119-608: NSF (an initialism for National Sanitation Foundation ) is a public health organization headquartered in Ann Arbor, Michigan that tests and certifies foods, water, and consumer products. It also facilitates the development of standards for these products, labeling products it has certified to meet these standards with the NSF mark. NSF is accredited by the American National Standards Institute and
238-912: A population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a pandemic it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being , among other factors. Public health is an interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , oral health , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care ,
357-499: A German physician, wrote a short treatise On the Poisonous Wicked Fumes and Smokes , focused on coal , nitric acid , lead , and mercury fumes encountered by metal workers and goldsmiths. In 1587, Paracelsus (1493–1541) published the first work on the mine and smelter workers diseases. In it, he gave accounts of miners' " lung sickness ". In 1526, Georgius Agricola 's (1494–1553) De re metallica ,
476-460: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. A major public health concern in developing countries is poor maternal and child health , exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up. From
595-620: A basic level of medical care and disease prevention. As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme poverty . For example, many African governments spend less than $ 100 USD per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the federal government spent approximately $ 10,600 USD per capita in 2019. However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in
714-694: A bill to parliament with the aim of improving their conditions. This would engender the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act 1802 , generally believed to be the first attempt to regulate conditions of work in the United Kingdom. The act applied only to cotton textile mills and required employers to keep premises clean and healthy by twice yearly washings with quicklime , to ensure there were sufficient windows to admit fresh air, and to supply " apprentices " (i.e., pauper and orphan employees) with "sufficient and suitable" clothing and accommodation for sleeping. It
833-410: A component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of primary care rather than a specialty in its own right. Valles argues that the term social medicine has a narrower and more biomedical focus than the term population health. The purpose of a public health intervention is to prevent and mitigate diseases, injuries , and other health conditions. The overall goal
952-428: A consensus statement was added: The main focus in occupational health is on three different objectives: (i) the maintenance and promotion of workers' health and working capacity; (ii) the improvement of working environment and work to become conducive to safety and health and (iii) development of work organizations and working cultures in a direction which supports health and safety at work and in doing so also promotes
1071-441: A country's overall health care system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of health facilities , such as food safety surveillance, distribution of condoms and needle-exchange programs for the prevention of transmissible diseases. Public health requires Geographic Information Systems (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects. A dilemma in public health ethics
1190-947: A decreasing trend, the total deaths and non-fatal outcomes were on the rise. Cancers represented the most significant cause of mortality in high-income countries. The number of non-fatal occupational injuries for 2019 was estimated to be 402 million. Mortality rate is unevenly distributed, with male mortality rate (108.3 per 100,000 employed male individuals) being significantly higher than female rate (48.4 per 100,000). 6.7% of all deaths globally are represented by occupational fatalities. Certain EU member states admit to having lacking quality control in occupational safety services, to situations in which risk analysis takes place without any on-site workplace visits and to insufficient implementation of certain EU OSH directives. Disparities between member states result in different impact of occupational hazards on
1309-480: A dedicated professional Factory Inspectorate . The initial remit of the Inspectorate was to police restrictions on the working hours in the textile industry of children and young persons (introduced to prevent chronic overwork, identified as leading directly to ill-health and deformation, and indirectly to a high accident rate). In 1840 a Royal Commission published its findings on the state of conditions for
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#17328016785401428-674: A fire at the Triangle Shirtwaist Company in New York killed 146 workers, mostly women and immigrants. Most died trying to open exits that had been locked. Radium dial painter cancers ," phossy jaw ", mercury and lead poisonings, silicosis, and other pneumoconioses were extremely common. The enactment of the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 was quickly followed by the 1970 Occupational Safety and Health Act , which established
1547-668: A form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors. When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and sanitation (for example London sewerage system ); control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Great Britain
1666-499: A handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of health takes into account physical, psychological , and social well-being . As such, according to the World Health Organization , "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity". Public health is related to global health which is the health of populations in
1785-559: A higher risk of negative mental health outcomes like addiction or depression. "The higher prevalence of mental health problems may be linked to the precarious nature of service work, including lower and unpredictable wages, insufficient benefits, and a lack of control over work hours and assigned shifts." Close to 70% of tipped wage workers are women. Additionally, "almost 40 percent of people who work for tips are people of color: 18 percent are Latino, 10 percent are African American, and 9 percent are Asian. Immigrants are also overrepresented in
1904-463: A million avoidable child deaths each year. Intermittent preventive therapy aimed at treating and preventing malaria episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in endemic countries. Since the 1980s, the growing field of population health has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and risk factors to population-level issues such as inequality , poverty, and education. Modern public health
2023-405: A need to contain unrest than morally motivated, they were significant in transferring responsibility for helping the needy from private hands to the state. In 1713, Bernardino Ramazzini (1633–1714), often described as the father of occupational medicine and a precursor to occupational health, published his De morbis artificum diatriba ( Dissertation on Workers' Diseases ), which outlined
2142-404: A positive social climate and smooth operation and may enhance productivity of the undertakings. The concept of working culture is intended in this context to mean a reflection of the essential value systems adopted by the undertaking concerned. Such a culture is reflected in practice in the managerial systems, personnel policy, principles for participation, training policies and quality management of
2261-628: A range of hazards present in surface and underground mining operations. In surface mining, leading hazards include such issues as geological instability, contact with plant and equipment, rock blasting , thermal environments (heat and cold), respiratory health ( black lung ), etc. In underground mining, operational hazards include respiratory health, explosions and gas (particularly in coal mine operations), geological instability, electrical equipment, contact with plant and equipment, heat stress, inrush of bodies of water, falls from height, confined spaces , ionising radiation , etc. According to data from
2380-733: A regular day shift), 21% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees). Due to the manual labor involved and on a per employee basis, the US Postal Service, UPS and FedEx are the 4th, 5th and 7th most dangerous companies to work for in the US. Healthcare workers are exposed to many hazards that can adversely affect their health and well-being. Long hours, changing shifts, physically demanding tasks, violence, and exposures to infectious diseases and harmful chemicals are examples of hazards that put these workers at risk for illness and injury. Musculoskeletal injury (MSI)
2499-434: A result of workplace-related accidents or diseases, corresponding to one death every fifteen seconds. There are an additional 374 million non-fatal work-related injuries annually. It is estimated that the economic burden of occupational-related injury and death is nearly four per cent of the global gross domestic product each year. The human cost of this adversity is enormous. In common-law jurisdictions, employers have
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#17328016785402618-407: A review of research on what local authorities can do to tackle obesity. The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the built and natural environments , schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on active travel , leisure services and public sports, weight management programmes , and system-wide approaches . Health inequalities, driven by
2737-509: A series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's the Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs. A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as
2856-496: A significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of globalization increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced. From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health. Some efforts, however, receive
2975-475: A significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $ 6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years. Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, non-governmental organizations , private foundations such as the Rockefeller Foundation or
3094-523: A treaty on metallurgy, described accidents and diseases prevalent among miners and recommended practices to prevent them. Like Paracelsus, Agricola mentioned the dust that "eats away the lungs, and implants consumption." The seeds of state intervention to correct social ills were sown during the reign of Elizabeth I by the Poor Laws , which originated in attempts to alleviate hardship arising from widespread poverty. While they were perhaps more to do with
3213-412: A week among workers employed in these industries was 37%, and 24% worked more than 60 hours a week. Of all workers in these industries, 85% frequently worked outdoors compared to 25% of all US workers. Additionally, 53% were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes, compared to 25% of all US workers. The mining industry still has one of the highest rates of fatalities of any industry. There are
3332-463: Is a common source of occupational injuries and illnesses among younger workers. Common causes of fatal injuries among young farm worker include drowning, machinery and motor vehicle-related accidents. The 2010 NHIS-OHS found elevated prevalence rates of several occupational exposures in the agriculture, forestry, and fishing sector which may negatively impact health. These workers often worked long hours. The prevalence rate of working more than 48 hours
3451-531: Is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health. Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine. Lifestyle medicine uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered
3570-741: Is a serious hazard that can be found in workplaces. Specific occupational safety and health risk factors vary depending on the specific sector and industry. Construction workers might be particularly at risk of falls, for instance, whereas fishermen might be particularly at risk of drowning . Similarly psychosocial risks such as workplace violence are more pronounced for certain occupational groups such as health care employees, police, correctional officers and teachers. Agriculture workers are often at risk of work-related injuries, lung disease, noise-induced hearing loss, skin disease, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use or prolonged sun exposure. On industrialized farms , injuries frequently involve
3689-409: Is dealing with the conflict between individual rights and maximizing right to health . Public health is justified by consequentialist utilitarian ideas, but is constrained and critiqued by liberal , deontological , principlist and libertarian philosophies Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that
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3808-451: Is due to the activation of an evolved reward system for substances such as drugs, tobacco, alcohol , refined salt , fat , and carbohydrates . New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced physical activity . Research has found that behavior is more effectively changed by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known
3927-465: Is limited. Public health programs providing vaccinations have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of cholera and polio and eradicating smallpox , diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years. The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including: In particular, public health surveillance programs can: The "Truth" campaign, launched by
4046-434: Is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and social relationships ; these are known as " social determinants of health ". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, social inclusion and many others effect
4165-584: Is one of Europe's most labor-intensive industries. In late 2020, it accounted for more than 21 million employment in the European Union when combined with social work. According to the WHO , several countries began the COVID-19 pandemic with insufficient health and care professionals, inappropriate skill mixtures, and unequal geographical distributions. These issues were worsened by the pandemic, reiterating
4284-613: Is one of the most dangerous occupations in the world, incurring more occupational fatalities than any other sector in both the United States and in the European Union . In 2009, the fatal occupational injury rate among construction workers in the United States was nearly three times that for all workers. Falls are one of the most common causes of fatal and non-fatal injuries among construction workers. Proper safety equipment such as harnesses and guardrails and procedures such as securing ladders and inspecting scaffolding can curtail
4403-530: Is part of a country's overall healthcare system. Public health is implemented through the surveillance of cases and health indicators , and through the promotion of healthy behaviors . Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , promoting ventilation and improved air quality both indoors and outdoors , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control
4522-487: Is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year. Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including HIV/AIDS , diabetes , waterborne diseases , zoonotic diseases , and antibiotic resistance leading to
4641-522: Is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, occupational health , and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use
4760-712: Is related to the fields of occupational medicine and occupational hygiene and aligns with workplace health promotion initiatives. OSH also protects all the general public who may be affected by the occupational environment. According to the official estimates of the United Nations , the WHO / ILO Joint Estimate of the Work-related Burden of Disease and Injury , almost 2 million people die each year due to exposure to occupational risk factors. Globally, more than 2.78 million people die annually as
4879-540: Is the control of tobacco smoking . Many nations have implemented major initiatives to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting passive (second-hand) smoking and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that
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4998-461: Is the most common health hazard in for healthcare workers and in workplaces overall. Injuries can be prevented by using proper body mechanics. According to the Bureau of Labor statistics, US hospitals recorded 253,700 work-related injuries and illnesses in 2011, which is 6.8 work-related injuries and illnesses for every 100 full-time employees. The injury and illness rate in hospitals is higher than
5117-1515: Is to improve the health of individuals and populations, and to increase life expectancy . Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, interdisciplinary field. For example, epidemiology , biostatistics , social sciences and management of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include environmental health , community health , behavioral health , health economics , public policy , mental health , health education , health politics , occupational safety , disability , gender issues in health, and sexual and reproductive health . Modern public health practice requires multidisciplinary teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include epidemiologists , biostatisticians , physician assistants , public health nurses , midwives , medical microbiologists , pharmacists , economists , sociologists , geneticists , data managers , environmental health officers ( public health inspectors ), bioethicists , gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, physicians , and veterinarians . The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve. Common public health initiatives include promotion of hand-washing and breastfeeding , delivery of vaccinations , suicide prevention , smoking cessation , obesity education , increasing healthcare accessibility and distribution of condoms to control
5236-514: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the World Bank or UNICEF . The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations,
5355-530: The Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation and the World Health Organization has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates. However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement. That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid
5474-579: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and NIOSH in their current form`. A wide array of workplace hazards can damage the health and safety of people at work. These include but are not limited to, "chemicals, biological agents, physical factors, adverse ergonomic conditions, allergens, a complex network of safety risks," as well a broad range of psychosocial risk factors. Personal protective equipment can help protect against many of these hazards. A landmark study conducted by
5593-425: The Occupational Safety and Health Administration . NSF laboratories are ISO 17025 certified (testing and calibration). Public health Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals". Analyzing the determinants of health of
5712-710: The Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE, an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts. In 2009 health aid from the OECD amounted to $ 12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid. In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare. Debates exist questioning
5831-576: The United Nations hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained health workers , monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even
5950-1014: The United States Pharmacopeia certification mark. The NSF also develops standards for and certifies water quality . As of 2024 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sets limits on drinking water contaminants based on standards set by the NSF. The NSF Consumer Products Division tests and certifies consumer products and appliances used in and around the home. NSF International Strategic Registrations (NSF-ISR) an NSF company, offers certifications for information security (e.g. ISO 27001, ISO 20000-1), specialty services (automotive and aerospace) and management systems that includes environmental, occupational health and safety standards). NSF maintains laboratories in North America, South America, Europe and China. NSF's laboratories are accredited by
6069-497: The World Health Organization and the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours is the occupational risk factor with the largest attributable burden of disease, i.e. an estimated 745,000 fatalities from ischemic heart disease and stroke events in 2016. This makes overwork the globally leading occupational health risk factor. Physical hazards affect many people in
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#17328016785406188-415: The common law duty (also called duty of care) to take reasonable care of the safety of their employees. Statute law may, in addition, impose other general duties, introduce specific duties, and create government bodies with powers to regulate occupational safety issues. Details of this vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Prevention of workplace incidents and occupational diseases is addressed through
6307-776: The 2010 NHIS-OHS, workers employed in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had high prevalence rates of exposure to potentially harmful work organization characteristics and hazardous chemicals. Many of these workers worked long hours: 50% worked more than 48 hours a week and 25% worked more than 60 hours a week in 2010. Additionally, 42% worked non-standard shifts (not a regular day shift). These workers also had high prevalence of exposure to physical/chemical hazards. In 2010, 39% had frequent skin contact with chemicals. Among nonsmoking workers, 28% of those in mining and oil and gas extraction industries had frequent exposure to secondhand smoke at work. About two-thirds were frequently exposed to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes at work. Construction
6426-599: The American Legacy Foundation in 2000. This campaign aimed to educate and discourage young people from smoking by exposing the tobacco industry's deceptive practices. Through a combination of powerful visuals, persuasive storytelling, and relatable messaging, the "Truth" campaign successfully reduced smoking rates among teenagers and young adults. Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an evolutionary psychology perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful
6545-814: The Construction Design Management (CDM) Coordinator as a requirement has been aimed at improving health and safety on-site. The 2010 National Health Interview Survey Occupational Health Supplement (NHIS-OHS) identified work organization factors and occupational psychosocial and chemical/physical exposures which may increase some health risks. Among all US workers in the construction sector, 44% had non-standard work arrangements (were not regular permanent employees) compared to 19% of all US workers, 15% had temporary employment compared to 7% of all US workers, and 55% experienced job insecurity compared to 32% of all US workers. Prevalence rates for exposure to physical/chemical hazards were especially high for
6664-464: The ILO), based on the general understanding that occupational health refers to hazards associated to disease and long-term effects, while occupational safety hazards are those associated to work accidents causing injury and sudden severe conditions. Research and regulation of occupational safety and health are a relatively recent phenomenon. As labor movements arose in response to worker concerns in
6783-542: The Russian Federation in the early 21st century. However, as in previous years, data reporting and publication was incomplete and manipulated, so that the actual number of work-related diseases and accidents are unknown. The ILO reports that, according to the information provided by the Russian government, there are 190,000 work-related fatalities each year, of which 15,000 due to occupational accidents. After
6902-624: The Standards Council of Canada. NSF International, originally named the National Sanitation Foundation (NSF), was founded in 1944 by the University of Michigan School of Public Health, in an attempt to standardize requirements around sanitation and food safety. The first standards developed by the NSF set sanitation requirements on soda fountain and luncheonette equipment. The name of the organization
7021-622: The United States were passed in New York in 1910 and in Washington and Wisconsin in 1911. Later rulings included occupational diseases in the scope of the compensation, which was initially restricted to accidents. In 1914 the USPHS set up the Office of Industrial Hygiene and Sanitation, the ancestor of the current National Institute for Safety and Health (NIOSH). In the early 20th century, workplace disasters were still common. For example, in 1911
7140-647: The West Nile virus and Lyme disease. Health care workers, including veterinary health workers, risk exposure to blood-borne pathogens and various infectious diseases, especially those that are emerging . Dangerous chemicals can pose a chemical hazard in the workplace. There are many classifications of hazardous chemicals, including neurotoxins , immune agents, dermatologic agents, carcinogens, reproductive toxins, systemic toxins, asthmagens, pneumoconiotic agents, and sensitizers. Authorities such as regulatory agencies set occupational exposure limits to mitigate
7259-627: The Western world. Similar acts followed in other countries, partly in response to labor unrest. The United States are responsible for the first health program focusing on workplace conditions. This was the Marine Hospital Service , inaugurated in 1798 and providing care for merchant seamen. This was the beginning of what would become the US Public Health Service (USPHS). The first worker compensation acts in
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#17328016785407378-452: The age of five were overweight in 2014. Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings. Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including healthy diet and physical exercise . The National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) has published
7497-405: The authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation." The risk of type 2 diabetes is closely linked with the growing problem of obesity . The WHO's latest estimates as of June 2016 highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were overweight in 2014, and 41 million children under
7616-422: The beginnings of human civilization , communities promoted health and fought disease at the population level. In complex , pre-industrialized societies , interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to
7735-694: The body over time, thereby enabling small incremental daily exposures to eventually add up to dangerous levels with little overt warning. Psychosocial hazards include risks to the mental and emotional well-being of workers, such as feelings of job insecurity, long work hours, and poor work-life balance. Psychological abuse has been found present within the workplace as evidenced by previous research. A study by Gary Namie on workplace emotional abuse found that 31% of women and 21% of men who reported workplace emotional abuse exhibited three key symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder ( hypervigilance , intrusive imagery , and avoidance behaviors ). Sexual harassment
7854-508: The burden of disease and inequality faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established. Occupational safety and health Occupational safety and health ( OSH ) or occupational health and safety ( OHS ) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety , health , and welfare of people at work (i.e., while performing duties required by one's occupation). OSH
7973-546: The construction sector. Among nonsmoking workers, 24% of construction workers were exposed to secondhand smoke while only 10% of all US workers were exposed. Other physical/chemical hazards with high prevalence rates in the construction industry were frequently working outdoors (73%) and frequent exposure to vapors, gas, dust, or fumes (51%). The service sector comprises diverse workplaces. Each type of workplace has its own health risks. While some occupations have become more mobile, others still require people to sit at desks. As
8092-458: The correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy. The definition of health is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or clinicians . This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst
8211-453: The demise of the USSR, enterprises became owned by oligarchs who were not interested in upholding safe and healthy conditions in the workplace. Expenditure on equipment modernization was minimal and the share of harmful workplaces increased. The government did not interfere in this, and sometimes it helped employers. At first, the increase in occupational diseases and accidents was slow, due to
8330-419: The distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy. A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level. The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner. The health sector
8449-486: The economy. In the early 2000s, the total societal costs of work-related health problems and accidents varied from 2.6% to 3.8% of the national GDPs across the member states. In 2021, in the EU-27 as a whole, 93% of deaths due to injury were of males. One of the decisions taken by the communist regime under Stalin was to reduce the number of accidents and occupational diseases to zero. The tendency to decline remained in
8568-404: The effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases. Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor maternal and child health, exacerbated by malnutrition and poverty. The WHO reports that a lack of exclusive breastfeeding during the first six months of life contributes to over
8687-422: The efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the poverty trap . Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients. For example, recently, health aid
8806-546: The employee means real improvement of working conditions. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Health made significant changes in the methods of risk assessment in the workplace. However, specialists from the Izmerov Research Institute of Occupational Health found that the post-2014 apparent decrease in the share of employees engaged in hazardous working conditions is due to the change in definitions consequent to
8925-427: The fact that in the 1990s it was compensated by mass deindustrialization. However, in the 2000s deindustrialization slowed and occupational diseases and injuries started to rise in earnest. Therefore, in the 2010s the Ministry of Labor adopted federal law no. 426-FZ. This piece of legislation has been described as ineffective and based on the superficial assumption that the issuance of personal protective equipment to
9044-760: The fact that it was the first modern urban nation worldwide. The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on sanitation (for example, the Liverpool and London sewerage systems ), control of infectious diseases (including vaccination and quarantine ) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering. Public health has been defined as "the science and art of preventing disease ", prolonging life and improving quality of life through organized efforts and informed choices of society , organizations (public and private), communities and individuals . The public can be as small as
9163-432: The gluten-freeness of products and other similar characteristics, as well as certifying bottled water and packaged ice. The NSF also certifies dietary supplements through a standard it facilitated the development of adopted by ANSI (NSF/American National Standards Institute Standard 173), testing for safe levels of contaminants and that the ingredients on supplements match their labels. As of 2002 it competed in this with
9282-448: The harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking. Public libraries can also be beneficial tools for public health changes. They provide access to healthcare information, link people to healthcare services, and even can provide direct care in certain situations. As well as seeking to improve population health through
9401-457: The health hazards of chemicals, dust, metals, repetitive or violent motions, odd postures, and other disease-causative agents encountered by workers in more than fifty occupations. It was the first broad-ranging presentation of occupational diseases. Percivall Pott (1714–1788), an English surgeon, described cancer in chimney sweeps ( chimney sweeps' carcinoma ), the first recognition of an occupational cancer in history. The United Kingdom
9520-796: The highest possible level of health". The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the eradication of smallpox , the near- eradication of polio , and the development of an Ebola vaccine . Its current priorities include communicable diseases , particularly HIV/AIDS , Ebola , COVID-19 , malaria and tuberculosis ; non-communicable diseases such as heart disease and cancer; healthy diet , nutrition, and food security ; occupational health ; and substance abuse . Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called
9639-565: The implementation of occupational safety and health programs at company level. The International Labour Organization (ILO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) share a common definition of occupational health. It was first adopted by the Joint ILO/WHO Committee on Occupational Health at its first session in 1950: Occupational health should aim at the promotion and maintenance of the highest degree of physical, mental and social well-being of workers in all occupations;
9758-446: The implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including: Some programs and policies associated with public health promotion and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of HIV transmission through safe sex campaigns and needle-exchange programs . Another
9877-495: The importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool, with the Harvard University 's T.H. Chan School of Public Health categorizing such films as "impact filmmaking." In fact, film festivals and competitions have been established to specifically promote films about health. Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing
9996-441: The importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of aging and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine. Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this
10115-477: The importance of public health. In the United States, a history of underinvestment in public health undermined the public health workforce and support for population health, long before the pandemic added to stress, mental distress, job dissatisfaction, and accelerated departures among public health workers. Health aid to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries. Health aid to developing countries has shown
10234-882: The ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues. For example, in the United States , state and local health departments are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the United States Public Health Service (PHS), led by the Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service , and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention , headquartered in Atlanta , are also involved with international health activities. Most governments recognize
10353-539: The needs of the normative group. Identifying bias within public health research and practice is essential to ensuring public health efforts mitigate and don't aggravate health inequities. The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of
10472-475: The number of service sector jobs has risen in developed countries, more and more jobs have become sedentary , presenting an array of health problems that differ from health problems associated with manufacturing and the primary sector . Contemporary health problems include obesity . Some working conditions, such as occupational stress , workplace bullying , and overwork , have negative consequences for physical and mental health. Tipped wage workers are at
10591-615: The potential to crush, burn , cut , shear , stab or otherwise strike or wound workers if used unsafely. Biological hazards (biohazards) include infectious microorganisms such as viruses, bacteria and toxins produced by those organisms such as anthrax . Biohazards affect workers in many industries; influenza , for example, affects a broad population of workers. Outdoor workers, including farmers, landscapers, and construction workers, risk exposure to numerous biohazards, including animal bites and stings, urushiol from poisonous plants, and diseases transmitted through animals such as
10710-452: The prevalence of infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century , public health began to put more focus on chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease . Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the infant mortality rate using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930. A major public health concern in developing countries
10829-411: The prevention amongst workers of departures from health caused by their working conditions; the protection of workers in their employment from risks resulting from factors adverse to health; the placing and maintenance of the worker in an occupational environment adapted to his physiological and psychological capabilities and; to summarize: the adaptation of work to man and of each man to his job. In 1995,
10948-484: The public towards certain interventions. Such vagueness can be a problem for health promotion . Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level. Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of " healthism ", as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote
11067-913: The rates in construction and manufacturing – two industries that are traditionally thought to be relatively hazardous. An estimated 2.90 million work-related deaths occurred in 2019, increased from 2.78 million death from 2015. About, one-third of the total work-related deaths (31%) were due to circulatory diseases , while cancer contributed 29%, respiratory diseases 17%, and occupational injuries contributed 11% (or about 319,000 fatalities). Other diseases such as work-related communicable diseases contributed 6%, while neuropsychiatric conditions contributed 3% and work-related digestive disease and genitourinary diseases contributed 1% each. The contribution of cancers and circulatory diseases to total work-related deaths increased from 2015, while deaths due to occupational injuries decreased. Although work-related injury deaths and non-fatal injuries rates were on
11186-476: The reemergence of infectious diseases such as tuberculosis . Antibiotic resistance , also known as drug resistance, was the theme of World Health Day 2011 . For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030. In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal The Lancet ,
11305-492: The risk of chemical hazards. International investigations are ongoing into the health effects of mixtures of chemicals, given that toxins can interact synergistically instead of merely additively. For example, there is some evidence that certain chemicals are harmful at low levels when mixed with one or more other chemicals. Such synergistic effects may be particularly important in causing cancer. Additionally, some substances (such as heavy metals and organohalogens) can accumulate in
11424-408: The risk of occupational injuries in the construction industry. Due to the fact that accidents may have disastrous consequences for employees as well as organizations, it is of utmost importance to ensure health and safety of workers and compliance with HSE construction requirements. Health and safety legislation in the construction industry involves many rules and regulations. For example, the role of
11543-409: The simple act of handwashing with soap can prevent the spread of many contagious diseases . In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a pathogen can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of infectious disease or through contamination of food or water supplies. Public health, together with primary care , secondary care, and tertiary care , is part of
11662-591: The social determinants of health, are also a growing area of concern in public health. A central challenge to securing health equity is that the same social structures that contribute to health inequities also operate and are reproduced by public health organizations. In other words, public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. The result is often that those most in need of preventative interventions are least likely to receive them and interventions can actually aggravate inequities as they are often inadvertently tailored to
11781-409: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the promotion of healthy behaviors , communities and environments . Analyzing the determinants of health of a population and the threats it faces is the basis for public health. Many diseases are preventable through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that
11900-438: The spread of sexually transmitted diseases . There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between developed countries and developing countries , as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained healthcare workers , monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even
12019-418: The state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall. Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the COVID-19 pandemic
12138-511: The strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care. Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an epidemiological shift and polarization in which populations are now experiencing more of
12257-502: The term "public health". Preventive medicine specialists are trained as clinicians and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for disease prevention programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness. Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health . There are no medical specialties directly related to population health. Valles argues that consideration of health equity
12376-428: The tipped workforce." According to data from the 2010 NHIS-OHS, hazardous physical/chemical exposures in the service sector were lower than national averages. On the other hand, potentially harmful work organization characteristics and psychosocial workplace exposures were relatively common in this sector. Among all workers in the service industry, 30% experienced job insecurity in 2010, 27% worked non-standard shifts (not
12495-591: The undertaking. An alternative definition for occupational health given by the WHO is: "occupational health deals with all aspects of health and safety in the workplace and has a strong focus on primary prevention of hazards." The expression "occupational health", as originally adopted by the WHO and the ILO, refers to both short- and long-term adverse health effects. In more recent times, the expressions "occupational safety and health" and "occupational health and safety" have come into use (and have also been adopted in works by
12614-574: The urging of the Factory Inspectorate, a further act in 1844 giving similar restrictions on working hours for women in the textile industry introduced a requirement for machinery guarding (but only in the textile industry, and only in areas that might be accessed by women or children). The latter act was the first to take a significant step toward improvement of workers' safety, as the former focused on health aspects alone. The first decennial British Registrar-General 's mortality report
12733-537: The use of agricultural machinery . The most common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in the United States is tractor rollovers, which can be prevented by the use of roll over protection structures which limit the risk of injury in case a tractor rolls over. Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can also be hazardous to worker health, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illnesses or birth defects. As an industry in which families, including children, commonly work alongside their families, agriculture
12852-452: The wake of the industrial revolution, workers' safety and health entered consideration as a labor-related issue. Written works on occupational diseases began to appear by the end of the 15th century, when demand for gold and silver was rising due to the increase in trade and iron, copper, and lead were also in demand from the nascent firearms market. Deeper mining became common as a consequence. In 1473, Ulrich Ellenbog [ de ] ,
12971-505: The workers of the mining industry that documented the appallingly dangerous environment that they had to work in and the high frequency of accidents. The commission sparked public outrage which resulted in the Mines and Collieries Act of 1842 . The act set up an inspectorate for mines and collieries which resulted in many prosecutions and safety improvements, and by 1850, inspectors were able to enter and inspect premises at their discretion. On
13090-540: The workplace. Occupational hearing loss is the most common work-related injury in the United States, with 22 million workers exposed to hazardous occupational noise levels at work and an estimated $ 242 million spent annually on worker's compensation for hearing loss disability. Falls are also a common cause of occupational injuries and fatalities, especially in construction, extraction, transportation, healthcare, and building cleaning and maintenance. Machines have moving parts, sharp edges, hot surfaces and other hazards with
13209-462: The worldwide context. It has been defined as "the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in " Health for all " people worldwide". International health is a field of health care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries. Public health is not the same as public healthcare ( publicly funded health care ). The term preventive medicine
13328-418: Was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern urban nation (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people). This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives. Later that particular concern faded away. With the onset of the epidemiological transition and as
13447-894: Was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011. To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the United Nations have developed the Sustainable Development Goals to be completed by 2030. These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address health disparities , primarily in developing countries. These six goals address key issues in global public health , poverty , hunger and food security , health, education, gender equality and women's empowerment , and water and sanitation . Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen
13566-470: Was changed to NSF International in 1990 based on the fact that the company certifed things beyond sanitation and to operate internationally beyond the United States. The NSF certifies food equipment, including food preparation and dispensing equipment, ice makers, refrigerators and freezers, dishwashing sinks, vending machines, mobile food carts, and service counters. These certifications are widely recognized internationally. NSF's Food division also certifies
13685-408: Was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like antiretroviral medication , insecticide-treated mosquito nets , and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and polio ; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement. Economic modeling based on
13804-400: Was issued in 1851. Deaths were categorized by social classes, with class I corresponding to professionals and executives and class V representing unskilled workers. The report showed that mortality rates increased with the class number. Otto von Bismarck inaugurated the first social insurance legislation in 1883 and the first worker's compensation law in 1884 – the first of their kind in
13923-420: Was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality. Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a global health priority, non-communicable diseases and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by
14042-407: Was the first nation to industrialize. Soon shocking evidence emerged of serious physical and moral harm suffered by children and young persons in the cotton textile mills , as a result of exploitation of cheap labor in the factory system . Responding to calls for remedial action from philanthropists and some of the more enlightened employers, in 1802 Sir Robert Peel , himself a mill owner, introduced
14161-538: Was the first of the 19th century Factory Acts . Charles Thackrah (1795–1833), another pioneer of occupational medicine, wrote a report on The State of Children Employed in Cotton Factories , which was sent to the Parliament in 1818. Thackrah recognized issues of inequalities of health in the workplace, with manufacturing in towns causing higher mortality than agriculture. The Act of 1833 created
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