111-523: The Muldjewangk is a water-creature in Ngarrindjeri mythology that inhabited the Murray River , particularly Lake Alexandrina . It was used as a deterrent for Aboriginal children who wished to play near the riverside after dark. Sometimes they are portrayed as evil merfolk , and other times as a gargantuan monster. Accounts are inconsistent as to whether there are many of the creatures, or
222-575: A concrete slab foundation , lined with Gyprock , and with an outer skin of brickwork, to cope with Adelaide's reactive soils , particularly Keswick Clay, black earth and some red-brown earth soils. The use of precast concrete panels for floor and wall construction has also increased. In addition to this, a significant factor in Adelaide's suburban history is the role of the South Australian Housing Trust . Adelaide has
333-455: A great-grandparent (or closer relation) in common. Norman Tindale's research in the 1920s and Ronald and Catherine Berndt 's ethnographic study, which was conducted in the 1930s, established only 10 lakinyerar. Tindale worked with Clarence Long (a Tangani man) while the Berndts worked with Albert Karloan (a Yaraldi man). Some lakinyeri may have disappeared and others may have merged as
444-564: A 20th-century motor city. The Mannum–Adelaide pipeline brought River Murray water to Adelaide in 1955 and an airport opened at West Beach in 1955. Flinders University and the Flinders Medical Centre were established in the 1960s at Bedford Park, south of the city. Today, Flinders Medical Centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals in South Australia. In the post-war years around the early 1960s, Adelaide
555-700: A border, the Nukunu , who were thought to be sorcerers, incestuous and prone to commit rape. By way of contrast and due to a shared dreaming , the relationship between the Ngarrindjeri and the Walkandi-woni (the people of the warm north-east wind), their collective name for the various groups living along the River as far as Wentworth in New South Wales , was of significant mutual importance and
666-462: A class of sorcerers separated from regular society. Within a few decades of European settlement of South Australia , Kaurna culture was almost completely destroyed. The last speaker of Kaurna language died in 1929. Extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both, which has included a commitment by local and state governments to rename or include Kaurna names for many local places. Based on
777-496: A creation story involving Thukabi , a turtle. There was no mention of Thukabi in the anthropological record and this example was later used as evidence for the survival of Ngarrindjeri stories that were unknown to anthropologists in support of the secret women's business . The bunyip appears in Ngarrindjeri dreaming as a water spirit called the Mulyawonk, which would get anyone who took more than their fair share of fish from
888-420: A generation by the use of commerce. They mastered a series of trades, such as saddlery , blacksmithing , carpentry, stonemasonry , and baking, and also established a fishing enterprise and a wool-washing plant. Many Aboriginal people became Christians during their settlement. They also survived by working seasonally in pastoral properties and received donations. The community eventually struggled to survive due
999-445: A great deal of publicity in the 1990s due to their opposition to the construction of a bridge from Goolwa to Hindmarsh Island , which resulted in a Royal Commission and a High Court case in 1996. The Royal Commission found that claims of "secret women's business" on the island had been fabricated. However, in a case brought by the developers seeking damages for their losses, Federal Court judge Mr John von Doussa took issue with
1110-655: A hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle. The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia. Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries at Broken Hill provided some relief. Only one year of deficit
1221-491: A hot-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csa ) under the Köppen climate classification . The city has hot, dry summers and cool winters with moderate rainfall. Most precipitation falls in the winter months, leading to the suggestion that the climate be classified as a "cold monsoon". Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer, although heavy falls can occur. The winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being
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#17327808845161332-504: A majority of the Ngarrindjeri. Funeral rites and cultural practices were disrupted, family groups merged and land use became altered. Songs from the time tell of the smallpox that came out of the Southern Cross in the east with a loud noise like a bright flash. In 1830 the first exploratory expedition reached the Ngarrindjeri lands and Charles Sturt noted that the people were already familiar with firearms. Numbering only 6000 at
1443-427: A result of population decline following colonisation. Additionally, family groups within the lakinyerar would use the local dialect or their own family groups name for lakinyeri names, also leading to confusion. For example, Jaralde, Jaraldi, Jarildekald and Jarildikald were separate family groups names as were Ramindjari, Ramindjerar, Ramindjeri, Ramingara, Raminjeri, Raminyeri. Several of these are also used as names for
1554-735: A result of the Australia-wide 1995–2009 drought , water levels in Lakes Albert and Alexandrina dropped to the extent that traditional burial grounds, which had been under water, were then exposed. The first linguistic study of Ngarrindjeri dialects was conducted by the Lutheran missionary H.A.E. Meyer in 1843. He collected 1750 words, mainly from the Ramindjeri dialect at Encounter Bay . Taplin gathered many more words from several dialects, including Yaraldi and Portawalun, from
1665-609: A semi-sedentary life, moving between permanent summer and winter camps. In fact, one of the major problems encountered by Europeans was the determination of the Ngarrindjeri to rebuild their camps on land claimed for grazing. Unlike the rest of Australia, the Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia of 1836, following the South Australia Act 1834 (or Foundation Act ), which together enabled
1776-539: A significant increase in the state government's spending on Adelaide's infrastructure occurred. The Rann government invested A$ 535 million in a major upgrade of the Adelaide Oval to enable Australian Football League to be played in the city centre and more than A$ 2 billion to build a new Royal Adelaide Hospital on land adjacent to the Adelaide Railway Station. The Glenelg tramline
1887-579: A single "The Muldjewangk". A legend tells of a Muldjewangk who once attacked a steamboat owned by European settlers. The captain saw two great hands grasping the hull of the boat so he grabbed his gun. Aboriginal elders on board warned the captain not to shoot, but their pleas fell on deaf ears. The elders warned the captain that he would suffer as a result of his actions. Soon after, the captain broke out in weeping red blisters over his body, and took six months to die. The Muldjewangk pesters Ngurunderi (see Murray River ) and his wives when they settle on
1998-619: A substantial majority of the South Australian House of Assembly. Of the 47 seats in the chamber, 34 seats (three-quarters of the legislature) are based in Adelaide, and two rural seats include Adelaide suburbs. The Adelaide metropolitan area is divided between nineteen local government areas . At its centre, the City of Adelaide administers the Adelaide city centre , North Adelaide , and the surrounding Adelaide Parklands . It
2109-644: A team of men to set out Adelaide, using various templates for city plans going back to Ancient Greece , including Italian Renaissance designs and the similar layouts of the American cities Philadelphia and Savannah –which, like Adelaide, follow the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that surrounds the city centre. The benefits of Light's design are numerous: Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily navigable cardinal direction grid layout and an expansive green ring around
2220-569: A total land area of 870 km (340 sq mi), while a more expansive definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a "Greater Adelaide" statistical area totalling 3,259.8 km (1,258.6 sq mi). The city sits at an average elevation of 50 metres (160 ft) above sea level. Mount Lofty , east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of 727 metres (2,385 ft),
2331-497: A unified constellation of several distinct tribes, and bearing the meaning of "belonging to people", as opposed to kringgari (whites). Etymologically, it is thought to be an abbreviation of kornarinyeri ("belonging to men/human beings", formed narr (linguistically plain or intelligible) and inyeri , a suffix indicating belongingness. It implied that those outside the group were not quite human. Other terms were available, for example, Kukabrak , but Taplin's authority popularised
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#17327808845162442-662: Is left to be found in reserves such as the Cleland National Park and Belair National Park . A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens and Onkaparinga catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with the Happy Valley Reservoir supplying around 40% and the much larger Mount Bold Reservoir 10% of Adelaide's domestic requirements respectively. Adelaide and its surrounding area
2553-717: Is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches 20 km (12 mi) from the coast to the foothills, and 90 km (56 mi) from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. According to the Regional Development Australia, an Australian government planning initiative, the "Adelaide Metropolitan Region" has
2664-493: Is now the suburb of Glenelg North . The event is commemorated in South Australia as Proclamation Day . The site of the colony's capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light , the first surveyor-general of South Australia, with his own original, unique, topographically sensitive design. The city was named after Queen Adelaide . Adelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon
2775-544: Is one of the most seismically active regions in Australia. On 1 March 1954 at 3:40 am Adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date, with the epicentre 12 km from the city centre at Darlington , and a reported magnitude of 5.6. There have been smaller earthquakes in 2010, 2011, 2014, 2017, 2018 and 2022. The uplands of the Adelaide Hills , part of the southern Mount Lofty Ranges to
2886-484: Is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of Burra . The city borders the Temperate Grassland of South Australia in the east, an endangered vegetation community. Much of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation – sandhills, swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. The loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on
2997-421: Is to: Source: Hobson 2010 , p. 398 Adelaide Adelaide ( / ˈ æ d ɪ l eɪ d / AD -il-ayd , locally [ˈædəlæɪd] ; Kaurna : Tardanya , pronounced [ˈd̪̥aɳɖaɲa] ) is the capital and most populous city of South Australia , and the fifth-most populous city in Australia . The name "Adelaide" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including
3108-592: The Adelaide Hills ) or the Adelaide city centre . The demonym Adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of Adelaide. The traditional owners of the Adelaide region are the Kaurna . The area of the city centre and surrounding Park Lands is called Tarndanya in the Kaurna language . Adelaide is situated on the Adelaide Plains north of the Fleurieu Peninsula , between
3219-589: The Adelaide city centre and a ring of parks, known as the Adelaide Parklands , surrounding it. Light's selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first governor, John Hindmarsh, due to its distance from the harbour at Port Adelaide, and the lack of fresh water there. Light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition. Recent evidence suggests that Light worked closely with George Kingston as well as
3330-488: The Coorong coastline, from Victor Harbor on the southern Fleurieu Peninsula in the north, to Cape Jaffa in the south. According to the map, the lands extend inland just north of Murray Bridge , receding to a 15-to-20 km (9.3-to-12.4 mi) wide coastal strip west of the Murray River lower lakes, but extending further inland in the south to a point near the state border at Coonawarra . The lands include both of
3441-606: The Gulf St Vincent in the west and the Mount Lofty Ranges in the east. Its metropolitan area extends 20 km (12 mi) from the coast to the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and stretches 96 km (60 mi) from Gawler in the north to Sellicks Beach in the south. Named in honour of Queen Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen , wife of King William IV , the city was founded in 1836 as
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3552-538: The Raukkan mission on behalf of the Aborigines' Friends' Association (whose stated object was "the moral, spiritual, and physical well-being of the natives of this Province " ) in 1859. This established a settlement of the Ngarrindjeri people of the Coorong region at the mission, with some escaping the frontier wars that had decimated their population. The land was small, but the Ngarrindjeri people thrived for
3663-561: The SA Government announced plans for a network of transport-oriented developments across the Adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a 10 hectare industrial site at Bowden for $ 52.5 million as the first of these developments. Historically, Adelaide's suburban residential areas have been characterised by single-storey detached houses built on 1,000-square-metre ( 1 ⁄ 4 -acre) blocks. A relative lack of suitable, locally-available timber for construction purposes led to
3774-1172: The Torrens Building in Victoria Square as the Adelaide campus for Carnegie Mellon University, University College London, and Torrens University; the Stock Exchange building as the Science Exchange of the Royal Institution Australia; and the Glenside Psychiatric Hospital as the Adelaide Studios of the SA Film Corporation . The government invested more than A$ 2 billion to build a desalination plant , powered by renewable energy, as an "insurance policy" against droughts affecting Adelaide's water supply . The Adelaide Festival , Fringe , and Womadelaide became annual events. Adelaide
3885-485: The city centre along the cultural boulevards of North Terrace and King William Street . The area around modern-day Adelaide was originally inhabited by the Indigenous Kaurna people, one of many Aboriginal tribes in South Australia. The city and parklands area was known as Tarntanya, Tandanya, now the short name of Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute , Tarndanya, or Tarndanyangga , now
3996-491: The land rights of Aboriginal people under force of law; however, this was interpreted by the colonists as simply meaning Aboriginal peoples could not be dispossessed of sites they permanently occupied. In May 1839, the Protector of Aborigines William Wyatt announced publicly, "it appeared that the natives occupy no lands in the especial manner" described in the instructions. Bowing to the interests of prominent colonists and
4107-698: The lower house known as the House of Assembly and the upper house known as the Legislative Council . General elections are held every four years, the last being the 2022 South Australian state election . As Adelaide is South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide . In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide
4218-527: The planned capital for the only freely-settled British province in Australia. Colonel William Light , one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city centre and chose its location close to the River Torrens . Light's design, now listed as national heritage , set out the city centre in a grid layout known as " Light's Vision ", interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by park lands. Early colonial Adelaide
4329-570: The 1970s, deep red and brown bricks became popular. Until the 1970s, roofs tended to be clad with (painted) corrugated iron or cement or clay tiles, usually red "terracotta". Since then, Colorbond corrugated steel has dominated. Most roofs are pitched. Flat roofs are not common. Up to the 1970s, most houses were of "double brick" construction on concrete footings, with timber floors laid on joists supported by "dwarf walls". Later houses have mainly been of " brick veneer " construction – structural timber or, more recently, lightweight steel frame on
4440-403: The 21st century, at one stage being named Australia's most liveable city, third in the world. Its aesthetic appeal has also been recognised by Architectural Digest , which ranked Adelaide as the most beautiful city in the world in 2024. As South Australia's government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in
4551-513: The Australian states were established after the Murray River was successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell , an Adelaide resident. South Australia became a self-governing colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament. Secret ballots were introduced, and a bicameral parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in
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4662-667: The Coorong of the southern-central area of the state of South Australia . The term Ngarrindjeri means "belonging to men", and refers to a "tribal constellation". The Ngarrindjeri actually comprised several distinct if closely related tribal groups, including the Jarildekald , Tanganekald , Meintangk and Ramindjeri , who began to form a unified cultural bloc after remnants of each separate community congregated at Raukkan, South Australia (formerly Point McLeay Mission). A descendant of these peoples, Irene Watson, has argued that
4773-402: The Fleurieu Peninsula, which provided habitat and food sources for a range of birds, fish, and other animals, including snake-necked turtles , yabbies , rakali , ducks and black swans . Flora included the native orchid ( leek orchid ), guinea flower and swamp wattle (Wirilda). The Ngarrindjeri were well known to Europeans for their cooking skills and the efficiency of their camp ovens,
4884-482: The Jarildekald/Yaralde culture, and he limited their borders to Cape Jervis , whereas Berndt and his wife Catherine Berndt argued that the Ramindjeri component lived in proximity to Adelaide . The Berndts argued that, despite cultural links, there was no political unity to warrant the "nation" or "confederacy". According to David Horton's map "Aboriginal Australia", the Ngarrindjeri lands lie along
4995-586: The Murray lower lakes, Lake Alexandrina and Lake Albert . Archaeology, particularly in excavations conducted at Roonka Flat , which affords one of the most outstanding sites for investigating "pre–European contact Aboriginal burial populations in Australia," has revealed that the traditional territory of the Ngarrindjeri has been inhabited since the Holocene period , beginning around 8,000 BCE down to around 1840 CE. Whalers and sealers had been visiting
5106-499: The Ngarrindjeri "confederacy" or "nation", each of which was administered by about a dozen elders ( tendi ). Each clan's tendi in turn would convene to elect a rupulli , or chieftain of the entire Ngarrindjeri confederacy. Taplin construed this as a centrally administered, hierarchical government representing tribal estates ( ruwe ), and one which was delegated to administer eighteen independent territories. Taplin's list of 18 lakinyeri Each lakinyeri had its own nga:tji/ngaitji .
5217-645: The Resident Commissioner who wanted to survey and sell the land without hindrance, Wyatt never recorded that sites were permanently occupied in his reports on Aboriginal culture and practices. The bulrushes , reeds and sedges were used for basket-weaving or making rope , trees provided wood for spears , and stones were fashioned into tools . The Ngarrindjeri were widely known as "outstanding craftsmen" specialising in basketry , matting and nets with records indicating that nets of more than 100 metres (330 ft) long were used to catch emus . It
5328-538: The Resident Commissioner, James Hurtle Fisher . The rural area surrounding Adelaide was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over 405 km (156 sq mi) of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from Victoria , New South Wales and Tasmania . Wool production provided an early basis for the South Australian economy. By 1860, wheat farms had been established from Encounter Bay in
5439-700: The River Murray. Near the confluence of the Murray River with Lake Alexandrina is Murungun (Mason's Hill), home to a bunyip called Muldjewangk . An ancestral hero named Ngurunderi chased an enormous Murray cod named Pondi from a stream in central New South Wales . In fleeing, Pondi created the River Murray, and contiguous lagoons from its flailing tail. Kauwira ( Mannum ) is where Ngurunderi forced Pondi to turn sharply south. The straight section of river to Peindjalong (near Tailem Bend) resulted from Pondi fleeing in fear after being speared in
5550-458: The South Australian coast since 1802 and by 1819 there was a permanent camp on Karta, Kangaroo Island . Many of these men were escaped convicts, sealers, and whalers who had brought Tasmanian Aboriginal women with them but they also raided the mainland for women, particularly Ramindjeri . Originally the most heavily populated area in Australia, a smallpox epidemic had travelled down the River Murray before colonisation by Britain , possibly killing
5661-592: The area, approached the last Chief Protector of Aborigines , William Penhall , and obtained a verbal promise that the clearance would not proceed as long as the senior Ngarrindjeri elder, 78-year-old Albert Karloan (Karloan Ponggi), was living. Shortly after the Berndts left to return to Sydney , Karloan was given an eviction order effective immediately. Adamant that only death would separate him from his land, Karloan travelled to Adelaide to seek help, but returned to his former home in Pomberuk on 2 February 1943. He died
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#17327808845165772-474: The arts, building upon the biennial " Adelaide Festival of Arts " that commenced in 1960. The State Bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession. The effects lasted until 2004, when Standard & Poor's reinstated South Australia's AAA credit rating. Adelaide's tallest building, completed in 2020, is called the Adelaidean and is located at 11 Frome Street. In the early years of the 21st century,
5883-489: The banks of Lake Alexandrina by wrecking their fishing nets. Large clumps of floating seaweed are said to hide Muldjewangks and are to be avoided. Large footprints have also been seen. Some elders now say the Muldjewangks no longer inhabit the river system. Ngarrindjeri The Ngarrindjeri people are the traditional Aboriginal Australian people of the lower Murray River , eastern Fleurieu Peninsula , and
5994-507: The city centre. There are two sets of ring roads in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route ( A21 ) borders the parklands, and the outer route ( A3 / A13 / A16 / A17 ) completely bypasses the inner city via (in clockwise order) Grand Junction Road , Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, Portrush Road , Cross Road and South Road . Suburban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous former outlying villages and "country towns", as well as
6105-399: The city. The plan involved the construction of freeways, expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premier Steele Hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The later Labor government elected under Don Dunstan shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should
6216-505: The coastline due to erosion. Where practical, the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of Adelaide's beachside suburbs. Tennyson Dunes is the largest contiguous, tertiary dune system contained entirely within Metropolitan Adelaide, providing refuge for a variety of remnant species formerly found along the entire coastline. Much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what
6327-597: The downthrown St Vincent Basin and its embayments, including the Adelaide Plains Sub-basin, and the Golden Grove, Noarlunga and Willunga Embayments. These basins contain deposits of Tertiary marine and non-marine sands and limestones, which form important aquifers. These deposits are overlain by Quaternary alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits, derived from erosion of the uplands, consisting of sands, clays and gravels, interfingering to
6438-400: The dual name for Victoria Square, in the Kaurna language . The name means 'male red kangaroo rock', referring to a rock formation on the site that has now been destroyed. The surrounding area was an open grassy plain with patches of trees and shrubs which had been managed by hundreds of generations. Kaurna country encompassed the plains which stretched north and south of Tarntanya as well as
6549-536: The early development of a brick-making industry, as well as the use of stone, for houses and other buildings. By 1891, 68% of houses were built of stone, 15% of timber, and 10% of brick, with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins, door and window surrounds, and chimneys and fireplaces. There is a wide variety in the styles of these houses. Until the 1960s, most of the more substantial houses were built of red brick, though many front walls were of ornamental stone. Then cream bricks became fashionable, and in
6660-656: The east of Adelaide, are defined on their western side by a number of arcuate faults (the Para, Eden, Clarendon and Willunga Faults), and consist of rocks such as siltstone , dolomite and quartzite , dating from the Neoproterozoic to the middle Cambrian , laid down in the Adelaide Rift Complex, the oldest part of the Adelaide Superbasin . Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area lies in
6771-580: The encroachment of Europeans into Ngarrindjeri lands, Pomberuk remained until the 1940s, the last traditional campsite with the remaining Aboriginal occupants forced to leave in 1943 by the new land owners, the Hume Pipe Company , and resettled by the local council and South Australian government. After hearing that the Aboriginal settlement was to be cleared, Ronald and his wife Catherine Berndt , who were researching Aboriginal culture in
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#17327808845166882-480: The fallen bones for burial. Some removed the skull, which was then used for a drinking vessel. Some family groups peeled the skin from their dead to expose the pink flesh. The body was then called grinkari , a term that they used to refer to the Europeans in the first years of settlement. Differing from most Australian Aboriginal communities, the fertility of their land allowed the Ngarrindjeri and Merkani to live
6993-509: The family group. Other foods were ngarambi but had no supernatural sanctions and these relied on attitudes to the species. Male dogs were friends of the Ngarrindjeri so were not eaten while female dogs were not eaten because they were "unclean". Snakes were not eaten because of the "feel of their skin". Some bird species considered to act cruelly to other animals were ngarambi and magpies were because they warned other birds to flee if any were killed. Some bird species were ngarambi because they were
7104-548: The findings of the Royal Commission, and in rejecting the claims, stated that he found Doreen Kartinyeri to be a credible witness. The evidence received by the Court on this topic is significantly different to that which was before the Royal Commission. Upon the evidence before this Court I am not satisfied that the restricted women's knowledge was fabricated or that it was not part of genuine Aboriginal tradition. As
7215-497: The first South Australian Aboriginal people to work with Europeans in large-scale economic operations, working as farmers, whalers and labourers. As early as 1836 it was reliably reported that Aboriginal crews were working at the whaling station at Encounter Bay , and that some boats were worked by entirely Aboriginal crews, and the Ngarrindjeri were employed in the processing of whale oil in exchange for meat, gin and tobacco, and reportedly treated as equals. George Taplin created
7326-619: The following morning. Now known as the Murray Bridge Railway Precinct and Hume Reserve, the Ngarrindjeri Regional Authority seeks the renaming of Hume Reserve to Karloan Ponggi Reserve (after Albert Karloan) in honour of the old people who fought to retain the old ways. They have presented a development and management plan to preserve and develop the site as a memorial and an educational aid to reconciliation. The Ngarrindjeri achieved
7437-641: The future need for freeways arise. In 1980, the Liberal party won government and premier David Tonkin committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the MATS plan, ensuring that even when needs changed, the construction of most MATS-proposed freeways would be impractical. Some parts of this land have been used for transport, (e.g. the O-Bahn Busway and Southern Expressway), while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use. In 2008,
7548-550: The groups regularly met at Wellington , Tailem Bend , Murray Bridge , Mannum or Swan Reach to exchange songs and conduct ceremonies . In 1849 the Rev. George Taplin observed a mustering of 500 Ngarrindjeri warriors, and was told by another resident that as many as 800 had gathered seven years earlier. Each of the eighteen lakinyeri had their own specific funeral customs; some smoke dried bodies before being placed in trees, on platforms, in rock shelters or buried depending on local custom. Some placed bodies in trees and collect
7659-463: The ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield about colonial reform, Robert Gouger petitioned the British government to create a new colony in Australia, resulting in the passage of the South Australia Act 1834 . Physical establishment of the colony began with the arrival of the first British colonisers in February 1836. The first governor proclaimed the commencement of colonial government in South Australia on 28 December 1836, near The Old Gum Tree in what
7770-487: The ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield . Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress, and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals. Wakefield's idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen. Funds raised from
7881-469: The lakinyerar. Family groups could also change their lakinyeri, Berndt found that two Tangani family groups who lived close to a Yaraldi family group had picked up their dialect and were thus now considered to be Yaraldi. The Ngarrindjeri Regional Authority (NRA) is the peak representative body of the Ngarrindjeri people. It is made up of representatives from 12 grassroots Ngarrindjeri organisations, plus four additional elected community members. Its purpose
7992-403: The most significant Ngarrindjeri site. All 18 lakinyeri (tribes) would meet there for corroborees . Around 22 km (14 mi) further down the river was Tagalang ( Tailem Bend ), a traditional trading camp where lakinyeri would gather to trade ochre , weapons and clothing. In the 1900s, Tailem Bend was assigned as a government ration depot supplying the Ngarrindjeri. The Ngarrindjeri were
8103-413: The notion of Ngarrindjeri identity is a cultural construct imposed by settler colonialists, who bundled together and conflated a variety of distinct Aboriginal cultural and kinship groups into one homogenised pattern, now known as Ngarrindjeri. Sources disagree as to who the Ngarrindjeri were. The missionary George Taplin chose the term, spelling it as Narrinyeri , as a generic ethnonym to designate
8214-409: The only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth. The O-Bahn Busway is an example of a unique solution to Tea Tree Gully's transport woes in the 1980s. The development of the nearby suburb of Golden Grove in the late 1980s followed a planned approach to urban growth. In the 1960s, a Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study Plan was proposed to cater for the future growth of
8325-695: The original host of the Australian Grand Prix in the FIA Formula One World Championship from 1985 to 1995. Today, Adelaide is known by its many festivals and sporting events, its food and wine , its coastline and hills, its large defence and manufacturing sectors, and its emerging space sector, including the Australian Space Agency being headquartered here. Adelaide's quality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through
8436-461: The other term. Later ethnographers and anthropologists have disagreed with Taplin's construction of the tribal federation of 18 lakinyeri ( clans ). Ian D. Clark has called it a "reinvention of tradition" . Norman Tindale and Ronald Murray Berndt in particular were critical both of Taplin and of each other's reevaluation of the evidence. According to Tindale, a close evaluation of his material suggests that his data pertains basically to
8547-566: The people who congregated around the Point MacLeay mission (now Raukkan) on Lake Alexandrina , and his dictionary had 1668 English entries. Other linguistic data gleaned since has enabled the compilation of a modern Ngarrindjeri dictionary containing 3,700 items. It is now classified, together with Yaralde, as one of the five languages of the Lower Murray Areal group . Many sites of Dreaming significance are located along
8658-407: The province of South Australia to be established, acknowledged Aboriginal ownership and stated that no actions could be undertaken that would "affect the rights of any Aboriginal natives of the said province to the actual occupation and enjoyment in their own persons or in the persons of their descendants of any land therein now actually occupied or enjoyed by such natives". This effectively guaranteed
8769-610: The province. In 1860, the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, providing an alternative water source to the now turbid River Torrens. Gas street lighting was implemented in 1867, the University of Adelaide was founded in 1874, the South Australian Art Gallery opened in 1881 and the Happy Valley Reservoir opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending
8880-494: The remains of which can still be found throughout the River Murray area. Some species of fish, birds and other animals considered easily caught were reserved by law for the elderly and infirm, an indication of the abundance of food in Ngarrindjeri lands. In the early years of the colony, Ngarrindjeri would volunteer to catch fish for the "white fellow men". A wide range of foods were subject to ngarambi ( taboo ) prohibitions. In regards to ngaitji (family group totems), eating them
8991-409: The reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that "many visitors to Adelaide admired the foresighted planning of its founders", as well as pondering the riches of the young city. Adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. Its population grew, and it became the third most populous metropolitan area in the country, after Sydney and Melbourne . Its prosperity
9102-403: The sale of land were to be used to bring out working-class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land. As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not share the convict settlement history of other Australian cities like Sydney , Brisbane and Hobart . As it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime, no provision
9213-581: The satellite city of Elizabeth , have been enveloped by its suburban sprawl . Expanding developments in the Adelaide Hills region led to the construction of the South Eastern Freeway to cope with growth, which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's South led to the construction of the Southern Expressway . New roads are not
9324-693: The south to Clare in the north. George Gawler took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and, despite being under orders from the Select Committee on South Australia in Britain not to undertake any public works, promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, the Adelaide Gaol , police barracks, a hospital, a customs house and a wharf at Port Adelaide . Gawler was recalled and replaced by George Edward Grey in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact
9435-511: The spirits of people who had died. Birds became narambi during nesting season and the malleefowl was ngarambi because its eggs were considered more valuable for food although there were no penalties for violation. Foods with supernatural sanctions were limited to bats , white owls and certain foods that were ngarambi only to women or to pregnant women. A separate category of ngarambi was young boys going through initiation. They were themselves considered ngarambi and any food they caught or prepared
9546-513: The subdivision of pastoral properties for farms, which resulted in a shortage of seasonal work, and the refusal of the South Australian Government to acknowledge their ownership of the land and to raise the size of their reserve. In 1890, the wool-washing plant closed due a new irrigation scheme built on the upper Murray River , that reduced the river's downstream flow. Following the colonisation of South Australia and
9657-665: The summer typically range from 8 to 10 °C (46 to 50 °F). There are usually several days in summer where the temperature reaches 40.0 °C (104.0 °F) or above; the frequency of these temperatures has been increasing in recent years . Temperature extremes range from −0.4 °C (31.4 °F), 8 June 1982 to 47.7 °C (117.9 °F), 24 January 2019. The city features 90.6 clear days annually. The average sea temperature ranges from 13.7 °C (56.7 °F) in August to 21.2 °C (70.2 °F) in February. Adelaide
9768-538: The surrounding people which has been attributed by Aboriginal historian Graham Jenkin to their enmity with the Kaurna to the west, who practised circumcision and monopolised red ochre , the Merkani (Ngarrindjeri for "enemy") to the east, who stole Ngarrindjeri women and were reputed to be cannibals and to the north the Ngadjuri who were believed to send mulapi ("clever men", sorcerers) and, although not sharing
9879-402: The tail. The twin peaks, large permanent sandhills of Mount Misery on the eastern shore of Lake Alexandrina are known as Lalangenggul or Lalanganggel (two watercraft) and represent where Ngurunderi brought his rafts ashore to make camp. Ngurunderi cut up Pondi at Raukkan, throwing the pieces into the water, where each piece became a species of fish. While an established Dreaming existed,
9990-463: The time of colonisation in 1836 due to the epidemic, they are the only Aboriginal cultural group in Australia whose land lay within 100 km (62 mi) of a capital city to have survived as a distinct people with a population still living on the former mission at Raukkan (formerly Point McLeay). Pomberuk (Ngarrindjeri for crossing place), on the banks of the Murray in Murray Bridge was
10101-553: The various family groups each had their own variations. For example, some said Ngurunderi created the fish on the coast, other family groups believe he created them where the river enters Lake Alexandrina and some said that it was where the fresh water meets the salt. They also shared some Dreaming stories with tribes in New South Wales and Victoria. In the late 1980s, the Dreaming stories were collected and one related to
10212-427: The waterways, or take children if they got too close to the water. The stories conveyed practical messages to ensure long-term survival of the Ngarrindjeri, embodying care for country and its people. The Ngarrindjeri have their own language group and, apart from groups living along the river, share no common words with neighbouring peoples. Their patrilineal culture and ritual practices were also distinct from that of
10323-407: The west with transgressive Pleistocene to Holocene marine sands and coastal sediments of the shoreline of Gulf St Vincent. Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, Colonel William Light . His plan, sometimes referred to as "Light's Vision" (also the name of a statue of him on Montefiore Hill ), arranged Adelaide in a grid , with five squares in
10434-455: The wettest month of the year, averaging around 80 mm. Frosts are occasional, with the most notable occurrences in 1908 and 1982. Hail is common in winter. Adelaide is a windy city with significant wind chill in winter, which makes the temperature seem colder than it actually is . Snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely rare, although light and sporadic falls in the nearby hills and at Mount Lofty occur during winter. Dewpoints in
10545-621: The wooded foothills of the Mt Lofty Ranges . The River Torrens was known as the Karrawirra Pari (Red Gum forest river). About 300 Kaurna populated the Adelaide area, and were referred to by the settlers as the Cowandilla. There were more than 20 local clans across the plain who lived semi-nomadic lives, with extensive mound settlements where huts were built repeatedly over centuries and a complex social structure including
10656-589: The world's second National Park City, after the state government had lobbied for this title. It was ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia , based on surveys of residents' views of their own city, between 2010 and 2013, dropping to second place in 2014. Adelaide, as the capital of South Australia, is the seat of the Government of South Australia . The bicameral Parliament of South Australia consists of
10767-498: Was claimed by colonists that the nets they made for fishing were superior to those used by Europeans. The nets, made by chewing the roots of bulrush ( Typha shuttleworthii ) until only the fibre remained which was spun into threads by the women to be then woven into nets by the men, were "considered to be a sort of fortune to its owner". The people were sustained by the flora and fauna for food and bush medicine . Before colonisation, there were extensive swamps and woodlands on
10878-481: Was consistently ranked in the world's 10 most liveable cities through the 2010s by The Economist Intelligence Unit . In June 2021, The Economist ranked Adelaide the third most liveable city in the world, behind Auckland and Osaka . In June 2023, Adelaide was ranked the twelfth most liveable city in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit. In December 2021, Adelaide was named
10989-629: Was created to facilitate the State Government's collaboration with the Adelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide's image. The State Parliament's Capital City Committee is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth. Reflecting South Australia's status as Australia's most centralised state, Adelaide elects
11100-444: Was expanded at the nearby port of Whyalla . The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries but neglected cultural facilities which meant South Australia's economy lagged behind. International manufacturers like Holden and Chrysler made use of these factories around the Adelaide area in suburbs like Elizabeth , completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to
11211-410: Was extended through the city to Hindmarsh down to East Terrace and the suburban railway line extended south to Seaford. Following a period of stagnation in the 1990s and 2000s, Adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments. The Adelaide Convention Centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of A$ 350 million beginning in 2012. Three historic buildings were adapted for modern use:
11322-406: Was further finessed by Alfred William Howitt , drawing on information he obtained from Taplin, and listing 20. The following reproduces Howitt's version of that list with, where possible, the location and totem . Every member of a lakinyeri is related by blood and it is forbidden to marry another member of the same lakinyeri . A couple also may not marry a member of another lakinyeri if they have
11433-816: Was made for a gaol in Colonel Light's 1837 plan. But by mid-1837 the South Australian Register was warning of escaped convicts from New South Wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought. Following a burglary, a murder, and two attempted murders in Adelaide during March 1838, Governor Hindmarsh created the South Australian Police Force (now the South Australia Police ) in April 1838 under 21-year-old Henry Inman . The first sheriff, Samuel Smart,
11544-458: Was negligible at this point: silver was discovered in Glen Osmond that year, agriculture was well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned. Trade links with the rest of
11655-528: Was ngarambi to all women who were even forbidden to see or smell it. Violation, whether accidental or deliberate, resulted in physical punishments including spearings that applied not only to the woman but to her relatives. Taplin in 1862 noted that ngarambi prohibitions were regularly being broken by children due to European influence and in the 1930s Berndt recorded that most ngarambi had been forgotten and if known, ignored. According to Taplin, there were eighteen territorial clans or lakalinyeri that constituted
11766-403: Was not ngarambi but depended on the family groups' own attitude. Some family groups banned eating them, some could eat them only if they had been caught by members of another family group and some had no restrictions. Once dead the animal was no longer considered ngaitji which is Ngarrindjeri for "friend". A ngaitji was not actually sacred in the western sense but considered a "spiritual advisor" to
11877-469: Was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn. Adelaide was Australia's third largest city for most of the 20th century. Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight in World War I . Historian F. W. Crowley examined
11988-450: Was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers, in contrast to the convict history of other Australian cities. It was Australia's third most populated city until the post-war era. It has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms, and became known as the " City of Churches " due to its diversity of faiths. The city has also been renowned for its automotive industry , as well as being
12099-591: Was short-lived, with the return of droughts and the Great Depression of the 1930s. It later returned to fortune under strong government leadership. Secondary industries helped reduce the state's dependence on primary industries . World War II brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the Playford Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location. Shipbuilding
12210-411: Was surpassed by Brisbane as Australia's third largest city. The Dunstan Governments of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide "cultural revival", establishing a wide array of social reforms. The city became noted for its progressivism as South Australia became the first Australian state or territory to decriminalise homosexuality between consenting adults in 1975. Adelaide became a centre for
12321-552: Was wounded during a robbery, and on 2 May 1838 one of the offenders, Michael Magee, became the first person to be hanged in South Australia. William Baker Ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839, and in 1840 George Strickland Kingston was commissioned to design Adelaide's new gaol. Construction of Adelaide Gaol commenced in 1841. Adelaide's early history was marked by economic uncertainty and questionable leadership. The first governor of South Australia, John Hindmarsh , clashed frequently with others, in particular
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