('other teaching') or heresy . People who deviate from orthodoxy by professing a doctrine considered to be false are called heretics, while those who, perhaps without professing heretical beliefs, break from

7488-458: The inquisition seem to convey the notion that his knowledge and learning was at a higher level than that of the public or even other religious scholars, who were likened to the vulgar mob who have no insight or illumination on matters pertaining to God. This view is similar to the Shi’i belief that the Imam alone held the esoteric knowledge regarding the Qur'an and matters of faith. In addition to adopting

7592-450: The jurist as a saint in their hagiographies, praising him both for his legal work and for his appreciation of Sufi doctrine. Hujwiri , for example, wrote of him: "He was distinguished by devoutness and piety ... Sufis of all orders regard him as blessed. He associated with great Shaykhs, such as Dhul-Nun of Egypt , Bishr al-Hafi , Sari al-Saqati , Maruf Karkhi , and others. His miracles were manifest and his intelligence sound ... He had

7696-426: The latter said: "If someone were to follow every rukhṣa [dispensation] that is in the ḥadīth, he would become a transgressor ( fāsiq )." It is believed that he quoted this on account of the vast number of forged traditions of Muhammad. Ibn Hanbal appears to have been a formidable opponent of "private interpretation," and actually held that it was only the religious scholars who were qualified to properly interpret

7800-574: The law, contrary to what happens in modern nation states, was not the exclusive preserve of the state. In fact, the jurists developed it in conscious opposition to the state (e.g., Jackson, 2002). From early on, there was a religious order in classical Islam that was distinct from the political order. The semi-autonomy of the scholars resulted in the interesting phenomenon of the emergence of different, and regarding some issues, diametrically opposed schools of jurisprudence —all considered Islamically valid and authentic. The Mihna, within this context, reflects

7904-475: The negative, with Zakariyyā asking if two-hundred thousand were, to which he received the same response from the jurist. Thus, Zakariyyā kept increasing the number until, at five-hundred thousand, Ibn Hanbal said: "I hope that that should be sufficient." As a result, it has been argued that Ibn Hanbal disapproved of independent reasoning by those muftis who were not absolute masters in law and jurisprudence. Ibn Hanbal narrated from Muḥammad ibn Yaḥyā al-Qaṭṭān that

8008-411: The new capital at Samarra and with military campaigns, and did not pursue the Mihna as anything more than a courtroom formality (the testimony of a person who answered in the negative was inadmissible in court.) It is important to note that in classical Islam, it was private individuals and not the caliphate who undertook the mission of developing the various Islamic sciences including the law. That is,

8112-505: The only authentic form of Judaism and rejecting all non-Orthodox interpretations as illegitimate. Kemetic Orthodoxy is a denomination of Kemetism , a reform reconstruction of Egyptian polytheism for modern followers. It claims to derive a spiritual lineage from the Ancient Egyptian religion . There are organizations of Slavic Native Faith (Rodnovery) which characterize the religion as Orthodoxy and by other terms. Outside

8216-451: The perceived main body of believers are called schismatics . The term employed sometimes depends on the aspect most in view: if one is addressing corporate unity, the emphasis may be on schism; if one is addressing doctrinal coherence, the emphasis may be on heresy. A deviation lighter than heresy is commonly called error, in the sense of not being grave enough to cause total estrangement, while yet seriously affecting communion. Sometimes error

8320-630: The religious order stood as a buffer between the political order and the common people. The rise of literal interpretation and the centrality of the Sunnah The literal interpretation of the Qur’an was adopted in theological matters as the basis. The Sunnah (the reliable actions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) was given a divine and sacred nature and an important legislative source, in addition to marginalizing opinion and relying on

8424-472: The similar conservative reform movement of Salafism . Ahmad ibn Hanbal was born in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal in the year 164 AH/ November 780 CE. This was mentioned by his son Abdullah. Abdullah reported: "I heard my father say: I was born in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal in the year 164 AH". Ibn Hanbal's family was originally from Basra , and belonged to the Arab Banu Dhuhl tribe. His father

8528-840: The statements of ancient scholars in resolving theological disputes. Orthodoxy Orthodoxy (from Greek : ὀρθοδοξία , orthodoxía , 'righteous/correct opinion') is adherence to correct or accepted creeds , especially in religion . Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity , but different Churches accept different creeds and councils. Such differences of opinion have developed for numerous reasons, including language and cultural barriers. Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy are sometimes referred to simply as "Orthodoxy". In some English-speaking countries, Jews who adhere to all

8632-507: The title of imam, Al-Ma’mun extended special conciliatory gestures to the family of Alids, as evident in his designation of ‘Ali al-Rida as his heir and the special reverence he held for ‘Ali that he also made into a doctrine. Shi’ism, like Mu’tazilism, embraced the doctrine of the createdness of the Qur'an, therefore some scholars construe al-Ma’mun's declaration of this doctrine and the Mihna as reflections of his partiality to Shi’ite doctrines, whereas suggesting that al-Mutawakkil's revocation of

8736-557: The traditional Sufi conception of the celestial hierarchy would be detailed by later mystics such as Hujwiri and Ibn Arabi . It has been reported that Ibn Hanbal explicitly identified Maruf Karkhi as one of the abdal , saying: "He is one of the Substitute-Saints, and his supplication is answered." Of the same Sufi, Ibn Hanbal later asked rhetorically: "Is religious knowledge anything else than what Maruf has achieved?" Additionally, there are accounts of Ibn Hanbal extolling

8840-631: The traditions and commandments as legislated in the Torah are often called Orthodox Jews . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". The historical Buddha was known to denounce mere attachment to scriptures or dogmatic principles, as it was mentioned in the Kalama Sutta . Moreover, the Theravada school of Buddhism follows strict adherence to the Pāli Canon ( tripiṭaka ) and

8944-593: The various challenges of modernity and secularization . Theologically , it is chiefly defined by regarding the Torah , both Written and Oral , as literally revealed by God on biblical Mount Sinai and faithfully transmitted ever since. The movement advocates a strict observance of halakha (Jewish Law), which is to be interpreted only according to received methods due to its divine character. Orthodoxy considers halakha as eternal and beyond historical influence, being applied differently to changing circumstances but basically unchangeable in itself. Orthodox Judaism

9048-494: The ātiska being those who accept the epistemic authority of the Vedas . Sunni Islam is sometimes referred to as "Orthodox Islam". Other scholars of Islam, such as John Burton believe that there is no such thing as "Orthodox Islam". Orthodox Judaism is a collective term for the traditionalist branches of Judaism , which seek to fully maintain the received Jewish beliefs and observances and which coalesced in opposition to

9152-494: Was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Lutheran orthodoxy. Theologians used the neo-Aristotelian form of presentation, already popular in academia, in their writings and lectures. They defined the Lutheran faith and defended it against the polemics of opposing parties. Reformed orthodoxy or Calvinist orthodoxy was an era in the history of Calvinism in the 16th to 18th centuries. Calvinist orthodoxy

9256-434: Was also a critic of overt and unnecessary speculation in matters of theology ; he believed that it was fair to worship God "without the 'mode' of the theologoumena ( bilā kayf ), and felt it was wise to leave to God the understanding of His own mystery. Thus, Ibn Hanbal became a strong proponent of the bi-lā kayfa formula. This mediating principle allowed the traditionalists to deny ta'wil (figurative interpretations) of

9360-636: Was also simultaneously the most famous Sufi of his era, and the Tariqa that he founded, the Qadiriyya , has continued to remain one of the most widespread Sufi orders up until the present day. Even later Hanbali authors who were famous for criticizing some of the "deviances" of certain heterodox Sufi orders of their day, such as Ibn Qudamah , Ibn al-Jawzi , and Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya , all belonged to Abdul Qadir Jilani 's order themselves, and never condemned Sufism outright. As has been noted by scholars, it

9464-656: Was an officer in the Abbasid army in Khorasan and later settled with his family in Baghdad . Historians differ about his place of birth. Some say he was said that he was born in Merv , located in Mary, Turkmenistan today, where his father and grandfather had also previously worked. While according to others he was born in Baghdad after his mother came pregnant with him from the city of Merv, where his father was. The latter opinion

9568-457: Was an old man who dyed his hair. He was tall and extremely dark." Muhammad bin 'Abbas an-Nahwi said: "I saw Ahmad bin Hanbal with a handsome face, well-formed, and he dyed his hair with henna that was not too dark. He had black hairs in his beard, and I saw his clothes extremely white. When I saw him, he was wearing a turban and an izar ". 'Abd al-Malik al-Maymuni said: "I do not know that I have ever seen anyone who wore cleaner clothes,

9672-457: Was in note of the fact that both Catholic and Orthodox were in use as ecclesiastical adjectives as early as the 2nd and 4th centuries respectively. Much earlier, the earliest Oriental Orthodox Churches and Chalcedonian Christianity separated in two after the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451), because of several Christological differences. Since then, Oriental Orthodox Churches are maintaining

9776-497: Was known by her title Ummu Salih( lit : mother of Salih). Ibn Hanbal remarked about her: "In the 30 (or 20) years we were together, we never had a disagreement." After her demise, Ahmad married his second wife, "Ummu 'Abdillah Rayhana bintu 'Uma" known simply as "Rayhana", and she bore him one son, "Abdullah". She known for having only one eye, and Ibn Hanbal married her because he was impressed by her religious commitment. Reports suggest that they were together for seven years. He also had

9880-418: Was large or small. Ibn Kathir mentioned its amount, saying: "His income from his property was seventeen dirhams each month, which he spent on his family, and he was content with that, seeking the mercy of Allah, patiently and seeking reward." It is also narrated that a man asked Imam Ahmad about the property he was using on which he made a house on. He replied: "This is something I inherited from my father. If

9984-487: Was more attentive to trimming his moustache and grooming the hair on his head and body, or wore purer and whiter garments than Ahmad bin Hanbal". He died due to being severely ill. His son Salih describes his illness as: "On the first day of the month of Rabi' al-Awwal in the year two hundred and forty-one, my father had a fever on Wednesday night. I went to him on Wednesday while he was feverish and breathing heavily. I had known his illness, and I used to nurse him when he

10088-465: Was on Tuesday, and he died on Friday." Ibn Hanbal died on Friday, 2 August 855 / 12 Rabi' al-Awwal, 241 AH at the age of 74–75 in Baghdad. Historians relate his funeral was attended by 800,000 men and 60,000 women, and 20,000 Christians and Jews converted to Islam on that day. His grave is located in the premises of the Ahmad ibn Hanbal Mosque in al-Rusafa District . Ibn Hanbal's principal doctrine

10192-600: Was paralleled by similar eras in Lutheranism and tridentine Roman Catholicism after the Counter-Reformation . Calvinist scholasticism or Reformed scholasticism was a theological method that gradually developed during the era of Calvinist Orthodoxy. Orthodoxy does not exist in Hinduism , as the word Hindu itself collectively refers to the various beliefs of people who lived beyond the Sindhu river (Indus river) of

10296-500: Was praised both in his own life and afterwards for his "serene acceptance of juridical divergences among the various schools of Islamic law". According to later notable scholars of the Hanbali school like Ibn Aqil and Ibn Taymiyyah , Ibn Hanbal "considered every madhhab correct and abhorred that a jurist insist people follow his even if he considered them wrong and even if the truth is one in any given matter." As such, when Ibn Hanbal's student Ishāq ibn Bahlūl al-Anbārī had "compiled

10400-405: Was sick. I said to him, "O father, how did you break your fast last night?" He said, "With water and broad beans". Then he wanted to get up, so he said, "Take my hand". So I took his hand. When he went to the toilet, his legs weakened until he leaned on me. Other than doctors, all were Muslims. A doctor called Abd al-Rahman prescribed for him a gourd that was roasted and its water given to drink. This

10504-542: Was the considerable role he played in bolstering the orthodox doctrine of the Quran being the " uncreated Word of God" ( kalām Allāh g̲h̲ayr mak̲h̲lūḳ ). By "Quran," Ibn Hanbal understood "not just an abstract idea but the Quran with its letters, words, expressions, and ideas—the Quran in all its living reality, whose nature in itself ," according to Ibn Hanbal, eluded human comprehension. Ibn Hanbal favoured independent reasoning ( ijtihad ) and rejected blind following ( taqlid ). His staunch condemnation of taqlid

10608-429: Was very keen on knowledge. He traveled far in search of it, and spend a long time on obtaining it. He did not occupy himself with earning or marriage until he achieved what he wanted from it." His first wife was "Abbasah bintul Fadl", an Arab girl from the suburbs of Baghdad, and she lived with Ahmad ibn Hanbal for thirty years(or twenty years according to some reports), and bore him their son "Salih", and hence her she

10712-438: Was well known to be embraced by the Mu'tazilite school during this period. Muʿtazilites believed that good and evil were not always determined by revealed scripture or interpretation of scripture, but they were rational categories that could be established through unaided reason. Traditional scholarship viewed the proclamation of doctrine and the Mihna where al-Ma’mun tested the beliefs of his subordinates as linked events, whereby

10816-526: Was written by Abu Bakr al-Khallal who lived around the same time as Al-Tabari, and the first written compilation of Ibn Hanbal's fiqh was Al-Khiraqi who also lived around that same time. The more systematic teaching of Ibn Hanbal's jurisprudence in education facilities only occurred after that point. Likewise, some consider how the Andalusian scholar Ibn 'Abd al-Barr did not include Ibn Hanbal or his views in his book The Hand-Picked Excellent Merits of

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