96-510: The United States Pharmacopeia ( USP ) is a pharmacopeia (compendium of drug information) for the United States published annually by the over 200-year old United States Pharmacopeial Convention (usually also called the USP), a nonprofit organization that owns the trademark and also owns the copyright on the pharmacopeia itself. The USP is published in a combined volume with
192-564: A basis on which a globally international pharmacopoeia could be prepared, but regulatory complexity and regional variation in conditions of pharmacy are hurdles to fully harmonizing across all countries (that is, defining thousands of details that can all be known to work successfully in all places). Nonetheless, some progress has been made under the banner of the International Council on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH),
288-464: A commercial standard of purity as distinct from a medicinal one is needed, since the preparations used in medicine should be of the highest possible degree of purity obtainable, and this standard would be too high and too expensive for ordinary purposes. The use of trade synonyms in the Pharmacopoeia, such as saltpetre for purified potassium nitrate , and milk of sulphur for precipitated sulphur,
384-524: A common monograph that provides a common set of tests and specifications for a specific material. This is a slow process. The World Health Organization has produced the International Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Int.), which does not replace a national pharmacopoeia but rather provides a model or template for one and also can be invoked by legislation within a country to serve as that country's regulation. Though formerly printed there has been
480-469: A compound of "medicine, drug, poison" ( Ancient Greek : φάρμακον , romanized : pharmakon ), with the verb "to make" ( Ancient Greek : ποιεῖν , romanized : poiein ), and the abstract noun suffix -ία -ia . In early modern editions of Latin texts, the Greek diphthong οι ( oi ) is latinized to its Latin equivalent oe which is in turn written with the ligature œ , giving
576-482: A corrected impression of the same was issued. Subsequent editions were published in 1824, 1836, and 1851. The first Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia was published in 1699 and the last in 1841; the first Dublin Pharmacopoeia in 1807 and the last in 1850. The preparations contained in these three pharmacopoeias were not all uniform in strength, a source of much inconvenience and danger to the public, when powerful preparations such as dilute hydrocyanic acid were ordered in
672-547: A dietary supplement label, which means that the manufacturer is claiming to adhere to USP standards. USP does not test such products as it does with USP Verified products. In the past, Congress authorized the Secretary of HHS to request USP to develop a drug classification system that Medicare Prescription Drug Benefit plans may use to develop their formularies , and to revise such classification from time to time to reflect changes in therapeutic uses covered by Part D drugs and
768-563: A drug or drug ingredient with a name recognized in USP-NF is considered adulterated if it does not satisfy compendial standards for strength, quality, or purity. USP also sets standards for dietary supplements and food ingredients (as part of the Food Chemicals Codex ). USP has no role in enforcing its standards; enforcement is the responsibility of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and other government authorities in
864-557: A five-year, $ 35 million cooperative agreement to establish a new, expanded program called Promoting the Quality of Medicines (PQM). In 2013 USAID extended the PQM program for five years (through September 2019), increased its funding to $ 110 million, and expanded the geographical reach of the program. PQM serves as a primary mechanism to help USAID-supported countries strengthen their quality assurance and quality control systems to better ensure
960-547: A legal standard for the drugs and preparations contained in it. The Pharmacopoeia is defined in the preface as only "intended to afford to the members of the medical profession and those engaged in the preparation of medicines throughout the British Empire one uniform standard and guide whereby the nature and composition of, substances to be used in medicine may be ascertained and determined". It cannot be an encyclopaedia of substances used in medicine, and can be used only as
1056-514: A number of countries that had achieved a substantial level of prosperity, including South Korea, Turkey, and Costa Rica . USAID also closes missions when requested by host countries for political reasons. In September 2012, the U.S. closed USAID/Russia at that country's request. Its mission in Moscow had been in operation for two decades. On May 1, 2013, the president of Bolivia , Evo Morales , asked USAID to close its mission, which had worked in
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#17327726241441152-400: A pharmacopoeia. De Villeneuve, fellow student of Vesalius and the best galenist of Paris according to Johann Winter von Andernach , published the anonymous " Dispensarium or Enquiridion " in 1543, at Lyon , France, with Jean Frellon as editor. This work contains 224 original recipes by De Villeneuve and others by Lespleigney and Chappuis. As usual when it comes to pharmacopoeias, this work
1248-502: A separate charter, and it was enacted that no grocer should keep an apothecary's shop. The preparation of physicians' prescriptions was thus confined to the apothecaries, upon whom pressure was brought to bear to make them dispense accurately, by the issue of a pharmacopoeia in May 1618 by the College of Physicians , and by the power which the wardens of the apothecaries received in common with
1344-1151: A series of Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) with groups including the Pharmacopeia of the People's Republic of China Chinese Pharmacopeia Commission, nine countries belonging to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) , and the Federal Service on Surveillance in Healthcare and Social Development of the Russian Federation (Roszdravnadzor). USP also operates an international office in Switzerland and offices and laboratories in Brazil, India, and China. 39°03′48″N 77°06′56″W / 39.063270°N 77.115574°W / 39.063270; -77.115574 Pharmacopeia A pharmacopoeia , pharmacopeia , or pharmacopoea (from
1440-485: A specialized "Agriculture" office), development of microfinance industries, streamlining of Customs administrations (to accelerate the growth of exporting industries), and modernization of government regulatory frameworks for the industry in various sectors (telecommunications, agriculture, and so forth). In USAID's early years and some larger programs, Economic Growth offices have financed economic infrastructure like roads and electrical power plants. Economic Growth assistance
1536-579: A standard for the substances and preparations contained in it, and for no others. It has been held in the Divisional Courts (Dickins v. Randerson) that the Pharmacopoeia is a standard for official preparations asked for under their pharmacopoeial name. But there are many substances in the Pharmacopoeia which are not only employed in medicine, but have other uses, such as sulphur , gum benzoin , tragacanth , gum arabic , ammonium carbonate , beeswax , oil of turpentine , linseed oil , and for these
1632-474: A sustainable basis for USAID's socioeconomic development objective in the long term. USAID (United States Agency for International Development) has recently initiated the HEARTH (Health, Ecosystems and Agriculture for Resilient, Thriving Societies) program, which operates in 10 countries with 15 activities aimed at promoting conservation of threatened landscapes and enhancing community well-being by partnering with
1728-643: A transition to a situation where pharmaceutical information is available as printed volumes and on the internet . The rapid increase in knowledge renders necessary frequent new editions, to furnish definite formulae for preparations that have already come into extensive use in medical practice, so as to ensure uniformity of strength, and to give the characters and tests by which their purity and potency may be determined. However each new edition requires several years to carry out numerous experiments for devising suitable formulae, so that current pharmacopoeia are never quite up to date. This difficulty has hitherto been met by
1824-720: A tri-regional organisation that represents the drug regulatory authorities of the European Union , Japan , and the United States . Representatives from the Pharmacopoeias of these three regions have met twice yearly since 1990 in the Pharmacopoeial Discussion Group to try to work towards "compendial harmonisation". Specific monographs are proposed, and if accepted, proceed through stages of review and consultation leading to adoption of
1920-472: Is a compendium of standards used internationally for the quality and purity of food ingredients like preservatives, flavorings, colorings, and nutrients. While the FCC is recognized in law in countries like Australia , Canada , and New Zealand , it currently does not have statutory recognition in the United States, although FCC standards are incorporated by reference in over 200 FDA food regulations. USP obtained
2016-477: Is common. United States Agency for International Development The United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) is an independent agency of the United States government that is primarily responsible for administering civilian foreign aid and development assistance . With a budget of over $ 50 billion, USAID is one of the largest official aid agencies in the world and accounts for more than half of all U.S. foreign assistance—the highest in
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#17327726241442112-549: Is contracted or procured by USAID and provided in-kind to recipients. For technical advisory services, USAID draws on experts from the private sector, mainly from the assisted country's own pool of expertise, as well as from specialized U.S. government agencies. Many host-government leaders have drawn on USAID's technical assistance for the development of IT systems and computer hardware procurement to strengthen their institutions. To build indigenous expertise and leadership, USAID finances scholarships to U.S. universities and assists in
2208-719: Is headed by an administrator . The current administrator, Samantha Power, was sworn in on May 3, 2021. Under the Biden administration, the administrator became a regular attendee of the National Security Council. USAID/Washington helps define overall federal civilian foreign assistance policy and budgets, working with the State Department, Congress, and other U.S. government agencies. It is organized into "Bureaus" covering geographical areas, development subject areas, and administrative functions. Each bureau
2304-447: Is headed by an assistant administrator appointed by the president. (Some tasks similar to those of USAID's Bureaus are performed by what are termed "Independent Offices".) Independent oversight of USAID activities is provided by its Office of Inspector General, U.S. Agency for International Development , which conducts criminal and civil investigations, financial and performance audits, reviews, and inspections of USAID activities around
2400-438: Is instructed: "To the maximum extent feasible, [to] provide [ESF] assistance ... consistent with the policy directions, purposes, and programs of [development assistance]." Also, when U.S. troops are in the field, USAID can supplement the " Civil Affairs " programs that the U.S. military conducts to win the friendship of local populations. In these circumstances, USAID may be directed by specially appointed diplomatic officials of
2496-626: Is no standard of purity that can be used under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act, and for these, as well as for the commercial quality of those drugs and essential oils which are also in the Pharmacopoeia, a legal standard of commercial purity is much needed. This subject formed the basis of discussion at several meetings of the Pharmaceutical Society, and the results have been embodied in a work called Suggested Standards for Foods and Drugs by C. G. Moor, which indicates
2592-744: Is now provided in the form of non-reimbursable grants. In recent years, the United States has increased its emphasis on financial rather than technical assistance. In 2004, the Bush Administration created the Millennium Challenge Corporation as a new foreign aid agency that is mainly restricted to providing financial assistance. In 2009, the Obama administration initiated a major realignment of USAID's own programs to emphasize financial assistance, referring to it as "government-to-government" or "G2G" assistance. USAID
2688-466: Is organized around country development programs managed by resident USAID offices in developing countries ("USAID missions"), supported by USAID's global headquarters in Washington, DC. USAID plans its work in each country around an individual country development program managed by a resident office called a "mission". The USAID mission and its U.S. staff are guests in the country, with a status that
2784-411: Is partly answerable for this difficulty, and has proved to be a mistake, since it affords ground for legal prosecution if a chemist sells a drug of ordinary commercial purity for trade purposes, instead of the purified preparation which is official in the Pharmacopoeia for medicinal use. This would not be the case if the trade synonym were omitted. For many drugs and chemicals not in the Pharmacopoeia there
2880-504: Is required. ) In 2008, USAID launched the "Development Leadership Initiative" to reverse the decline in USAID's Foreign service officer staffing, which had fallen to a total of about 1,200 worldwide. Although USAID's goal was to double the number of Foreign service officers to about 2,400 in 2012, actual recruitment net of attrition reached only 820 by the end of 2012. USAID's 2016 total of 1,850 Foreign service officers compared with 13,000 in
2976-439: Is the lead federal coordinator for international disaster assistance. After 1945, many newly independent countries needed assistance to relieve the chronic deprivation afflicting their low-income populations. USAID and its predecessor agencies have continuously provided poverty relief in many forms, including assistance to public health and education services targeted at the poorest. USAID has also helped manage food aid provided by
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3072-527: Is thus quite diverse in terms of the range of sectors where it may work. It corresponds to USAID's socioeconomic development objective and is the source of sustainable poverty reduction. Economic Growth offices also occasionally manage assistance to poverty relief projects, such as to government programs that provide "cash transfer" payments to low-income families. Some USAID missions have specialized technical offices for areas like counter-narcotics assistance or assistance in conflict zones. Disaster assistance on
3168-997: Is usually defined by a "framework bilateral agreement" between the government of the United States and the host government. Framework bilaterals give the mission and its U.S. staff privileges similar to (but not necessarily the same as) those accorded to the U.S. embassy and diplomats by the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of 1961. USAID missions work in over fifty countries, consulting with their governments and non-governmental organizations to identify programs that will receive USAID's assistance. As part of this process, USAID missions conduct socio-economic analysis, discuss projects with host-country leaders, design assistance to those projects, award contracts and grants, administer assistance (including evaluation and reporting), and manage flows of funds. As countries develop and need less assistance, USAID shrinks and ultimately closes its resident missions. USAID has closed missions in
3264-590: The Shennong Ben Cao Jing was compiled between 200-250 AD. It contains descriptions of 365 medications. The earliest known officially sponsored pharmacopoeia was compiled in 659 AD by a team of 23 pharmaceutical scientists led by Su jing during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD) and was called the Xinxiu bencao (Newly Revised Canon of Material Medical). The work consists of 20 volumes with one dedicated to
3360-621: The British Empire . As regards the purely pharmaceutical part of the work a committee of reference in pharmacy, nominated by the pharmaceutical societies of Great Britain and Ireland (as they were then), was appointed to report to the Pharmacopoeia Committee of the Medical Council. Some difficulty has arisen since the passing of the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act concerning the use of the Pharmacopoeia as
3456-640: The Centers for Disease Control and the Environmental Protection Agency . USAID's special ability to administer programs in low-income countries supports these and other U.S. government agencies' international work on global concerns. Among these global interests, environmental issues attract high attention. USAID assists projects that conserve and protect threatened land, water, forests, and wildlife. USAID also assists projects to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to build resilience to
3552-644: The Commission for Relief in Belgium headed by Herbert Hoover prevented starvation in Belgium after the German invasion. After 1945, the European Recovery Program championed by Secretary of State George Marshall (the " Marshall Plan ") helped rebuild war-torn Western Europe. USAID manages relief efforts after wars and natural disasters through its Bureau for Humanitarian Assistance, which
3648-568: The FCC from the Institute of Medicine in 2006. The IOM had published the first five editions of the FCC . USP also conducts verification programs for dietary supplement products and ingredients. These are testing and audit programs. Products that meet the requirements of the program can display the USP Verified Dietary Supplement Mark on their labels. This is different from seeing the letters "USP" alone on
3744-536: The National Formulary (a formulary ) as the USP-NF . If a drug ingredient or drug product has an applicable USP quality standard (in the form of a USP-NF monograph), it must conform in order to use the designation "USP" or "NF". Drugs subject to USP standards include both human drugs ( prescription , over-the-counter , or otherwise) and animal drugs. USP-NF standards also have a role in US federal law ;
3840-712: The National Security Council . USAID has missions in over 100 countries, primarily in Africa , Asia , Latin America , the Middle East , and Eastern Europe . USAID's decentralized network of resident field missions is drawn on to manage U.S. government programs in low-income countries for a range of purposes. Some of the U.S. government's earliest foreign aid programs provided relief in crises created by war. In 1915, U.S. government assistance through
3936-475: The U.S. Department of Agriculture . Also, USAID provides funding to NGOs to supplement private donations in relieving chronic poverty. Technical cooperation between nations is essential for addressing a range of cross-border concerns like communicable diseases, environmental issues, trade and investment cooperation, safety standards for traded products, money laundering, and so forth. The United States has specialized federal agencies dealing with such areas, such as
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4032-573: The 12th century (and printed in 1491), and Ibn Baytar in the 14th century. The Shen-nung pen ts'ao ching (Divine Husbandman's Materia Medica) is the earliest known Chinese pharmacopoeia. The text describes 365 medicines derived from plants, animals, and minerals; according to legend it was written by the Chinese god Shennong . Pharmacopeial synopsis were recorded in the Timbuktu manuscripts of Mali . The earliest extant Chinese pharmacopoeia,
4128-829: The 4,935 local staff of USAID's field missions. Host-country staff normally work under one-year contracts that are renewed annually. Formerly, host-country staff could be recruited as "direct hires" in career positions and at present many host-country staff continue working with USAID missions for full careers on a series of one-year contracts. In USAID's management approach, local staff may fill highly responsible, professional roles in program design and management. U.S. citizens can apply to become USAID Foreign service officers by competing for specific job openings based on academic qualifications and experience in development programs. Within five years of recruitment, most Foreign service officers receive tenure for an additional 20+ years of employment before mandatory retirement. Some are promoted to
4224-671: The British Pharmacopoeia in 1898. A committee of the Royal Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain was appointed at the request of the General Medical Council to advise on pharmaceutical matters. A census of prescriptions was taken to ascertain the relative frequency with which different preparations and drugs were used in prescriptions, and suggestions and criticisms were sought from various medical and pharmaceutical bodies across
4320-518: The EU is prepared by a governmental organization, and has a specified role in law in the EU. In the U.S., the USP-NF (United States Pharmacopeia – National Formulary) has been issued by a private non-profit organization since 1820 under the authority of a Convention that meets periodically that is largely constituted by physicians, pharmacists, and other public health professionals, setting standards published in
4416-457: The Pharmacopoeia is shown by the fact that they are even more largely used than the Pharmacopoeia itself, the first issued in 18 editions and the second in 13 editions at comparatively short intervals. In the UK, the task of elaborating a new Pharmacopoeia is entrusted to a body of a purely medical character, and legally the pharmacist does not, contrary to the practice in other countries, have a voice in
4512-620: The Senior Foreign Service with extended tenure, subject to the Foreign Service's mandatory retirement age of 65. (This recruitment system differs from the State Department's use of the "Foreign Service Officer Test" to identify potential U.S. diplomats. Individuals who pass the test become candidates for the State Department's selection process, which emphasizes personal qualities in thirteen dimensions such as "Composure" and "Resourcefulness". No specific education level
4608-657: The State Department, as has been done in Afghanistan and Pakistan during operations against al-Qaeda. U.S. commercial interests are served by U.S. law's requirement that most goods and services financed by USAID must be sourced from U.S. vendors. To help low-income nations achieve self-sustaining socioeconomic development, USAID assists them in improving the management of their own resources. USAID's assistance for socioeconomic development mainly provides technical advice, training, scholarships, commodities, and financial assistance. Through grants and contracts, USAID mobilizes
4704-431: The State Department. While USAID can have as little presence in a country as a single person assigned to the U.S. Embassy, a full USAID mission in a larger country may have twenty or more USAID Foreign service officers and a hundred or more professional and administrative employees from the country itself. The USAID mission's staff is divided into specialized offices in three groups: (1) assistance management offices; (2)
4800-771: The U.S., while assistance to the country's universities and professional education institutions may be provided by Economic Growth and Health offices. The Education office's emphasis on school access for the poor majority of the population corresponds to USAID's poverty relief objective, as well as to the socioeconomic development objective in the long term. Examples of projects assisted by environmental offices are projects for tropical forest conservation, protection of indigenous people's lands, regulation of marine fishing industries, pollution control, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, and helping communities adapt to climate change. Environment assistance corresponds to USAID's objective of technical cooperation on global issues, as well as laying
4896-571: The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSRP), although the de facto nature of the nationality of republics within that state differed from the de jure nature. The European Union has a supranational pharmacopoeia, the European Pharmacopoeia ; it has not replaced the national pharmacopoeias of EU member states but rather helps to harmonize them. Attempts have been made by international pharmaceutical and medical conferences to settle
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#17327726241444992-427: The United States. The U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP) was formed in 1820 when 11 physicians came together to take action to protect patients from being harmed by the inconsistent and poor-quality medical preparations at that time. The first standards were "recipes" that guided the preparation of medicines, which were often manufactured in apothecaries relying heavily on crude botanical drugs having therapeutic activities. When
5088-710: The addition of new covered Part D drugs. USP has developed six versions of the Model Guidelines, the last issued early in 2014 for the 2015–2017 benefit years. Since 1992, USP has worked cooperatively with the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) to help developing countries address critical issues related to poor quality medicines. This partnership operated as the Drug Quality and Information (DQI) program until 2009, when, to better meet growing global needs, USAID awarded USP
5184-636: The appropriate identity, as well as strength, quality, purity, and consistency. USP 800 is an example of a publication created by the United States Pharmacopeia. Prescription and over-the-counter medicines available in the United States must, by federal law , meet USP-NF public standards, where such standards exist. Many other countries use the USP-NF instead of issuing their own pharmacopeia, or to supplement their government pharmacopeia. USP's standards for food ingredients can be found in its Food Chemicals Codex ( FCC ). The FCC
5280-548: The average degree of purity of many drugs and chemicals used in the arts, as well as the highest degree of purity obtainable in commerce of those used in medicine. An important step has also been taken in this direction by the publication under the authority of the Council of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain of the British Pharmaceutical Codex (BPC), in which the characters of and tests for
5376-493: The basis for socio-economic development. USAID's Education offices mainly assist the national school system, emphasizing broadening the coverage of quality basic education to reach the entire population. Examples of projects often assisted by Education offices are projects for curriculum development, teacher training, and provision of improved textbooks and materials. Larger programs have included school construction. Education offices often manage scholarship programs for training in
5472-454: The censors of the College of Physicians of examining the shops of apothecaries within 7 m. of London and destroying all the compounds which they found unfaithfully prepared. This, the first authorized London Pharmacopoeia, was selected chiefly from the works of Mezue and Nicolaus de Salerno, but it was found to be so full of errors that the whole edition was cancelled, and a fresh edition
5568-401: The commercial grade of purity of those in the Pharmacopoeia which are used for non-medical purposes. Another legal difficulty connected with modern pharmacopoeias is the inclusion in some of them of synthetic chemical remedies, the processes for preparing which have been patented, whilst the substances are sold under trade-mark names. The scientific chemical name is often long and unwieldy, and
5664-526: The compendia through various Expert Committees. In the U.S. when there is an applicable USP-NF quality monograph, drugs and drug ingredients must conform to the compendial requirements (such as for strength, quality or purity) or be deemed adulterated or misbranded under the Federal food and drug laws. The Soviet Union had a nominally supranational pharmacopoeia, the State Pharmacopoeia of
5760-448: The country for 49 years. The closure was completed on September 20, 2013. USAID missions are led by mission directors and are staffed both by USAID Foreign Service officers and by development professionals from the country itself, with the host-country professionals forming the majority of the staff. The length of a Foreign service officer's "tour" in most countries is four years, to provide enough time to develop in-depth knowledge about
5856-434: The country. (Shorter tours of one or two years are usual in countries of exceptional hardship or danger.) The mission director is a member of the U.S. Embassy's "Country Team" under the direction of the U.S. ambassador. As a USAID mission works in an unclassified environment with relative frequent public interaction, most missions were initially located in independent offices in the business districts of capital cities. Since
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#17327726241445952-454: The eradication of communicable diseases, strengthening of public health systems focusing on maternal-child health including family planning services, HIV-AIDS monitoring, delivery of medical supplies including contraceptives and HIV vaccines, and coordination of Demographic and Health Surveys. This assistance is primarily targeted to the poor majority of the population and corresponds to USAID's poverty relief objective, as well as strengthening
6048-474: The excrements of human beings, dogs, mice, geese, and other animals, calculi , human skull, and moss growing on it, blind puppies, earthworms , etc. Although other editions of the London Pharmacopoeia were issued in 1621, 1632, 1639, and 1677, it was not until the edition of 1721, published under the auspices of Sir Hans Sloane , that any important alterations were made. In this issue many of
6144-501: The first U.S. foreign assistance organization whose primary focus was long-term socioeconomic development. USAID's programs are authorized by Congress in the Foreign Assistance Act , which Congress supplements through directions in annual funding appropriation acts and other legislation. As an official component of U.S. foreign policy, USAID operates subject to the guidance of the president , secretary of state , and
6240-514: The first pharmacopoeia of Amsterdam named Pharmacopoea Amstelredamensis in 1636. This was a combined effort to improve public health after an outbreak of the bubonic plague , and also to limit the number of quack apothecary shops in Amsterdam. Until 1617, such drugs and medicines as were in common use were sold in England by the apothecaries and grocers. In that year the apothecaries obtained
6336-567: The judicial sector and civil society organizations that monitor government performance. Democracy assistance received its greatest impetus at the time of the creation of the successor states to the USSR starting in about 1990, corresponding both to USAID's objective of supporting U.S. bilateral interests and to USAID's socioeconomic development objective. Examples of projects often assisted by Economic Growth offices are projects for improvements in agricultural techniques and marketing (the mission may have
6432-430: The kind of preparations required for the method of their manufacture. The necessity for this element in the construction of a pharmacopoeia is now fully recognized in other countries, in most of which pharmaceutical chemists are represented on the committee for the preparation of the legally recognized manuals. There are national and international pharmacopoeias, like the EU and the U.S. pharmacopoeias. The pharmacopeia in
6528-617: The latter, several of the compounds described in the large edition were omitted and the formulae given on a smaller scale. Also Vesalius claimed he had written some " dispensariums " and " manuals " on the works of Galenus . Apparently he burnt them. According to recent research communicated at the congresses of the International Society for the History of Medicine by the scholar Francisco Javier González Echeverría, Michel De Villeneuve ( Michael Servetus ) also published
6624-414: The matter. This is notwithstanding the fact that, although the medical practitioner is naturally the best judge of the drug or preparations that will afford the best therapeutic result, they are not as competent as the pharmacist to say how that preparation can be produced in the most effective and satisfactory manner, nor how the purity of drugs can be tested. The change occurred with the fourth edition of
6720-603: The mission director's and the Program office; and (3) the contracting, financial management, and facilities offices. Called "technical" offices by USAID staff, these offices design and manage the technical and financial assistance that USAID provides to their local counterparts' projects. The technical offices that are frequently found in USAID missions include Health and Family Planning, Education, Environment, Democracy, and Economic Growth. Examples of projects assisted by missions' Health and Family Planning offices are projects for
6816-499: The modern pharmaceutical industry emerged, USP standards changed from those "recipes" to a set of quality specifications for medicines along with analytical tests to be performed to assess their purity, quality, and authenticity. USP establishes documentary (written) and reference (physical) standards for medicines, food ingredients, dietary supplement products, and ingredients. These standards are used by regulatory agencies and manufacturers to help to ensure that these products are of
6912-549: The obsolete typography pharmacopœia , meaning "drug-making"), in its modern technical sense, is a book containing directions for the identification of compound medicines , and published by the authority of a government or a medical or pharmaceutical society. Descriptions of preparations are called monographs . In a broader sense it is a reference work for pharmaceutical drug specifications . The term derives from Ancient Greek : φαρμακοποιία , romanized : pharmakopoiia "making of (healing) medicine, drug-making",
7008-632: The one country and dispensed according to the national pharmacopoeia in another. As a result, the Medical Act of 1858 ordained that the General Medical Council should publish a book containing a list of medicines and compounds, to be called the British Pharmacopoeia , which would be a substitute throughout Great Britain and Ireland for the separate pharmacopoeias. Hitherto these had been published in Latin. The first British Pharmacopoeia
7104-586: The passage of the Foreign Affairs Agencies Consolidation Act in 1998 and the bombings of U.S. Embassy chanceries in east Africa in the same year, missions have gradually been moved into U.S. Embassy chancery compounds. The country programs are supported by USAID's headquarters in Washington, D.C., "USAID/Washington", where about half of USAID's Foreign Service officers work on rotation from foreign assignments, alongside USAID's Civil Service staff and top leadership. USAID
7200-585: The patentee for infringement of patent rights. Hence the only solution is for the physician to use the chemical name (which cannot be patented) as given in the Pharmacopoeia, or, for those synthetic remedies not included in the Pharmacopoeia, the scientific and chemical name given in the British Pharmaceutical Codex . In most of the Neo-Latin names, Pharmacopoea is the more common spelling, although for several of them, Pharmacopoeia
7296-408: The physician prefers when writing a prescription to use the shorter name under which it is sold by the patentees . In this case the pharmacist is compelled to use the more expensive patented article, which may lead to complaints from the patient. If the physician were to use the same article under its pharmacopoeial name when the patented article is prescribed, they would become open to prosecution by
7392-507: The private sector to align business goals with development objectives. Through HEARTH, USAID implements One Health principles to achieve sustainable benefits for both people and the environment through projects focused on livelihoods, well-being, conservation, biodiversity, and governance. Examples of projects assisted by Democracy offices are projects for the country's political institutions, including elections, political parties, legislatures, and human rights organizations. Counterparts include
7488-477: The publication of such non-official formularies as Squire's Companion to the Pharmacopoeia and Martindale: The complete drug reference (formerly Martindale's: the extra pharmacopoeia ), in which all new remedies and their preparations, uses and doses are recorded, and in the former the varying strengths of the same preparations in the different pharmacopoeias are also compared (Squire's was incorporated into Martindale in 1952). The need of such works to supplement
7584-413: The purity of many unofficial drugs and preparations are given as well as the character of many glandular preparations and antitoxins that have come into use in medicine, but have not yet been introduced into the Pharmacopoeia. This work may also possibly serve as a standard under the Adulteration of Food and Drugs Act for the purity and strength of drugs not included in the Pharmacopoeia and as a standard for
7680-574: The quality of medicines that reach patients. PQM has four key objectives: USP-USAID collaborative efforts have helped communities improve drug quality in more than 35 countries. PQM currently works in Africa, Asia, Europe/Eurasia, and the Caribbean/Latin America. USP works internationally, largely through agreements with other pharmacopeias, as well as regulatory bodies, manufacturer associations, and others. In recent years, USP signed
7776-534: The remedies previously in use were omitted, although a good number were still retained, such as dogs' excrement, earthworms, and moss from the human skull; the botanical names of herbal remedies were for the first time added to the official ones; the simple distilled waters were ordered of a uniform strength; sweetened spirits, cordials and ratafias were omitted as well as several compounds no longer used in London, although still in vogue elsewhere. A great improvement
7872-413: The risks associated with global climate change . U.S. environmental regulation laws require that programs sponsored by USAID should be both economically and environmentally sustainable . To support U.S. geopolitical interests, Congress appropriates exceptional financial assistance to allies, largely in the form of "Economic Support Funds" (ESF). USAID is called on to administer the bulk (90%) of ESF and
7968-752: The spelling pharmacopœia ; in modern UK English , œ is written as oe , giving the spelling pharmacopoeia , while in American English oe becomes e , giving us pharmacopeia . Although older writings exist which deal with herbal medicine , the major initial work in the field is considered to be the Edwin Smith Papyrus in Egypt , Pliny 's pharmacopoeia. A number of early pharmacopoeia books were written by Persian and Arab physicians . These included The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna in 1025 AD, and works by Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) in
8064-672: The strengthening of developing countries' own universities. Local universities' programs in developmentally important sectors are assisted directly and through USAID support for forming partnerships with U.S. universities. The various forms of technical assistance are frequently coordinated as capacity-building packages for the development of local institutions. Financial assistance supplies cash to developing country organizations to supplement their budgets. USAID also provides financial assistance to local and international NGOs who in turn give technical assistance in developing countries. Although USAID formerly provided loans, all financial assistance
8160-520: The table of contents, and 25 volumes of pictures with one volume dedicated to the table of contents. A third part consisting of seven volumes contained illustrated descriptions. The text contains descriptions of 850 medicines with 114 new ones. The work was used throughout China for the next 400 years. A dated work appeared in Nuremberg in 1542; a passing student Valerius Cordus showed a collection of medical prescriptions, which he had selected from
8256-682: The technical resources of the private sector, other U.S. government agencies, universities, and NGOs to participate in this assistance. Programs of the various types above frequently reinforce one another. For example, the Foreign Assistance Act requires USAID to use funds appropriated for geopolitical purposes ("Economic Support Funds") to support socioeconomic development to the maximum extent possible. USAID delivers both technical assistance and financial assistance. Technical assistance includes technical advice, training, scholarships, construction, and commodities. Technical assistance
8352-461: The tendency to simplify was carried out to a much greater extent, and the extremely compound medicines which had formed the principal remedies of physicians for 2,000 years were discarded, while a few powerful drugs which had been considered too dangerous to be included in the Pharmacopoeia of 1765 were restored to their previous position. In 1809 the French chemical nomenclature was adopted, and in 1815
8448-699: The treatises on simples (basic medicinal ingredients) by Avicenna and Serapion ; the De synonymis and Quid pro quo of Simon Januensis ; the Liber servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim , which described preparations made from plants, animals, and minerals, and was the type of the chemical portion of modern pharmacopoeias; and the Antidotarium of Nicolaus de Salerno , containing Galenic formulations arranged alphabetically. Of this last work, there were two editions in use — Nicolaus magnus and Nicolaus parvus: in
8544-429: The world in absolute dollar terms. Congress passed the Foreign Assistance Act on September 4, 1961, which reorganized U.S. foreign assistance programs and mandated the creation of an agency to administer economic aid. USAID was subsequently established by the executive order of President John F. Kennedy , who sought to unite several existing foreign assistance organizations and programs under one agency. USAID became
8640-537: The world. USAID's staffing reported to Congress in June 2016 totaled 10,235, including both field missions "overseas" (7,176) and the Washington DC headquarters (3,059). Of this total, 1,850 were USAID Foreign service officers who spend their careers mostly residing overseas (1,586 overseas in June 2016) and partly on rotation in Washington DC (264). The Foreign service officers stationed overseas worked alongside
8736-568: The writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the physicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries , and obtained the sanction of the senatus for his work. A work known as the Antidotarium Florentinum , was published under the authority of the college of medicine of Florence in the 16th century. In 1511, the Concordie Apothecariorum Barchinone
8832-528: Was complementary to a previous Materia Medica that De Villeneuve published that same year. This finding was communicated by the same scholar in the International Society for the History of Medicine , with agreement of John M. Riddle , one of the foremost experts on Materia Medica - Dioscorides works. Nicolaes Tulp , mayor of Amsterdam and respected surgeon general, gathered all of his doctor and chemist friends together and they wrote
8928-407: Was effected in the edition published in 1746, in which only those preparations were retained which had received the approval of the majority of the pharmacopoeia committee; to these was added a list of those drugs only which were supposed to be the most efficacious. An attempt was made to simplify further the older formulae by the rejection of superfluous ingredients. In the edition published in 1788
9024-579: Was published by the Society of Apothecaries of Barcelona and kept in the School of Pharmacy of the University of Barcelona . The term Pharmacopoeia first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel , Switzerland, in 1561 by A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into general use until the beginning of the 17th century. Before 1542, the works principally used by apothecaries were
9120-551: Was published in the English language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition in 1867. This dissatisfaction was probably owing partly to the fact that the majority of the compilers of the work were not engaged in the practice of pharmacy, and therefore not competent to decide upon
9216-550: Was published in the following December. At this period the compounds employed in medicine were often heterogeneous mixtures, some of which contained from 20 to 70, or more, ingredients, while a large number of simples were used in consequence of the same substance being supposed to possess different qualities according to the source from which it was derived. Thus crabs' eyes (i.e., gastroliths ), pearls, oyster shells, and coral were supposed to have different properties. Among other ingredients entering into some of these formulae were
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