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134-518: The Millstone site covers about 500 acres (2 km). The power generation complex was built by a consortium of utilities, using Long Island Sound as a source of secondary side cooling. Millstone Units 2 and 3, both pressurized water reactors (one from Westinghouse and one from Combustion Engineering ), were sold to Dominion Resources by Northeast Utilities in 2000 and continue to operate. The plant has had numerous safety-related shutdowns and at times been placed on enhanced examination status by

268-452: A front . However, some kind of cloud forcing , whether it is a front, shortwave trough, or another system is needed for the air to rapidly accelerate upward. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools, condenses , and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its dew point temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within

402-681: A 22-month application and evaluation process, Millstone was granted a 20-year license extension for both units 2 and 3 by the NRC. Millstone 1 was a General Electric boiling water reactor , producing 660 MWe , shut down in November 1995 before being permanently closed in July 1998. Millstone 2 is a Combustion Engineering pressurized water reactor plant built in the 1970s, and has a maximum power output of 2700 thermal megawatts, or MWth (870 MWe). It has 2 steam generators, and 4 reactor cooling pumps. It

536-651: A T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes. Doppler radar data, photogrammetry , and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating. Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non- supercelled tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water. These spiralling columns of air frequently develop within tropical areas close to

670-409: A decade, according to an analysis of U.S. Census data for msnbc.com. The 2010 U.S. population within 50 miles (80 km) was 2,996,756, an increase of 9.5 percent since 2000. Cities within 50 miles include Hartford (41 miles to city center) and New Haven (43 miles to city center). The Nuclear Regulatory Commission's estimate of the risk each year of an earthquake intense enough to cause core damage to

804-404: A high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside. Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by lightning. Distilled water has a neutral pH of 7. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form carbonic acid ,

938-500: A local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack. Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become severe , and all thunderstorms, by definition, present

1072-894: A mainstay of striped bass and other pelagic fish . The ban of netting of bunker - which were over-fished in the late 1990s - has significantly improved the quality and volume of the striped bass population in Long Island Sound. Underwater cables transmit electricity under Long Island Sound, most notably a new and controversial Cross Sound Cable that runs from New Haven in western Connecticut, to Shoreham in central Long Island, and an older one from Rye in Westchester County to Oyster Bay on Long Island. Scientists debate whether submarine power cables are safe for marine ecosystems, but installations like large-scale armoing around cables helps to protect overall ecological impact and provides ecosystem regeneration. Over

1206-424: A plume exposure pathway zone with a radius of 10 miles (16 km), concerned primarily with exposure to, and inhalation of, airborne radioactive contamination , and an ingestion pathway zone of about 50 miles (80 km), concerned primarily with ingestion of food and liquid contaminated by radioactivity. The 2010 U.S. population within 10 miles (16 km) of Millstone was 123,482, an increase of 29.5 percent in

1340-514: A prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan. A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a training thunderstorm , is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the Northern Hemisphere ), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this

1474-605: A series of glaciations that covered the area during the past 10 million years. Sea level at that time was about 330 feet (100 m) lower than today. The continental ice sheet scraped off an average of 65 feet (20 m) of surface material from the New England landscape, then deposited the material (known as drift ) from the Connecticut coast into the Sound, creating what is now Long Island (the terminal moraine ). When

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1608-569: A storm arises quickly and unexpectedly. Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury. The National Weather Service (NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur: While safety and preparedness often overlap, "thunderstorm safety" generally refers to what people should do during and after

1742-421: A storm. The American Red Cross recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress: The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch" in 2008 as it does not provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike. Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with

1876-561: A thin amount of drift, often not continuous. Other shoals and islands off the Connecticut coast are a mixture of these two extremes. The glacier also created several sandy outwash deltas off the coast, including one off Bridgeport, Connecticut , and another off New Haven, Connecticut . Fishers Island, New York , appears to be related to the Harbor Hill Moraine. To the east of the Thimble Islands, inland moraines along

2010-486: A type of cloud known as a cumulonimbus . They are usually accompanied by strong winds and often produce heavy rain and sometimes snow , sleet , or hail , but some thunderstorms produce little precipitation or no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband , known as a squall line . Strong or severe thunderstorms include some of the most dangerous weather phenomena, including large hail, strong winds, and tornadoes . Some of

2144-404: A type of goose. During the 1930s, the Long Island Sound was struck by an outbreak of a mold infection known as " eelgrass wasting disease ". As a result, most of the eelgrass that grew in the sound was killed off, and as an extension, populations of wildlife in the area that depended upon the eelgrass either as food or as a habitat went into a sharp decline. During the succeeding decades, areas along

2278-683: A weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals. Nitric oxide present during thunderstorm phenomena, caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in soil , resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms. Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches

2412-465: Is a polar molecule that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning). These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times more powerful than lightning on the Earth. The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior. The clouds of Venus may also be capable of producing lightning ; some observations suggest that

2546-596: Is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than extratropical cyclones , and normally persists for several hours or more. A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as tropical cyclones , squall lines , lake-effect snow events, polar lows , and mesoscale convective complexes (MCCs), and they generally form near weather fronts . Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through

2680-506: Is a shift in the types of plankton that make up their community in Long Island Sound. Over the last several decades, excess nitrogen may have adversely affected diatoms —microscopic, single-celled algae at the base of the food chain, which make shells ('frustules') of opaline silica. When diatoms are less productive, they are replaced by other phytoplankton such as dinoflagellates or blue-green algae , which grow well in waters with high nitrogen levels, but do not need silica . Such changes in

2814-435: Is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind. When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In Rapid City, South Dakota , in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon

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2948-474: Is dependent upon sunlight, and the water of the Long island Sound can be very murky. Eelgrass roots help stabilize muddy sediments and can trap moving sand, helping prevent erosion. The leaves, that can range in size from less than 1 m to 2 m long, slow currents, providing calm environments for many species of mollusks and other invertebrates. Eelgrass is also an important food source for waterfowl, especially brant ,

3082-537: Is inhabited by both marine fish and anadromous fish (oceanic or estuarine species that spawn in freshwater streams and rivers, see fish migration ). The most common marine fish in the Sound include porgy , butterfish, winter flounder , summer flounder , windowpane flounder , fourspot flounder , northern and striped sea robin , little skate , menhaden, Atlantic silversides, black seabass , blackfish (tautog), cunner , bluefish , and smooth dogfish . Frequently Atlantic bonito and false albacore , both members of

3216-474: Is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms. Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However, multicell , supercell , and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather. A mesoscale convective system (MCS)

3350-556: Is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×10 kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 10 joules . This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945 . The Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor results show that gamma rays and antimatter particles ( positrons ) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms. It

3484-525: Is little wind shear , the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out', but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a supercell , where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours. In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20–30 minutes into

3618-468: Is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On weather radar , storms are tracked by using

3752-741: Is not falling through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a " mesocyclone "). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud (or anvil) can break through the troposphere and reach into the lower levels of the stratosphere . Supercell storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause severe weather . These storms can produce destructive tornadoes , extremely large hailstones (10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter), straight-line winds in excess of 130 km/h (81 mph), and flash floods . In fact, research has shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm. Supercells are generally

3886-400: Is one of the few vascular plants found in the marine environment. Despite its name, it is actually not a species of underwater grass; instead, it is a plant that bears a physical resemblance to grass. It can tolerate a wide range of water salinity. It grows on muddy to sandy sediments (even among rocks), mostly below low tide, often forming large meadows. it grows best in shallow water because it

4020-412: Is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds. The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft. Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage. Hail is one of Canada's most costly hazards. Hailstorms have been

4154-411: Is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in terrestrial gamma-ray flashes (TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays. About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected. In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on

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4288-586: Is the most common type of thunderstorm development. Mature thunderstorms are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side. Multicell storms form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more squall lines . While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These type of storms are stronger than

4422-516: Is undergoing an upgrade to its safe shutdown system which already met NRC standards. During its refueling outage in October 2006, the operator installed a new pressurizer. Millstone 3 is a Westinghouse plant that started operating in 1986, and has a maximum power output of 3650 MWth (1260 MWe). In the summer of 2008, the NRC approved a power uprate for Unit 3 that increased its electrical output 7.006% to 3650 MWth (1230 MWe). The increase took effect by

4556-437: Is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in arid regions as well as densely populated urban environments, where few plants, and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by

4690-793: The American toad , and the hognose snake (which feeds on Fowler's toads). There are six broad categories of bird habitats near Long Island Sound: (1) open water areas, including bays, coves, rivers and the Sound itself; (2) tidal marshes; (3) mudflats; (4) sandy beaches; (5) offshore islands; and (6) mainland uplands, including woodlands and fields. Some birds are summer residents or winter residents, while others are spring and fall transients. Year round residents include herring gull , great black-backed gull , common tern and double-crested cormorant . Coastal migrants (also called "transients") include shorebirds such as plovers , turnstones , sandpipers , willet and yellowlegs . Summer residents include

4824-542: The Atlantic oyster drill , the northern moon snail , Atlantic moon snail , the channeled and knobbed whelks . Crustaceans include crabs , shrimp and lobsters . In the Sound there are the green crab (a non-native species first reported in Boston around 1900, but a common crab found on the shore, where it feeds on eastern oysters and soft-shell clams ), blue crab , red crab , Jonah crab in deepwater areas, and

4958-545: The Atlantic rock crab , which settles in large numbers along rocky shores, especially around Millstone Point, Niantic Bay and Fishers Island Sound. Other crabs found include the lady crab , spider crabs , and fiddler crabs ; hermit crabs and mole crabs are also found. By the late 1980s, the Japanese shore crab , an invasive species, was the most commonly found crab in the sound. The sand shrimp Crangon septemspinosa and two species of grass shrimp are plentiful along

5092-480: The Cross Sound Ferry (between Orient Point and New London ). The ferries that cross Long Island Sound carry automobiles, trucks and buses, as well as foot passengers. Long Island Sound has historically had rich recreational and commercial fishing , including oysters , lobsters , scallops , blue crabs , tuna flounder , striped bass , and bluefish . However, in recent years the western part of

5226-666: The Doppler on Wheels , vehicles with mounted automated weather stations , weather balloons , and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather. Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin. Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations. Greeks believed that they were battles waged by Zeus , who hurled lightning bolts forged by Hephaestus . Some American Indian tribes associated thunderstorms with

5360-541: The Earth's atmosphere . In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the tropopause . The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic anvil shape. The resulting cloud is called cumulonimbus incus . The water droplets coalesce into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If

5494-438: The Earth's atmosphere . Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth's surface than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall. Organized, long-lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical wind shear vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This

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5628-771: The East River and the Throgs Neck Bridge in New York City, along the North Shore of Long Island, to Block Island Sound . A mix of freshwater from tributaries, and saltwater from the Atlantic Ocean , Long Island Sound is 21 mi (34 km) at its widest point and varies in depth from 65 to 230 feet (20 to 70 m). Major Connecticut cities on the Sound include Stamford , Norwalk , Bridgeport , New Haven , and New London . Cities on

5762-573: The Nuclear Regulatory Commission singled out Millstone for additional attention. Also in 1996, the plant released one gallon per hour of hydrazine into Long Island Sound. The plant's operators were convicted in 1999 for falsifying environmental records related to the hydrazine release. Following the Time article and the subsequent shutdown of all reactors, unit 2 restarted May 11, 1999 and unit 3 restarted July 1, 1998. Unit 1

5896-481: The Nuclear Regulatory Commission . In 1999, Northeast Utilities , the plant's operator at the time, agreed to pay $ 10 million in fines for 25 counts of lying to federal investigators and for having falsified environmental reports. Its subsidiary, Northeast Nuclear Energy Company, paid an additional $ 5 million for having made 19 false statements to federal regulators regarding the promotion of unqualified plant operators between 1992 and 1996. On November 28, 2005, after

6030-655: The Rocky Mountains as part of the North American Monsoon regime. In the Northeast , storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During the summer, air-mass thunderstorms are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida. If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud

6164-960: The Throgs Neck Bridge in the early 1960s. The Long Island Sound ecosystem has historically been polluted by a number of different sources, including industry , agriculture and communities (untreated sewage and urban runoff ). Pollutants entering the Sound include toxic substances such as heavy metals ; a specific example includes mercury discharged by the hatting industry in Danbury, Connecticut . Other pollutants include pathogens , debris, and nutrients (which contain nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizer runoff). Eutrophication occurs when bodies of water, like Long Island Sound, are exposed to higher levels of nutrients like nitrogen, causing harmful overgrowth of cyanobacteria that feed on them. Eutrophication can also lead to algal blooms and eventually hypoxia , when runoff into water causes rapid development of algae and phytoplankton that blocks

6298-529: The Thunderbird , who they believed was a servant of the Great Spirit . The Norse considered thunderstorms to occur when Thor went to fight Jötnar , with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer Mjölnir . Hinduism recognizes Indra as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepts that fierce storms are the work of God. These ideas were still within

6432-414: The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission began a safety investigation relating to refueling procedures at Millstone unit 1, based on information provided by George Galatis , a senior nuclear engineer . On February 26, 1996, a leaking valve forced the shutdown of units 1 and 2. Multiple equipment failures were found. Time magazine featured the plant on its cover, calling its operator a "rogue utility", and

6566-550: The United States rainfall climatology over the Great Plains since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall. The two major ways thunderstorms move are via advection of the wind and propagation along outflow boundaries towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth's troposphere , the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of

6700-437: The equator , but are less common within areas of high latitude . Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods. These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall. Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and

6834-418: The lifted index can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds. Generally, thunderstorms require three conditions in order to form: All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage , the mature stage , and the dissipation stage . The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in

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6968-599: The mid-latitude , where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes. Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena, which can be potentially hazardous. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by downburst winds, large hailstones, and flash flooding caused by heavy precipitation . Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and waterspouts . There are three types of thunderstorms: single-cell , multi-cell , and supercell . Supercell thunderstorms are

7102-399: The northern yellow periwinkle , the blue mussel (a popular, edible species), the eastern oyster , the Atlantic slipper shell or "common slippershell" ( Crepidula fornicata ), the hard clam (also known as the quahog, little neck clam or cherrystone clam), the Atlantic bay scallop , the mud snail (also known as the eastern mud nassa ), the salt marsh snail (or " coffee bean snail "),

7236-420: The osprey , seaside sparrow , saltmarsh sparrow , clapper rail , mallard and black duck , herons and egrets , including the black-crowned night heron and snowy egret as well as the least tern and piping plover . Upland species include the yellow warbler , red-eyed vireo , red-winged blackbird and Carolina wren . Winter residents include large flocks of ducks , geese , and swans winter in

7370-399: The pannes are sea lavender , salt marsh aster , seaside gerardia , and some species of glasswort . Plants found near the border of the marsh with the upland include bayberry and groundsel-tree shrubs, switchgrass (growing where occasional storm tides reach), reeds and marsh elder . In areas where the Sound's salt water is more diluted with freshwater from rivers, including along

7504-504: The water vapor in that rising air condenses . When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as latent heat of condensation, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough instability is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for cumulonimbus clouds to form and produce lightning and thunder . Meteorological indices such as convective available potential energy (CAPE) and

7638-475: The 18th century. Beyond the Earth's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of Jupiter , Saturn , Neptune , and, probably, Venus . Warm air has a lower density than cool air, so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom (this effect can be seen with a hot air balloon ). Clouds form as relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of

7772-481: The Atlantic Coast, tagged individuals sometime being identified in multiple rivers during their lifetimes. Long Island Sound was formed when the terminal moraine that dammed the waters of glacial Lake Connecticut failed, and sea water mixed with the lake's fresh waters. Prior to colonization, it's estimated that around 10,000 to 15,000 natives inhabited along Long Island Sound. The first European to record

7906-480: The Connecticut coast include the broken Madison Moraine and the Old Saybrook Moraine. The Long Island Sound basin existed before the glaciers came. It probably had been formed by stream flows. A relatively thick cover of sand and gravel (termed outwash ) was left in the basin from glacial meltwater streams. On the west, a ridge rising to about 65 feet (20 m) below the present sea level is called

8040-488: The Connecticut coast saw a slow gradual recovery of eelgrass populations. Unfortunately, the north shore of Long Island did not see much success, and efforts have been made to re-introduce eelgrass by planting it, especially in the eastern part of the Long Island Sound in the waters of Suffolk County. It is unlikely that the Long Island Sound will experience a complete recovery of its eelgrass population because there are still occasional outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease within

8174-424: The Connecticut shore is the northern limit. Mature upland vegetation along the Connecticut coast is mostly hardwood forest, with dominant tree species including oaks and hickories, especially white oak , black oak , pignut hickory and mockernut hickory . Other trees include sassafras , black gum , and black cherry . Mature trees tend to be sparse in coastal forests, likely because of their greater exposure to

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8308-583: The Long Island Sound Study (LISS) in 1985 with plans for restoration and clean-up projects in the region. More habitat conservation, health monitoring, and pollution standards have been established between NY and CT in the years since to protect the estuary for future generations. Ferries provide service between Long Island and Connecticut, notably the Bridgeport & Port Jefferson Ferry (between Port Jefferson and Bridgeport ), and

8442-483: The Mattatuck Sill. Its lowest point is about 80 feet (24 m) below sea level. Glacial meltwater formed " Lake Connecticut ", a freshwater lake in the basin, until about 8,000 years ago, when the sea level rose to about 80 feet (24 m) below today's level. Seawater then overflowed into the basin, transforming it from a nontidal, freshwater lake to a tidal, saline arm of the sea. Numerous rivers empty into

8576-659: The New York side of the Sound include Rye , Glen Cove , New Rochelle , North Hempstead , Oyster Bay , Smithtown , Port Jefferson , Brookhaven and Riverhead , Larchmont , Mamaroneck and portions of Queens and the Bronx in New York City . The climate of Long Island Sound is warm temperate or Cfa in the Köppen climate classification . Summers are hot and humid often with convective showers and strong sunshine, while

8710-424: The Sound in the twentieth century were the 1938 hurricane, the 1955 hurricane, Hurricane Belle in 1976, Hurricane Gloria in 1985, Hurricane Irene in 2011, and Hurricane Sandy in 2012. After Hurricane Belle, leaves near the coast were badly salt-burned, then turned brown and shriveled. Many trees were downed by the storm, leaving openings in the forest cover, promoting the growth of vines and shrubs. The Sound

8844-722: The Sound include the eastern spadefoot , a rare, toadlike amphibian that hasn't been recorded in the area since 1935. Its overall coloring is beige or off-white with a pattern of green markings. Small orange dots punctuate this pattern. As many as 1,500 shortnose sturgeon , listed as 'endangered' by the Endangered Species Act, inhabit the Connecticut River. Approximately 900 of those live downstream of Holyoke Dam. While shortnose sturgeon primarily remain in their natal rivers, they will feed in estuarine waters like Long Island Sound and make extended trips along

8978-454: The Sound, e.g. blue shark, mako shark, hammerhead shark and thresher shark, there are only four species of sharks which are regularly found in the area. These are the sand tiger shark , the sandbar shark , the spiny dogfish and the smooth dogfish . Mollusks ( gastropods and bivalves ) that can be found include the rough periwinkle near the high-tide line, the European periwinkle ,

9112-457: The Sound, including: Connecticut New York Rhode Island The whole watershed population is about 8.93 million as of the 2010 census. Due to extent of the Connecticut River, many riverside cities and towns are included in the Long Island Sound watershed. The largest towns and cities from south to north, west to east are: Seaweeds in the Sound occur in greatest abundance in rocky areas between high tide and low tide as well as on rocks on

9246-641: The Sound. Few undisturbed beach and dune systems exist on the Connecticut shore, the ones that do are located along the eastern portion of the coastline (east of the Connecticut River). Sea rocket and dune grass occur here, but not in abundance. Dune grass and plants that thrive on dunes are largely responsible for the creation and growth of the dunes. On the seaward side of dunes can be found Lathyrus japonicus (beach pea), Dusty Miller , and seaside goldenrod . Other beach plants are orache , beach clotbur , seaside spurge , and jimson weed . On

9380-713: The Sound. In West Haven, Connecticut 8,000 scaup (also called broadbills or bluebills) were regularly counted in the 1970s. Greater scaup , black ducks , mallards , and Canada geese are among the most abundant wintering birds. There are also significant populations of red-breasted mergansers , common goldeneyes , buffleheads , white-winged scoter , American wigeon (also sometimes called baldpate), long-tailed ducks and mute swans . Others (less abundant) include gadwalls , northern pintails , green-winged teal , northern shovelers (also sometimes called broadbill), ruddy ducks , redheads , ring-necked ducks , snow geese , and brant . Rare, endangered and extinct species of

9514-764: The area. Specifically 25–35% of the tidal wetlands in the Sound have been dredged, filled, and developed over and hypoxia and eutrophication resulting from pollution have led to low dissolved oxygen levels (less than 4.8 mg of oxygen per liter) in the water. The low dissolved oxygen levels limit the fishes' ability to swim, feed, grow and reproduce and loss of habitat prevents success in fish larval growth. The impacts listed here are directly associated with these specific species in Long Island Sound: killifishes, silversides, bay anchovy, eels, menhaden, cunner, tautog, sticklebacks, winter flounder, weakfish, bluefish, tomcod and striped bass. An example of impacts from nitrogen

9648-589: The atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes. The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be solar illumination , where the heating of the ground produces thermals , or where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude, which appear as cumulus clouds. As

9782-764: The back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a wake low can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a heat burst . This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake" ( simplified Chinese : 石湖风 ; traditional Chinese : 石湖風 ; shi2 hu2 feng1) in southern China. Supercell storms are large, usually severe , quasi-steady-state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height (" wind shear "), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., where its associated precipitation

9916-466: The base of the food chain leads to consequences such as an increase in abundance of jellyfish and decline in shellfish and other fish. Thunderstorm A thunderstorm , also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm , is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and its acoustic effect on the Earth's atmosphere , known as thunder . Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes called thundershowers . Thunderstorms occur in

10050-461: The board to malfunction and indicate an unsafe drop in pressure in the reactor's steam system, when in reality there was no drop in steam pressure. The cause was attributed to tin whiskers on the board. In response to this event, Millstone implemented a procedure to inspect for these whiskers at every refueling outage, or 18 months. In September, 2009, unit 2 shut down when an electrical storm caused power fluctuations. When workers tried to restart

10184-402: The bulk of the occurrences from May through September. Cheyenne, Wyoming , is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season. In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia. Hail can cause serious damage, notably to automobiles , aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers' crops . Hail

10318-510: The cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund , Uttarakhand, India. The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in Aurora, Nebraska , United States. A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of

10452-447: The coastal area (and elsewhere), including the diamondback terrapin in salt marshes and brackish waters (and deposits and hatches its eggs on nearby sandy beaches). Terrapin meat became such a popular delicacy in the early 1900s that the price for a dozen adult females reached as high as US$ 120. Overhunting made the species uncommon and even rare through most of the Sound and eliminated at some places. After its popularity as food declined,

10586-476: The cooler months feature cold temperatures and a mix of rain and occasional snow. About 18,000 years ago, Connecticut, Long Island Sound, and much of Long Island were covered by a thick sheet of ice, part of the Late Wisconsin Glacier . About 3,300 feet (1,000 m) thick in its interior and about 1,300 to 1,600 feet (400 to 500 m) thick along its southern edge, it was the most recent of

10720-431: The danger of lightning . Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage. Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year). Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if

10854-497: The development of organized convection. This term technically applies to a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Also known as air-mass thunderstorms , these are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a cold front from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell" refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as

10988-637: The earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a cumulus cloud . Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible condensation funnel , whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of debris and dust . Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on

11122-582: The east of each, where the drift cover is thinnest, exposed bedrock , creating rocky headlands, often with marshlands behind them. The Captain Islands off Greenwich, Connecticut , along with the Norwalk Islands and Falkner Island off Guilford, Connecticut , are parts of a recessional moraine . Other islands, including the Thimble Islands , are for the most part exposed bedrock with

11256-813: The economic and population growth the Industrial Revolution created led to increased pollution. Around the 1950s and 60s, the US Government began to recognize more of the environmental impacts pollution was having on water quality, as well as human health around regions like Long Island Sound. After the Clean Water Act was passed federally in 1972 to protect water quality around the US, the Environmental Protection Agency partnered with Connecticut and New York to pass

11390-420: The end of 2008. In December 1977, two hydrogen explosions occurred at the plant. The second explosion injured one man, who required hospitalization. In October 1990, operator error during a routine test caused a shutdown of unit 2. In September 1991, twenty reactor operators failed required licensing examinations. The shortfall of licensed operators necessitated a shutdown of unit 1 until March 1992. In 1995

11524-735: The existence of Long Island Sound was the Dutch navigator Adriaen Block , who entered the sound from the East River in 1614. The sound was known as The Devil's Belt in colonial times and the reefs that run across the sound were known as Devil's Stepping Stones, from which Stepping Stones Lighthouse got its name. As the Industrial Revolution grew, Long Island Sound began to be utilized more for manufacturing and production uses that are still observed to this day, like textiles, metal finishing, fishing, and oyster harvesting. Yet,

11658-429: The force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds. Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by

11792-739: The force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced. Soil erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of landslide phenomena. Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes, due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash. Automobiles can be displaced by

11926-427: The form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a bow echo , within the portion of the line that bows out the most. Tornadoes can be found along waves within a line echo wave pattern , or LEWP, where mesoscale low pressure areas are present. Some bow echoes in the summer are called derechos , and move quite fast through large sections of territory. On

12060-589: The greatest frequency in tropical rainforest areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At any given time, approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth. Kampala and Tororo in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth, a claim also made for Singapore and Bogor on the Indonesian island of Java . Other cities known for frequent storm activity include Darwin , Caracas, Manila and Mumbai . Thunderstorms are associated with

12194-478: The ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles). The Fujita scale and the Enhanced Fujita Scale rate tornadoes by damage caused. An EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but does not cause significant damage to structures. An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar TORRO scale ranges from

12328-449: The ground is known as a hailstorm. Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are often seen obtaining green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as orographic lifting ), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely. One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of

12462-410: The highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888. China also experiences significant hailstorms. Across Europe, Croatia experiences frequent occurrences of hail. In North America, hail is most common in the area where Colorado , Nebraska , and Wyoming meet, known as "Hail Alley". Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with

12596-564: The ice sheet stopped advancing 18,000 years ago (as addition of snow at the origin was in equilibrium with the melting at the southern edge), a large amount of drift was deposited, known as the Ronkonkoma Moraine, which stretches along much of southern Long Island. Later, another period of equilibrium resulted in the Harbor Hill Moraine along most of northern Long Island . The next moraines ( recessional moraines ) to

12730-402: The instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere (" wind shear "). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20–30 minutes. Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m/s) in

12864-532: The life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a downburst . The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its inflow of relatively warm, moist air, and kills

12998-609: The lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the troposphere , which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms, most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation. Precipitable water values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes. Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in). Upstream values of CAPE of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for

13132-453: The mainstream as late as the 18th century. Martin Luther was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk. Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of lightning , on Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggesting a mechanism similar to that on Earth. (Water

13266-753: The marshy areas of the intertidal zone can be found Cladophora ( mermaid's hair ), Ulva ( sea lettuce ) and Codium . In the subtidal zone (below low tide) are Palmaria palmata a red alga, along with two algae, Laminaria ( kelp ) and Chorda . Kelp can often be found washed up on the beach, and individual specimens are not uncommonly a yard or two long. Deeper in the subtidal zone are red algae such as Spermothamnion , Antithamnion and Callithamnion , which also often float freely. In tidal pools can be found red or pink colored Phymatolithon , which can often encrust rocks and mollusk shells. Also present are green algae, including Ulothrix , Cladophora , and Ulva . Tidal marshes are some of

13400-409: The more protected landward side of dunes are beach plum , bayberry and beach rose . Rare species found on the landward side are beach knotweed and sand false heather . In areas next to the shoreline but hardly ever salty, the sound's environment can nevertheless be a crucial factor in the presence of certain species. Areas near the Connecticut shore are the northern limit for some species needing

13534-401: The most persistent severe thunderstorms, known as supercells , rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction. Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along

13668-675: The most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the Southern states . These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the West Coast of the United States , but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of

13802-429: The most productive biological systems in the world. Along the sound, they produce three to seven tons per acre per year of vegetation, largely in the form of salt marsh grasses. Much of this, enriched by decomposition, is flushed yearly into the estuary water where it directly contributes to the great finfish and shellfish production of the sound. Salt water cordgrass ( Spartina alterniflora ) grows along ditches and on

13936-542: The next day. They tend to form when the surface temperature varies by more than 5 °C (9 °F) between day and night. The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours. Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the Intertropical Convergence Zone or monsoon troughs , generally within

14070-555: The north were created just on and off the Connecticut coast. These moraines, created by much smaller deposits (probably from equilibrium states that were much shorter in time) are discontinuous and much smaller than those to the south. The Connecticut coast moraines are in two groups: the Norwalk area and the Madison - Old Saybrook area. Sandy plains and beaches resulted from the erosion of moraines and redeposition in these areas, and to

14204-526: The occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm". When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms normally last 20–30 minutes. This

14338-498: The phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the wildfires they are capable of igniting. Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat. Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion. In areas with

14472-551: The reactor at Millstone was 1 in 90,909 for Reactor 2 and 1 in 66,667 for Reactor 3, according to an NRC study published in August 2010. Long Island Sound Long Island Sound is a marine sound and tidal estuary of the Atlantic Ocean . It lies predominantly between the U.S. state of Connecticut to the north and Long Island in New York to the south. From west to east, the sound stretches 110 mi (180 km) from

14606-497: The role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring, storm chasers head to the Great Plains of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping. Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms. More organized meteorological projects such as VORTEX2 use an array of sensors, such as

14740-414: The salt marshes of western Connecticut. Rodents include the white-footed mouse , the meadow vole (probably the most abundant coastal mammal) and the meadow jumping mouse . Muskrats are heavily trapped but remain abundant. Raccoons and red foxes who live in areas near the marshes will hunt in them. The long-tailed weasel and short-tailed weasel are both found near the Sound, occasionally living in

14874-483: The salt marshes. Dolphins are occasionally spotted in Long Island Sound, along with Harbor seals and gray seals that can be found among the rocks off Stonington and Groton at the eastern end. Long-finned pilot whales and harbor porpoises can also be infrequently sighted in open water, a few miles off the coast. In 1975, a finback whale beached itself in Groton. Animals that need moist woodlands are found in

15008-508: The same area, resulting in devastating flash flooding . A similar event occurred in Boscastle , England, on 16 August 2004, and over Chennai on 1 December 2015. Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning . While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year. Cloud-to-ground lightning frequently occurs within

15142-596: The sea floor. Green seaweed populations fluctuate with the seasons. Monostroma , reproduces in the early spring and dies out by late summer. Grinnellia appears in August and disappears four to six weeks later. In the rocky areas of the intertidal zone there are the seaweeds characterized by their brown tone, Fucus and Ascophyllum , some species of which have air bladders that allow them to float and receive direct sunlight even at high tide. Also present are Ectocarpus and red algas Polysiphonia , Neosiphonia , Porphyra and Chondrus ( Irish moss ). In

15276-456: The seaside edges of marshes where high tides daily inundate it. Salt meadow cordgrass ( Spartina patens ) and spikegrass ( Distichlis spicata ) grow in areas less frequently inundated by saltwater, typically closer to dry land. A short form of salt water cordgrass can sometimes be found in the depressions ( pannes ) in the higher areas where salt water collects and evaporates, leaving water even higher in salinity than seawater. Other plants in

15410-463: The shore, especially in late summer and fall. The American lobster is fished commercially. Most animal species on the Connecticut side of the Sound also occur inland, but some are much more abundant along the shore. Animals along the Sound are most concentrated in the salt marshes. Two species of shrews , the masked shrew and the American short-tailed shrew , are common in salt marshes. The least shrew has been thought to exist in small numbers in

15544-637: The shores of the larger river estuaries such as the Connecticut River , cattail marshes replace salt marshes. Various types of grasses, including wild rice , and sedges , including bulrushes , are found here. Eelgrass - sometimes known as "Saltwater Eelgrass" in order to distinguish it from Freshwater Eelgrass, which is a different species ( Vallisneria americana ) - is typically found in protected bays, coves, and other areas of brackish water, but it also persists along areas of exposed shoreline along Long Island's north shore near Orient. Eelgrass

15678-526: The single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes. A squall line is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a cold front . In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for cold front . The squall line contains heavy precipitation , hail , frequent lightning , strong straight line winds, and possibly tornadoes and waterspouts . Severe weather in

15812-418: The sound has become increasingly deficient of marine life . The fishing and lobster industries have encouraged efforts to identify the cause of the dead water and rectify the problem. Lobsters have suffered diseases of unknown cause, but recreational fishing improved dramatically in the last 10 years due, in large part, to restoring a key component in the food chain, menhaden (a.k.a. "bunker") fish which are

15946-563: The strongest and most severe. Mesoscale convective systems formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and subtropics can be responsible for the development of hurricanes . Dry thunderstorms , with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of wildfires from the heat generated from the cloud-to-ground lightning that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms: weather radar , weather stations , and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as

16080-443: The strongest type of thunderstorm. In the United States, a thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if funnel clouds or tornadoes are reported. Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a tornado warning is issued in place of a severe thunderstorm warning . A severe thunderstorm warning

16214-645: The surface of water from sunlight and deprives oxygen to marine organisms. Eutrophication and its effects are direct environmental impacts on the Sound that are exacerbated by higher temperatures, stratified water columns (when the water is not well mixed vertically) and excess nutrients. The primary target for water remediation tactics in Long Island Sound have been nutrients discharged by sewage treatment plants and in surface runoff . Long Island Sound sustains significant populations of fish and nurseries. This biological function has been threatened by both terrestrial and chemical alterations resulting from urbanization of

16348-666: The terrapin population started recovering. Sea turtles occasionally travel north on the Gulf Stream and wander into the Sound. The loggerhead turtle , green turtle and leatherback turtle are rarely seen along the Connecticut shore. Other reptiles and amphibians found along the edges of the salt marshes and nearby bodies of water include the green frog , bullfrog , pickerel frog , spotted turtle , painted turtle , northern water snake , and common snapping turtle . On beaches and sandy areas there are Fowler's toads (which are also found inland but find sandy areas preferable),

16482-486: The thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a downdraft as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms. Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within

16616-592: The thunderstorm's further growth. The downdraft hitting the ground creates an outflow boundary . This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes. There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell. Which type forms depends on

16750-484: The tuna family, enter the sound and can be caught by anglers from small boats and shore. Many species have declined rapidly since 1975 due to over fishing. Winter flounder may not be currently present except for rare, small local populations. Tautog and summer flounder are also less numerous. Anadromous fishes include striped bass , white perch , alewives, blueback herring, and American and hickory shad . Although several shark species likely infrequently wander in and out of

16884-538: The unit, they discovered a small leak in the reactor coolant pump. On December 21, 2009 the Unit 3 reactor tripped and shut down for longer than 72 hours. On July 27, 2009, the Unit 2 reactor tripped and shut down for longer than 72 hours. On August 9, 2013, the Unit 3 reactor tripped and shut down due to a malfunction. In 2016, unit 3 was shut down following a hydrogen gas leak. The Nuclear Regulatory Commission defines two emergency planning zones around nuclear power plants:

17018-552: The updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as hail . While updrafts are still present, the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creating downdrafts as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal turbulence can occur, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even tornadoes . Typically, if there

17152-464: The various monsoon seasons around the globe, and they populate the rainbands of tropical cyclones . In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of cold fronts at any time of year. They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures. Some of

17286-539: The warm season between spring and fall. More intense systems form over land than over water. One exception is that of lake-effect snow bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring. Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season. Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant mesoscale convective vortex (MCV). Mesoscale convective systems are important to

17420-403: The warmer environment provided by proximity to the Sound (which has a longer growing season than inland Connecticut and winters that are less harsh). These include sweetgum (only found in Connecticut in the extreme southwestern area of the state), the American holly , post oak and persimmon , which only exist in Connecticut along the shore. For many species which grow typically in sandy soils,

17554-454: The water vapor condenses into liquid, latent heat is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an updraft through the process of convection (hence the term convective precipitation ). This process creates a low-pressure zone within and beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into

17688-410: The wind. This results in more sunlight reaching the forest floor, encouraging a jungle-like tangle of vines and shrubs, including the vines catbriar , poison ivy , bramble and bittersweet , and the shrubs blueberry , huckleberry , viburnum and hazelnut . Along with the moderate climate, tropical cyclones can have an important impact on observable vegetation patterns. The greatest storms to hit

17822-505: The years, bridges over the sound have been proposed, including a bridge between Rye in Westchester County and Oyster Bay on Long Island; between New Haven, Connecticut , and Shoreham on Long Island; between Bridgeport, Connecticut , and Port Jefferson on Long Island; or between Orient Point, New York , and Rhode Island . A tunnel under the sound, as between Rye and Oyster Bay has also been proposed, to carry both freeway lanes and railroads. However, no crossing has been built since

17956-418: Was never restarted as the cost of remedying numerous safety issues was too high. In 2002 Millstone's operators were fined $ 288,000 for failing to have properly accounted for two uranium fuel rod components that had been misplaced 30 years earlier in 1972. On April 17, 2005, Millstone unit 3 safely shut down without incident when a circuit board monitoring a steam pressure line short-circuited , which caused

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