Sino-Japanese vocabulary , also known as kango ( Japanese : 漢語 , pronounced [kaŋɡo] , " Han words") , is a subset of Japanese vocabulary that originated in Chinese or was created from elements borrowed from Chinese. Some grammatical structures and sentence patterns can also be identified as Sino-Japanese.
126-517: Noh ( 能 , Nō , derived from the Sino-Japanese word for "skill" or "talent") is a major form of classical Japanese dance- drama that has been performed since the 14th century. It is the oldest major theater art that is still regularly performed today. Noh is often based on tales from traditional literature featuring a supernatural being transformed into a human hero who narrates the story. Noh integrates masks, costumes and various props in
252-467: A nohkan flutist. The chant is not always performed "in character"; that is, sometimes the actor will speak lines or describe events from the perspective of another character or even a disinterested narrator. Far from breaking the rhythm of the performance, this is actually in keeping with the otherworldly feel of many Noh plays, especially in those characterized as mugen . Of the roughly 2000 plays created for Noh that are known today, about 240 make up
378-589: A Tō-on reading for each kanji as many do for Go-on and Kan-on readings. Go-on and Kan-on readings have a special status when compared with other on'yomi types. Arising initially out of the need to be able to read any Chinese text aloud using ondoku , there is a long-standing practice of providing a Go and Kan reading for every kanji, even those which have never actually been used in borrowed Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The readings which are not actually encountered in Sino-Japanese loanwords were largely codified in
504-591: A chorus and a hayashi ensemble ( Noh-bayashi 能囃子). Noh is a chanted drama, and a few commentators have dubbed it "Japanese opera ". However, the singing in Noh involves a limited tonal range, with lengthy, repetitive passages in a narrow dynamic range. Texts are poetic, relying heavily on the Japanese seven-five rhythm common to nearly all forms of Japanese poetry , with an economy of expression, and an abundance of allusion. The singing parts of Noh are called " Utai " and
630-449: A combination of hakama and a waist-coat with exaggerated shoulders. Finally, the stage attendants are garbed in virtually unadorned black garments, much in the same way as stagehands in contemporary Western theatre. The use of props in Noh is minimalistic and stylized. The most commonly used prop in Noh is the fan , as it is carried by all performers regardless of role. Chorus singers and musicians may carry their fan in hand when entering
756-493: A dance-based performance, requiring highly trained actors and musicians. Emotions are primarily conveyed by stylized conventional gestures while the iconic masks represent specific roles such as ghosts, women, deities, and demons. Having a strong emphasis on tradition rather than innovation, Noh is highly codified and regulated by the iemoto system. Although the terms Noh and nōgaku are sometimes used interchangeably, nōgaku encompasses both Noh and kyōgen . Traditionally,
882-426: A different regular outcome for the Japanese on'yomi . For the purposes of determining the Japanese on'yomi , the following sets of consonants can be distinguished: Developments after the Japanese consonants /r/ (from MC /l/) and /n/ (from MC /n, ɳ, ɲ/) are noted where relevant. The MC onset /y/ (like all palatal onsets) appears only with MC rimes beginning in /j/, and generally patterns in on'yomi with MC /ʔ/ before
1008-684: A few examples: Notably, the names of the military ranks used throughout the Sinosphere were neither coined anew nor repurposed from Classical Chinese, but were based on the ranks under the Ritsuryō government. Certain military agencies, such as the Konoefu ( 近衛府 ) , the Hyōefu ( 兵衛府 ) and the Emonfu ( 衛門府 ) , were headed by officials titled with shō ( 将 ) , sa ( 佐 ) and i ( 尉 ) (see
1134-399: A full nōgaku program included several Noh plays with comedic kyōgen plays in between; an abbreviated program of two Noh plays with one kyōgen piece has become common today. The kanji for Noh ( 能 ) means "skill", "craft", or "talent", particularly in the field of performing arts in this context. The word Noh may be used alone or with gaku ( 楽 ; entertainment, music) to form
1260-428: A guarantee that the word is native to Japanese. There are a few Japanese words that, although they appear to have originated in borrowings from Chinese, have such a long history in the Japanese language that they are regarded as native and are thus treated as kun'yomi, e.g., 馬 uma "horse" and 梅 ume . These words are not regarded as belonging to the Sino-Japanese vocabulary. While much Sino-Japanese vocabulary
1386-574: A hidden treasure by the oldest school, the Konparu. According to the current head of the Konparu school, the mask was carved by the legendary regent Prince Shōtoku (572–622) over a thousand years ago. While the historical accuracy of the legend of Prince Shōtoku's mask may be contested, the legend itself is ancient as it is first recorded in Zeami's Style and the Flower written in the 14th century. Some of
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#17327720170071512-419: A labial glide were for the most part borrowed as diphthongs in Japanese. These later monophthongized as long vowels, such that these MC rimes mostly correspond to modern Japanese ō , yō , ū , or yū . MC coda /m/ was originally written in Japanese with the man'yōgana 无 , which came to stand for the nasal special mora /N/. The manyō'gana 无 developed into the hiragana ん used to represent /N/. It
1638-507: A similar role to stage crew in contemporary theatre. Like their Western counterparts, stage attendants for Noh traditionally dress in black, but unlike in Western theatre they may appear on stage during a scene, or may remain on stage during an entire performance, in both cases in plain view of the audience. The all-black costume of kuroko implies they are not part of the action on stage and are effectively invisible. Set pieces in Noh such as
1764-417: A voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, the epenthetic vowel does not appear, and the /t/ functions as the obstruent special mora /Q/, forming a geminate with the following obstruent. For example, 日 /niti/ 'day' appears as /niQ/ in the word 日記 /niQ.ki/ [nikki] 'diary'. MC coda /k/ was borrowed as Japanese /k/ with a following epenthetic /i/ (after /e/) or /u/ (after /a, o, u/). After /i/,
1890-454: A voiceless obstruent. A common irregularity for Kan'yō-on is an unexpected voicing value for an initial obstruent. For example, 斬 (MC tʂɛm ) is read in all Sino-Japanese words as /zaN/ rather than the expected Kan-on reading /saN/. Tō-on/Sō-on ( 唐音 "Tang sound" or 宋音 "Song sound") readings were introduced mostly from the 12th century onward, during and after the Song dynasty . "Tang"
2016-588: Is jo , the second, third, and fourth plays are ha , and the fifth play is kyū . In fact, the five categories discussed below were created so that the program would represent jo-ha-kyū when one play from each category is selected and performed in order. Each play can be broken into three parts, the introduction, the development, and the conclusion. A play starts out in a slow tempo at jo , gets slightly faster at ha , then culminates in kyū . There are four major categories of Noh performers: shite , waki , kyōgen , and hayashi . A typical Noh play always involves
2142-470: Is an uncommon term for 'softball', which itself is normally ソフトボール sofutobōru ). Finally, quite a few words appear to be Sino-Japanese but are varied in origin, written with ateji ( 当て字 ) — kanji assigned without regard for etymology. In many cases, the characters were chosen only to indicate pronunciation. For example, sewa ('care, concern') is written 世話 , using the on'yomi "se" + "wa" ('household/society' + 'talk'); although this word
2268-418: Is associated with the performers and their actions. The stage is made entirely of unfinished hinoki , Japanese cypress, with almost no decorative elements. The poet and novelist Tōson Shimazaki writes that "on the stage of the Noh theatre there are no sets that change with each piece. Neither is there a curtain. There is only a simple panel ( kagami-ita ) with a painting of a green pine tree. This creates
2394-438: Is considered to be the oldest tradition of Noh, was founded by Hata no Kawakatsu in the 6th century. However, the founder of the Konparu school, which is widely accepted among historians, was Bishaō Gon no Kami (Komparu Gonnokami) during Nanboku-chō period in the 14th century. According to the genealogical chart of the Konparu school, Bishaō Gon no Kami is a descendant after 53 generations of Hata no Kawakatsu. The Konparu school
2520-725: Is famous for its three-storied, gold-leaf covered reliquary known as "Kinkaku". So famous is this single structure, in fact, that the entire temple itself is often identified as the Kinkaku-ji , the Temple of the Golden Pavilion. A statue of Yoshimitsu is found there today. Yoshimitsu resolved the rift between the Northern and Southern Courts in 1392, when he persuaded Go-Kameyama of the Southern Court to hand over
2646-439: Is not Sino-Japanese but a native Japanese word believed to derive from sewashii , meaning 'busy' or 'troublesome'; the written form 世話 is simply an attempt to assign plausible-looking characters pronounced "se" and "wa". Other ateji of this type include 面倒 mendō ('face' + 'fall down' = 'bother, trouble') and 野暮 yabo ('fields' + 'livelihood' = 'uncouth'). (The first gloss after each character roughly translates
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#17327720170072772-412: Is overwhelmingly common in Sino-Japanese vocabulary. The MC coda /t/ was borrowed as Japanese /t/. Characters ending in this consonant were at first consistently pronounced with no epenthetic vowel, with the kana つ serving double duty to represent /t/ and /tu/. Note that these readings are identical to the readings for MC /n/-final rimes, but with つ/ち in place of ん. Later, an epenthetic vowel /u/ or /i/
2898-455: Is performed in between Noh plays in the same space. Compared to Noh, " kyōgen relies less on the use of masks and is derived from the humorous plays of the sangaku , as reflected in its comic dialogue." During the Edo period , the guild system gradually tightened, which largely excluded women from Noh, except for some women (such as courtesans ) performing songs in marginal situations. Later, in
3024-651: Is possible that 无 originally represented two distinct sounds, moraic /m/ and moraic /n/ (from MC coda /n/, see below), but they may have been pronounced identically in Sino-Japanese vocabulary from the start. Regardless, 无 would not have stood for /mu/ in these words (the Go-on reading), just as the precursors of hiragana つ represented /t/ and not /tu/ when adapting the MC coda /t/ (see below). Native /mu/ from this time ( man'yōgana 牟 or 武 , among others) remains /mu/, developing to /N/ only under very specific circumstances, while
3150-542: Is represented in these tables. Exceptional pronunciations are often found even for officially recognized Go and Kan readings. Furthermore, many kanji have Kan'yō-on readings, which by definition do not follow the regular correspondences, but appear in established Sino-Japanese words. The illusion of regularity is bolstered by the fact that lexicographers generally provide Go and Kan readings for characters based on their expected outcome, even when these readings are not actually employed in any Japanese word. Out of necessity, many of
3276-401: Is to stylize and codify the facial expressions through the use of the mask and to stimulate the imagination of the audience. By using masks, actors are able to convey emotions in a more controlled manner through movements and body language. Some masks utilize lighting effect to convey different emotions through slight tilting of the head. Facing slightly upward, or "brightening" the mask, will let
3402-775: Is very often possible to correctly guess the etymological origin of a word based solely on its shape. At first glance, the on'yomi of many Sino-Japanese words do not resemble the Modern Standard Chinese pronunciations at all. Firstly, the borrowings occurred in three main waves, with the resulting sounds identified as Go-on ( 呉音 ) , Kan-on ( 漢音 ) , and Tō-on ( 唐音 ) ; these were at different periods over several centuries, from different stages in Historical Chinese phonology , and thus source pronunciations differ substantially depending on time and place. Beyond this, there are two main reasons for
3528-436: The dakuten used to mark prenasalized obstruents. These glides then denasalized, and the resulting diphthongs later monophthongized as long vowels. As such, almost all characters with the MC coda /ŋ/ end in ō , yō , ē , ū , or yū in modern Japanese on'yomi . MC coda /p/ was borrowed as Japanese /pu/ (likely pronounced as [βu] after a vowel at the time of borrowing ). Note that these original readings are identical to
3654-436: The shōgun , the feudal lords ( daimyōs ), as well as wealthy and sophisticated commoners. While kabuki and joruri popular to the middle class focused on new and experimental entertainment, Noh strived to preserve its established high standards and historic authenticity and remained mostly unchanged throughout the era. To capture the essence of performances given by great masters, every detail in movements and positions
3780-415: The Edo period through the philological study of Chinese rime tables . These readings are given in many dictionaries, though for the less common kanji there is sometimes disagreement between sources. All characters used to write Middle Chinese represented a single syllable in the spoken language, made up of an "initial" (a single onset consonant), and a rime (the remainder of the syllable). Originally,
3906-690: The Imperial Regalia to Emperor Go-Komatsu of the Northern Court. Yoshimitsu's greatest political achievement was that he managed to bring about the end to constant fighting during the Nanboku-chō period. This event had the effect of firmly establishing the authority of the Muromachi shogunate and suppressing the power of the regional daimyōs who might challenge central authority. Concordant with increased communication between
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4032-527: The Meiji era also significantly broadened Noh's reach by catering to the general public, performing at theatres in major cities such as Tokyo and Osaka . In 1957 the Japanese Government designated nōgaku as an Important Intangible Cultural Property , which affords a degree of legal protection to the tradition as well as its most accomplished practitioners. The National Noh Theatre founded by
4158-549: The Meiji era , Noh performers taught wealthy people and nobles, and this led to more opportunities for female performers because women insisted on female teachers. In the early 1900s, after women were allowed to join Tokyo Music School , the rules forbidding women from joining various schools and associations in Noh were relaxed. In 1948, the first women joined the Nohgaku Performers' Association. In 2004,
4284-494: The masks of the Konparu school belong to the Tokyo National Museum , and are exhibited there frequently. The traditional Noh stage ( butai ) has complete openness that provides a shared experience between the performers and the audience throughout the performance. Without any proscenium or curtains to obstruct the view, the audience sees each actor even during the moments before they enter (and after they exit)
4410-592: The on'yomi for kanji attempted to closely match the Middle Chinese pronunciation for each character, while guided by the possible sounds and structures of Japanese as spoken at the time. In fact a number of new word shapes entered the language to accommodate the large influx of Chinese borrowings. Subsequently, many sound changes took place in Japanese, affecting both borrowed and native vocabulary. As such, on'yomi now often bear little resemblance to their original Middle Chinese source, and are even less similar to
4536-418: The shite in particular are extravagant, shimmering silk brocades, but are progressively less sumptuous for the tsure, the wakizure, and the aikyōgen . For centuries, in accordance with the vision of Zeami, Noh costumes emulated the clothing that the characters would genuinely wear, such as the formal robes for a courtier and the street clothing for a peasant or commoner. But in the late sixteenth century,
4662-477: The 17-year-old Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , Zeami was a child actor in his play, around age 12. Yoshimitsu fell in love with Zeami and his position of favor at court caused Noh to be performed frequently for Yoshimitsu thereafter. Konparu Zenchiku , who was the great-grandson of Bishaō Gon no Kami, the founder of the Konparu school, and the husband of Zeami's daughter, incorporated elements of waka (poetry) into Zeami's Noh and further developed it. By this period, among
4788-532: The Chinese sovereign pronounced Yoshimitsu "King of Japan" ( Nihon kokuō 日本国王 ). In 1407, he set into motion a plan to become "Daijō tenno" ( 太上天皇 ), a title customarily applied to a retired emperor. Although unrealized due to his sudden death the following year, this last venture was particularly audacious because Yoshimitsu never actually sat on the Japanese throne. Late in his career, it appears Yoshimitsu sought to legitimize his transcendent authority through
4914-486: The Go reading yaku , while 央 (MC ʔjaŋ ) has the jōyō Go reading ō , with yō listed as an alternate (but unused) Go reading. The tables below show the regular correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi (Go and Kan readings). The rimes are given in the transcription systems of Bernhard Karlgren , Li Rong , and William Baxter (see Middle Chinese finals for more transcription systems). Examples are given using
5040-533: The Imperial Court in the 12th century), gagaku (music and dance performed in the Imperial Court beginning in the 7th century), and kagura (ancient Shinto dances in folk tales) evolved into Noh and kyōgen . Studies on the genealogy of the Noh actors in 14th century indicate they were members of families specializing in the performing arts. According to legend, the Konparu School, which
5166-664: The Japanese article, 四等官 ), which later corresponded to "general officer", "senior officer" and "junior officer" in the Imperial Japanese Armed Forces and adopted by other militaries in China, Korea and Vietnam. See the articles for these ranks for more ( Ranks of the Imperial Japanese Army , Comparative military ranks of Korea , Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Ground Force , Ranks of
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5292-515: The Korean peninsula, and it is unclear to what extent this fact influenced the Go-on pronunciations. Certain genres of modern vocabulary largely use Go-on readings, especially words related to Buddhism and law. Kan-on ( 漢音 "Han sound") readings were introduced in the 7th through 9th centuries during the Tang dynasty , and are based on the central Chang'an pronunciation of Middle Chinese. While there
5418-562: The MC coda /p/ have Go and Kan readings ending in ō , yō or yū in modern Japanese. Originally, borrowed coda /p/ functioned just like coda /t, k/ (see below) in that the "epenthetic" vowel /u/ did not appear before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, resulting in readings with the obstruent special mora /Q/ in place of /pu/. This phenomenon can still be seen in a number of Japanese words, for example 十 /zipu/ > /zyū/ 'ten' vs. 十歳 /ziQ.sai/ [dʑissai] 'ten years old' (now usually /zyuQ.sai/ [dʑɯssai]). For 拉 (MC lop ),
5544-410: The MC reconstructions from Karlgren's Grammata Serica Recensa (GSR), with the rimes transcribed using Baxter's system (see Character List for Karlgren's GSR ). Japanese on'yomi are given in a phonemic transcription (see Japanese phonology ). Different MC rimes were restricted to following only certain MC initial consonants. Furthermore, the identity of the initial consonant sometimes results in
5670-532: The MC vowels is debated, and the set of vowels possible before different coda consonants varies considerably. When borrowed into Japanese, the more complicated MC vowel system was adapted to fit the Japanese five vowel system with /i, e, a, o, u/. MC rimes could begin with a glide /w/, /j/, or both /jw/. The earliest Japanese on'yomi allow the following sequences containing glides: All of the /Cy/ and /Cw(y)/ sequences were newly introduced by borrowing from Chinese, though some would later arise in native vocabulary. By
5796-692: The Muromachi Shogunate and the Ming dynasty in what is now China, during this period Japan received a significant influx of Ming influence to its economic system, architecture, philosophy and religion, and writing. The embassies of Japan and China encountered communications between 1373–1406. During this time, Yohimitsu accepted the title "King of Japan" from the Ming Dynasty, even though the official sovereign of Japan still resided in Kyōto. Yoshimitsu
5922-458: The People's Liberation Army Navy , Ranks of the People's Liberation Army Air Force , Republic of China Armed Forces rank insignia , Vietnamese military ranks and insignia ). Despite resistance from some contemporary Chinese intellectuals, many wasei kango were "back-borrowed" into Chinese around the turn of the 20th century. Such words from that time are thoroughly assimilated into the Chinese lexicon, but translations of foreign concepts between
6048-411: The Sinosphere had no exact analogue of on account of partitioning the semantic fields in question differently, such as 科学 kagaku ('science'), 社会 shakai ('society'), and 哲学 tetsugaku ('philosophy'). While many terms were coined afresh (such as 科学 and 哲学 ), many were repurposed classical Chinese compounds, whose meanings were tenuously similar to their western counterparts. Here are
6174-551: The above five, Okina (翁) (or Kamiuta ) is frequently performed at the very beginning of the program, especially at New Year, holidays, and other special occasions. Combining dance with Shinto ritual, it is considered the oldest type of Noh play. Sino-Japanese vocabulary Kango is one of three broad categories into which the Japanese vocabulary is divided. The others are native Japanese vocabulary ( yamato kotoba ) and borrowings from other, mainly Western languages ( gairaigo ). It has been estimated that about 60% of
6300-425: The advent of the "historical kana" spellings (13th century, lasting until 1946 ), the "ancient" kana sequences with /CwyV/ had long before lost their /w/, those with /Cwi/ had become /Cui, ki, gi/, and /ye/ merged with /e/. Later, /w/ was lost everywhere except in the sequence /wa/ with no preceding consonant. The presence of these glides in on'yomi is in some cases not easily predictable, for example 約 (MC ʔjak ) has
6426-417: The basic rhythms within each Noh performance. Jo means beginning, ha means breaking, and kyū means rapid or urgent. The term originated in gagaku , ancient courtly music, to indicate gradually increasing tempo and was adopted in various Japanese traditions including Noh, tea ceremony, poetry, and flower arrangement. Jo-ha-kyū is incorporated in the traditional five-play program of Noh. The first play
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#17327720170076552-602: The best-known example is the prolific numbers of kango coined during the Meiji era on the model of Classical Chinese to translate modern concepts imported from the West; when coined to translate a foreign term (rather than simply a new Japanese term), they are known as yakugo ( 訳語 , translated word, equivalent) . Often they use corresponding morphemes to the original term, and thus qualify as calques . These terms include words for new technology, like 電話 denwa ('telephone'), and words for Western cultural categories which
6678-399: The boats, wells, altars, and bells, are typically carried onto the stage before the beginning of the act in which they are needed. These props normally are only outlines to suggest actual objects, although the great bell, a perennial exception to most Noh rules for props, is designed to conceal the actor and to allow a costume change during the kyōgen interlude. Noh theatre is accompanied by
6804-413: The borrowed moraic /m/ always develops to /N/. MC coda /n/ was adapted in Japanese as the nasal special mora /N/. MC coda /ŋ/ was borrowed as a single Japanese phoneme which was realized as two nasalized offglides: [ĩ] after /e/, and [ũ] after /u, o, a/. The nasality of these glides was generally not represented in writing, but in some cases was indicated with the same diacritic mark that would become
6930-408: The central "stage" ( honbutai , "main stage"). The theatre itself is considered symbolic and treated with reverence both by the performers and the audience. One of the most recognizable characteristic of Noh stage is its independent roof that hangs over the stage even in indoor theatres. Supported by four columns, the roof symbolizes the sanctity of the stage, with its architectural design derived from
7056-543: The central Buddhist, Shinto , and minimalist aspects of Noh's aesthetic principles. Noh masks (能面 nō-men or 面 omote ) are carved from blocks of Japanese cypress (檜 " hinoki "), and painted with natural pigments on a neutral base of glue and crushed seashell. There are approximately 450 different masks mostly based on sixty types, all of which have distinctive names. Some masks are representative and frequently used in many different plays, while some are very specific and may only be used in one or two plays. Noh masks signify
7182-436: The changes from the earlier Go to the later Kan pronunciations. These borrowings were drawn both from different times and different regions of China, and furthermore the Go pronunciations were likely intermediated through Korean Buddhist monks. However, there is little to support the claim that Go-on pronunciations were at the time of their introduction "less accurate" than their later Kan-on counterparts. The discrepancies between
7308-402: The character 腺 ("gland") has the on'yomi sen (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component, 泉 sen "spring, fountain"), e.g. in 扁桃腺 hentōsen "tonsils"; it was intentionally created as a kango and does not have a kun'yomi at all. Although not originating in Chinese, both of these are regarded as 'Sino-Japanese'. By the same token, that a word is the kun'yomi of a kanji is not
7434-451: The characters' gender, age, and social ranking, and by wearing masks the actors may portray youngsters, old men, female, or nonhuman ( divine or demonic ) characters. Only the shite , the main actor, wears a mask in most plays, although the tsure may also wear a mask in some plays. Even though the mask covers an actor's facial expressions, the use of the mask in Noh is not an abandonment of facial expressions altogether. Rather, its intent
7560-532: The chorus, the orchestra, and at least one shite and one waki actor. Actors begin their training as young children, traditionally at the age of three. Zeami identified nine levels or types of Noh acting. Lower levels emphasize movement. Higher levels are metaphorically compared with the opening of a flower and involve spiritual prowess. There are five extant schools training shite actors: Kanze (観世), Hōshō (宝生), Komparu (金春), Kongō (金剛), and Kita (喜多). Each school has its own iemoto family that carries
7686-520: The costumes became stylized with certain symbolic and stylistic conventions. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period, the elaborate robes given to actors by noblemen and samurai in the Muromachi period were developed as costumes. The musicians and chorus typically wear formal montsuki kimono (black and adorned with five family crests) accompanied by either hakama (a skirt-like garment) or kami-shimo ,
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#17327720170077812-552: The current repertoire performed by the five existing Noh schools. The current repertoire is heavily influenced by the taste of aristocratic class in Tokugawa period and does not necessarily reflect popularity among the commoners. There are several ways to classify Noh plays. All Noh plays can be classified into three broad categories. While Genzai Noh utilizes internal and external conflicts to drive storylines and bring out emotions, Mugen Noh focuses on utilizing flashbacks of
7938-637: The development of both long vowels and long consonants . (See Early Middle Japanese: Phonological developments for details.) Sino-Japanese words are almost exclusively nouns, of which many are verbal nouns or adjectival nouns, meaning that they can act as verbs or adjectives. Verbal nouns can be used as verbs by appending suru ( する , "do") (e.g. benkyō suru ( 勉強する , do studying; study) ), while an adjectival noun uses -na ( 〜な ) instead of -no ( 〜の ) (usual for nouns) when acting attributively. In Japanese, verbs and adjectives (that is, inflecting adjectives) are closed classes , and despite
8064-510: The distinction between on'yomi and kun'yomi does not correspond to etymological origin. Chinese characters created in Japan, called kokuji ( 国字 ) , normally only have kun'yomi, but some kokuji do have on'yomi. One such character is 働 (as in 働く hataraku , "to work"), which was given the on'yomi dō (from the on'yomi of its phonetic component , 動 ) when used in compounds with other characters, e.g. in 労働 rōdō ("labor"). Similarly,
8190-402: The divergence between Modern Standard Chinese and Modern Standard Japanese pronunciations of cognate terms: Nonetheless, the correspondences between the two are fairly regular. As a result, Sino-Japanese can be viewed as a (transformed) "snapshot" of an archaic period of the Chinese language, and as a result is very important for comparative linguists as it provides a large amount of evidence for
8316-409: The epenthetic vowel (/iki/ vs. /iku/) depends on the original Middle Chinese vowel. The readings for MC /k/-final rimes are very similar to the original readings for MC /ŋ/-final rimes with く/き in place of nasalized う/い, but in this case there are some differences. Just like with coda /t/, the epenthetic vowel is absent before a voiceless obstruent /h~p, t, s, k/ in the same word, and the /k/ functions as
8442-402: The examples shown below are of this type. Readings in the jōyō kanji list are highlighted in blue. These MC rimes have no consonant after the vowel. These MC rimes are analyzed as having a palatal glide after the vowel, though not all of the rimes end in a phonetic [j] in all MC transcription systems. These mostly end up as Japanese ai , e , ē , i , or ui . The MC rimes ending in
8568-488: The expected Kan reading /rapu > rō/ is not found in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but only /raQ/ as in 拉致 /raQ.ti/ [ɾattɕi] 'abduction' (shortened in most words to /ra/). However, for many characters, the vowel-final readings have been extended to all environments. In some cases, the reading with /Q/ led to the analogical creation of a /tu/-final reading. Notably, for 立 (MC lip ) the Kan'yō-on reading /ritu/ (from regular /riQ/)
8694-408: The fact that most MC syllables had a coda, most Japanese on'yomi are bimoraic, containing either two syllables, a long vowel, or the moraic nasal /N/. These last two structures are extremely common in Sino-Japanese roots, but somewhat rare in native Japanese vocabulary. For these and other reasons, the phonological patterns of Sino-Japanese words and native Japanese words are markedly different, and it
8820-421: The first person of the warrior (samurai) class to host a reigning emperor at his private residence. In 1392, he negotiated the end of the Nanboku-chō imperial schism that had plagued politics for over half a century. Two years later he became Grand Chancellor of State ( Daijō daijin 太政大臣 ), the highest-ranking member of the imperial court. Retiring from that and all public offices in 1395, Yoshimitsu took
8946-549: The first women joined the Association for Japanese Noh Plays. In 2007, the National Noh Theatre began to annually present regular programs by female performers. In 2009, there were about 1200 male and 200 female professional Noh performers. The concept of jo-ha-kyū dictates virtually every element of Noh including compiling of a program of plays, structuring of each play, songs and dances within plays, and
9072-660: The five major schools of Noh, four were established: the Kanze school , established by Kan'ami and Zeami; the Hōshō school established by Kan'ami's eldest brother; the Konparu school; and the Kongō school. All of these schools were descendants of the sarugaku troupe from Yamato Province. The Ashikaga Shogunate supported only the Kanze school among the four schools. During the Edo period , Noh continued to be an aristocratic art form supported by
9198-498: The formation of a new, modernized government resulted in the end of financial support by the state, and the entire field of Noh experienced major financial crisis. Shortly after the Meiji Restoration both the number of Noh performers and Noh stages greatly diminished. The support from the imperial government was eventually regained partly due to Noh's appeal to foreign diplomats. The companies that remained active throughout
9324-521: The given MC rime after the given onsets. When (~) appears, it indicates that an MC character exists which is expected to provide a relevant Japanese on'yomi , but it either has no identified reading, has on'yomi which are not clearly distinguished as Go vs. Kan, or has multiple MC pronunciations which make it impossible to determine which MC rime the on'yomi correspond to. While the correspondences between MC rimes and Japanese on'yomi are rather consistent, there exists considerably more irregularity than
9450-596: The government in 1983 stages regular performances and organizes courses to train actors in the leading roles of nōgaku . Noh was inscribed in 2008 on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO as Nōgaku theatre. Although the terms nōgaku and Noh are sometimes used interchangeably, the Japanese government's definition of " nōgaku " theatre encompasses both Noh plays and kyōgen plays. Kyōgen
9576-466: The idiom of Buddhist kingship, deploying ritual, symbols, and monumentalism to cast him as a universal monarch or dharma king, not unlike his counterparts in Southeast Asia. His posthumous name was Rokuon'in ( 鹿苑院 ). In 1368 Yoshimitsu was appointed shōgun ; at the same time Emperor Chōkei ascends the southern throne. In the following year, the Southern Court samurai Kusunoki Masanori who
9702-416: The impression that anything that could provide any shading has been banished. To break such monotony and make something happen is no easy thing." Another unique feature of the stage is the hashigakari , a narrow bridge at upstage right used by actors to enter the stage. Hashigakari means "suspension bridge", signifying something aerial that connects two separate worlds on a same level. The bridge symbolizes
9828-410: The increasing power of the samurai class and strengthened the relationship between the shogunate and the court. As Noh became the shōgun ' s favorite art form, Noh was able to become a courtly art form through this newly formed relationship. In 14th century, with strong support and patronage from shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu , Zeami was able to establish Noh as the most prominent theatre art form of
9954-436: The kanji; the second is the meaning of the word in Japanese.) On'yomi were originally used in ondoku ( 音読 "sound reading"), the Japanese system for reading aloud texts in the Middle Chinese (MC) language. A huge number of loanwords entered the Japanese language from Middle Chinese, intermediated by these conventionalized pronunciations. There are different types of on'yomi for Sino-Japanese vocabulary, depending mainly on
10080-406: The language of science, learning, religion and government. The earliest written language to be used in Japan was literary Chinese , which has come to be called kanbun in this context. The kanbun writing system essentially required every literate Japanese to be competent in written Chinese, although it is unlikely that many Japanese people were then fluent in spoken Chinese. Chinese pronunciation
10206-425: The large number of borrowings from Chinese, virtually none of these became inflecting verbs or adjectives, instead being conjugated periphrastically as above. In addition to the basic verbal noun + suru form, verbal nouns with a single-character root often experienced sound changes, such as -suru ( 〜する ) → -zuru ( 〜ずる ) → -jiru ( 〜じる ) , as in kinjiru ( 禁じる , forbid) , and some cases where
10332-399: The mask to capture more light, revealing more features that appear laughing or smiling. Facing downward, or "clouding" it, will cause the mask to appear sad or mad. Noh masks are treasured by Noh families and institutions, and the powerful Noh schools hold the oldest and most valuable Noh masks in their private collections, rarely seen by the public. The most ancient mask is supposedly kept as
10458-516: The modern Greek language , which took back words like τηλεγράφημα telegrafíma ('telegram') that were coined in English from Greek roots. Many of these words have also been borrowed into Korean and Vietnamese , forming (a modern Japanese) part of their Sino-Korean and Sino-Vietnamese vocabularies. Alongside these translated terms, the foreign word may be directly borrowed as gairaigo. The resulting synonyms have varying use, usually with one or
10584-560: The mythic nature of Noh plays in which otherworldly ghosts and spirits frequently appear. In contrast, hanamichi in Kabuki theatres is literally a path ( michi ) that connects two spaces in a single world, thus has a completely different significance. Noh actors wear silk costumes called shozoku (robes) along with wigs, hats, and props such as the fan. With striking colors, elaborate texture, and intricate weave and embroidery, Noh robes are truly works of art in their own right. Costumes for
10710-518: The name of the school and is considered the most important. The iemoto holds the power to create new plays or modify lyrics and performance modes. Waki actors are trained in the schools Takayasu (高安), Fukuou (福王), and Hōshō (宝生). Two schools train kyōgen actors: Ōkura (大蔵) and Izumi (和泉). Eleven schools train instrumentalists, each school specializing in one to three instruments. The Nohgaku Performers' Association ( Nōgaku Kyōkai ), with which all professionals are registered, strictly protects
10836-545: The native languages of their respective nations. Such words invented in Japanese, often with novel meanings, are called wasei-kango . Many of them were created during the Meiji Restoration to translate non-Asian concepts and have been reborrowed into Chinese. Kango is also to be distinguished from gairaigo of Chinese origin, namely words borrowed from modern Chinese dialects, some of which may be occasionally spelled with Chinese characters or kanji just like kango . For example, 北京 ( Pekin , " Beijing ") which
10962-425: The number of kanji with each possible jōyō on'yomi (not distinguishing between Go, Kan, Tō, and Kan'yō, and not including readings considered restricted or rare). A zero represents a reading which is attested in Sino-Japanese vocabulary, but uses a non- jōyō reading. Readings which are listed in dictionaries but which are merely hypothesized and do not appear in attested Japanese words are not considered. Due to
11088-530: The obstruent special mora /Q/. For example, 学 /gaku/ 'study' appears as /gaQ/ in the word 学校 /gaQ.kō/ [gakkō] 'school'. All MC roots were a single syllable, and due to the restrictions on possible MC syllable shapes, a limited set of readings ( on'yomi ) are possible for borrowed Sino-Japanese roots. Furthermore, due in large part to the many distinct MC sounds which were merged when borrowed into Japanese, some readings are extremely common across different kanji, while others are very rare. The below table gives
11214-423: The other being more common. For example, 野球 yakyū and ベースボール bēsubōru both translate as 'baseball', where the yakugo 野球 is more common. By contrast, 庭球 teikyū and テニス tenisu both translate as 'tennis', where the gairaigo テニス is more common. Note that neither of these is a calque – they translate literally as 'field ball' and 'garden ball'. ('Base' is 塁 rui , but 塁球 ruikyū
11340-407: The past and the deceased to invoke emotions. Additionally, all Noh plays may be categorized by their style. All Noh plays are divided by their themes into the following five categories. This classification is considered the most practical, and is still used in formal programming choices today. Traditionally, a formal 5-play program is composed of a selection from each of the groups. In addition to
11466-634: The preeminent position that Greek and Latin had in European history. For example, the Middle Chinese word for gunpowder, Chinese : 火藥 ( IPA: [xwa˧˥jak] ), is rendered as hwayak in Korean, and as kayaku in Japanese. At the time of their first contact, the existing Japanese language had no writing system, while the Chinese had a written language and a great deal of academic and scientific information, providing new concepts along with Chinese words to express them. Chinese became
11592-454: The pronunciation of the same characters in modern Chinese languages, which have undergone many changes from Middle Chinese. For example, 兄 (MC xjwæŋ ) had the Go-on pronunciation [kwjaũ] when it was first borrowed, which subsequently developed to [kjaũ], then [kjau], then [kjɔː], and finally modern Japanese /kyō/ [kjoː]. The Early Middle Chinese (EMC) initials have the following regular correspondences in Go and Kan on'yomi . Aspiration
11718-464: The readings for MC /m/-final rimes, but with ふ in place of ん. The phoneme /p/ eventually lenited to /h/ word-initially, but was lost between vowels (except Vpa > Vwa). The result was that all /pu/-final readings developed /Vu/ sequences, which later monophthongized. This same change is seen in native vocabulary, as in OJ ke 1 pu > ModJ kyō 'today'. As a result of this development, all characters with
11844-468: The reconstruction of Middle Chinese. The following is a rough guide to equivalencies between modern Chinese words and modern Sino-Japanese on'yomi readings. Ashikaga Yoshimitsu Among others... Ashikaga Yoshimitsu ( 足利 義満 , September 25, 1358 – May 31, 1408) was the third shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate , ruling from 1368 to 1394 during the Muromachi period of Japan . Yoshimitsu
11970-422: The regular patterns for adapting either Go-on or Kan-on readings, but are commonly encountered in existing Sino-Japanese words. In some cases, the Kan'yō-on reading is in fact a regular development of the original Go or Kan on'yomi in a particular environment. For example, 拉 (MC lop ) has the Kan'yō-on reading /raQ/ (or /ra/) in all Sino-Japanese words, which is the regular development of earlier /rap(u)/ before
12096-450: The same character, though in practice those with /tu/ are much more common. For example, 滅 has the Go readings /meti/ and /metu/, but only /metu/ is recognized as the jōyō reading, and this is the only Go reading found in existing Japanese words. In fact only nine characters have jōyō readings with /(C)Vti/, though these include the common characters 一 /iti/ 'one', 七 /siti/ 'seven', 八 /hati/ 'eight', and 日 /niti/ 'day'. Before
12222-404: The same combinations of characters are often meaningless or have a different meaning. Even a humble expression like gohan ( ご飯 or 御飯 'cooked rice') is a pseudo- kango and not found in Chinese. One interesting example that gives itself away as a Japanese coinage is kaisatsu-guchi ( 改札口 literally 'check ticket gate'), meaning the ticket barrier at a railway station. More recently,
12348-437: The same rimes, but sometimes there is a distinction, where /y/ patterns with S. Where one of these five categories (P, T, S, K, Ø) appears in parentheses in the tables below, it refers to the adaptation of the MC rime after these different sets of consonants. Five columns in each table mark whether the given MC rime is found after each of these onset categories. A bullet (•) indicates that Go and Kan on'yomi exist corresponding to
12474-421: The speaking parts " Kataru ". The music has many blank spaces ( ma ) in between the actual sounds, and these negative blank spaces are in fact considered the heart of the music. In addition to utai , Noh hayashi ensemble consists of four musicians, also known as the "hayashi-kata", including three drummers, which play the shime-daiko , ōtsuzumi (hip drum), and kotsuzumi (shoulder drum) respectively, and
12600-427: The special moras /N/ and /Q/, and as such all /h/-initial on'yomi have regular variants with /p/ in this environment, for example Kan-on 筆 /hitu/ 'brush' vs. 鉛筆 /eN.pitu/ 'pencil'. Middle Chinese rimes or "finals" contained a vowel, optional glides before the vowel (sometimes called "medials"), and an optional coda consonant /j, w, m, n, ŋ, p, t, k/— schematically (j)(w)V(C). The precise phonetic realization of
12726-523: The stage, or carry it tucked into the obi (the sash). The fan is usually placed at the performer's side when he or she takes position, and is often not taken up again until leaving the stage. During dance sequences, the fan is typically used to represent any and all hand-held props, such as a sword, wine jug, flute, or writing brush. The fan may represent various objects over the course of a single play. When hand props other than fans are used, they are usually introduced or retrieved by kuroko who fulfill
12852-541: The stem underwent a sound change, as in tassuru ( 達する , reach) , from tatsu ( 達 ) . The term kango is usually identified with on'yomi ( 音読み , "sound reading") , a system of pronouncing Chinese characters in a way that at one point approximated the original Chinese. On'yomi is also known as the 'Sino-Japanese reading', and is opposed to kun'yomi ( 訓読み , "reading by meaning") under which Chinese characters are assigned to, and read as, native Japanese vocabulary. However, there are cases where
12978-520: The term sangaku referred to various types of performance featuring acrobats, song and dance as well as comic sketches. Its subsequent adaptation to Japanese society led to its assimilation of other traditional art forms." Various performing art elements in sangaku as well as elements of dengaku (rural celebrations performed in connection with rice planting), sarugaku (popular entertainment including acrobatics, juggling, and pantomime), shirabyōshi (traditional dances performed by female dancers in
13104-400: The time period of borrowing. Go-on ( 呉音 "Wu sound") readings represent the first major wave of Chinese borrowing in the 5th and 6th centuries, coinciding with the introduction of Buddhism in Japan . It is not agreed whether Go-on pronunciations are clearly derived from a particular dialect of Middle Chinese. Buddhist teachings along with the Chinese language were largely imported through
13230-464: The time. In the 14th century, during the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573), Kan'ami Kiyotsugu and his son Zeami Motokiyo reinterpreted various traditional performing arts and completed Noh in a significantly different form from the traditional one, essentially bringing Noh to the present form. Kan'ami was a renowned actor with great versatility playing roles from graceful women and 12-year-old boys to strong men. When Kan'ami first presented his work to
13356-486: The tonsure and moved into his Kitayama-dono ( 北山殿 ) retirement villa which, among other things, boasted a pavilion two-thirds covered in gold leaf ( Kinkaku shariden 金閣舎利殿 ). There, he received envoys from the Ming and Joseon courts on at least six occasions and forged the terms of a Sino-Japanese trade agreement that endured for over a century. In recognition for his diplomatic efforts (and overt displays of subservience),
13482-420: The traditions passed down from performers' ancestors (see iemoto ). However, several secret documents of the Kanze school written by Zeami, as well as materials by Konparu Zenchiku , have been diffused throughout the community of scholars of Japanese theatre. Noh performance combines a variety of elements into a stylistic whole, with each particular element the product of generations of refinement according to
13608-769: The two on'yomi categories are largely due to changes that took place between Early and Late Middle Chinese. The Early Middle Chinese (EMC) voiced obstruents became breathy voiced in Late Middle Chinese , e.g. [b > pɦ]. EMC [ɲ] became [ɻ], later becoming [ʐ] in Northern Chinese dialects. In the Japanese of both time periods, the voiced obstruents were prenasalized as [ b, d, dz, g], helping to explain why they correspond to Middle Chinese nasals in Kan on'yomi . The Japanese consonant [p] developed first to [f] or [ɸ], and more recently to /h/ (with allophones [h, ɸ, ç]). Older [p] remains modern Japanese /p/ after
13734-623: The two languages now occur independently of each other. These "back-borrowings" gave rise to Mandarin diànhuà (from denwa ), kēxué (from kagaku ), shèhuì (from shakai ) and zhéxué (from tetsugaku ). Since the sources for the wasei kango included ancient Chinese texts as well as contemporary English-Chinese dictionaries, some of the compounds—including 文化 bunka ('culture', Mandarin wénhuà ) and 革命 kakumei ('revolution', Mandarin gémìng )—might have been independently coined by Chinese translators, had Japanese writers not coined them first. A similar process of reborrowing occurred in
13860-406: The word nōgaku . Noh is a classical tradition that is highly valued by many today. When used alone, Noh refers to the historical genre of theatre that originated from sarugaku in the mid 14th century and continues to be performed today. One of the oldest forerunners of Noh and kyōgen is sangaku [ ja ] , which was introduced to Japan from China in the 8th century. At the time,
13986-689: The words contained in modern Japanese dictionaries are kango , and that about 18–20% of words used in common speech are kango . The usage of such kango words also increases in formal or literary contexts, and in expressions of abstract or complex ideas. Kango , the use of Chinese-derived words in Japanese, is to be distinguished from kanbun , which is historical Literary Chinese written by Japanese in Japan. Both kango in modern Japanese and classical kanbun have Sino-xenic linguistic and phonetic elements also found in Korean and Vietnamese: that is, they are "Sino-foreign", meaning that they are not pure Chinese but have been mixed with
14112-447: The worship pavilion ( haiden ) or sacred dance pavilion ( kagura-den ) of Shinto shrines. The roof also unifies the theatre space and defines the stage as an architectural entity. The pillars supporting the roof are named shitebashira (principal character's pillar), metsukebashira (gazing pillar), wakibashira (secondary character's pillar), and fuebashira (flute pillar), clockwise from upstage right respectively. Each pillar
14238-513: Was Ashikaga Yoshiakira 's third son but the oldest son to survive, his childhood name being Haruō ( 春王 ). Yoshimitsu was appointed shōgun , a hereditary title as head of the military estate, in 1368 at the age of ten; at twenty he was admitted to the imperial court as Acting Grand Counselor ( Gon Dainagon 権大納言 ). In 1379, Yoshimitsu reorganized the institutional framework of the Gozan Zen 五山禅 establishment before, two years later, becoming
14364-508: Was a large-scale effort to replace Go-on readings with Kan-on readings when pronouncing Chinese texts in Japan, this effort did not extend to changing the pronunciation of borrowed words that were already used in Japanese. Massive borrowing of Chinese loanwords continued during this period, and these new borrowings reflected the new Kan-on readings. Today, Kan-on readings are the most commonly encountered type of on'yomi . Kan'yō-on ( 慣用音 "customary sound") readings are not considered to follow
14490-482: Was appointed the new shōgun . The Muromachi administration was later organized in 1398. Although Yoshimitsu retired in 1394, the old shōgun did not abandon any of his powers. Yoshimitsu continued to maintain authority over the shogunate until his death. Yoshimitsu is recognized as Nippon Koku-Ō (King of Japan) by Yongle Emperor in 1404. Yoshimitsu died suddenly in 1408 at age 49. After his death, his retirement villa (near Kyoto) became Rokuon-ji , which today
14616-416: Was approximated in words borrowed from Chinese into Japanese; this Sino-Japanese vocabulary is still an important component of the Japanese language, and may be compared to words of Latin or Greek origin in English. Chinese borrowings also significantly influenced Japanese phonology , leading to many new developments such as closed syllables (CV(N), not just CV) and length becoming a phonetic feature with
14742-1175: Was borrowed from Chinese, a considerable amount was created by the Japanese themselves as they coined new words using Sino-Japanese forms. These are known as wasei-kango ( 和製漢語 , Japanese-created kango ) ; compare to wasei-eigo ( 和製英語 , Japanese-created English) . Many Japanese-created kango refer to uniquely Japanese concepts. Examples include daimyō ( 大名 ) , waka ( 和歌 ) , haiku ( 俳句 ) , geisha ( 芸者 ) , chōnin ( 町人 ) , matcha ( 抹茶 ) , sencha ( 煎茶 ) , washi ( 和紙 ) , jūdō ( 柔道 ) , kendō ( 剣道 ) , Shintō ( 神道 ) , shōgi ( 将棋 ) , dōjō ( 道場 ) , seppuku ( 切腹 ) , and Bushidō ( 武士道 ). Another miscellaneous group of words were coined from Japanese phrases or crossed over from kun'yomi to on'yomi . Examples include henji ( 返事 meaning 'reply', from native 返り事 kaerigoto 'reply'), rippuku ( 立腹 'become angry', based on 腹が立つ hara ga tatsu , literally 'belly/abdomen stands up'), shukka ( 出火 'fire starts or breaks out', based on 火が出る hi ga deru ), and ninja ( 忍者 from 忍びの者 shinobi-no-mono meaning 'person of stealth'). In Chinese,
14868-476: Was borrowed from a modern Chinese dialect, is not kango , whereas 北京 ( Hokkyō , "Northern Capital", a name for Kyoto ), which was created with Chinese elements, is kango . Ancient China's enormous political and economic influence in the region had a deep effect on Japanese, Korean , Vietnamese and other Asian languages in East and Southeast Asia throughout history, in a manner somewhat similar to
14994-468: Was contrastive in Middle Chinese, but voiceless obstruents were adapted to Go and Kan pronunciations in the same way regardless of aspiration. However, many Kan'yō on'yomi exist with voiced obstruents corresponding to Middle Chinese unaspirated (and sometimes aspirated) voiceless obstruents. For example, 軍 (MC kjun ) 'army' has the prescribed Go/Kan reading kun , but Kan'yō gun is the only reading actually used in Japanese. There are multiple reasons for
15120-566: Was descended from the sarugaku troupe which had played active roles in Kasuga-taisha and Kofuku-ji in Yamato Province . Another theory, by Shinhachirō Matsumoto, suggests Noh originated from outcastes struggling to claim higher social status by catering to those in power, namely the new ruling samurai class of the time. The transfer of the shogunate from Kamakura to Kyoto at the beginning of Muromachi period marked
15246-404: Was in this context used to mean "Chinese" (i.e. "real Chinese pronunciation"), with no intended connection to the earlier Tang Dynasty. Due to their more recent borrowing, Tō-on readings are sometimes more recognizably similar to Modern Chinese pronunciations. There are far fewer Sino-Japanese loanwords with Tō-on readings compared to Go-on and Kan-on readings. Dictionaries do not attempt to provide
15372-403: Was inserted after the consonant in most environments. Kan-on readings use /tu/ exclusively, while the earlier Go'on readings use both /ti/ and /tu/ unpredictably. For example, MC 跋 bat is adapted as Go /batu/, while the homophonous MC 犮 bat is listed in dictionaries as Go /bati/ (though it is not actually used in existing Japanese words). Often Go readings with /ti/ and /tu/ are listed for
15498-573: Was later suppressed in 1397 (another uprising in Mutsu was suppressed in 1402). The southern army suffered reverses in 1380 but enjoyed a resurgence in 1382. The Koga Domain , a region of the Southern army was defeated in 1385. In 1392, the Northern and Southern courts were reconciled under Emperor Go-Komatsu . Yoshimitsu officially ceded his position to his son Ashikaga Yoshimochi in 1394 who
15624-534: Was reproduced by others, generally resulting in an increasingly slow, ceremonial tempo over time. In this era, the Tokugawa shogunate appointed Kanze school as the head of the four schools. Kita Shichidayū (Shichidayū Chōnō), a Noh actor of the Konparu school who served Tokugawa Hidetada , founded the Kita school, which was the last established of the five major schools. The fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1868 and
15750-496: Was the first and only Japanese leader in the early modern period to accept a title from China. Yoshimitsu commissions the Muromachi palace in Kyoto's elite district of Kamigyo in 1378, on the site of the former residence of the nobleman Saionji Sanekane. He also played a major role in the genesis of Noh theatre, as the patron and lover of Zeami Motokiyo , the actor considered to be Noh's founder, whom Yoshimitsu encouraged to give
15876-524: Was under the employ of the emperor defects to the Ashikaga bakufu (but would later defect again to royalist forces under Emperor Kameyama in 1380). However, Kusunoki was defeated in 1390. While in 1370, the renowned commander Imagawa Sadayo was sent to subdue Kyushu ; the region would later be pacified by 1389, which leads to Yoshimitsu distributing lands there. There was an uprising in Kyushu but this
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