73-604: In the United States census , the US Census Bureau and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) define a set of self-identified categories of race and ethnicity chosen by residents, with which they most closely identify. Residents can indicate their origins alongside their race, and are asked specifically whether they are of Hispanic or Latino origin in a separate question. The racial categories represent
146-640: A presidential memorandum ordering the exclusion of illegal immigrants from the numbers in the 2020 census that are used to apportion seats in the House of Representatives. The COVID-19 pandemic made the collection of the census results difficult, and the department had extended the deadline to complete collection to October 31 instead of July 31, 2020. On August 3, the department announced its Replan Schedule that would end collection early on September 30, aware this would leave them with incomplete data that they would have to estimate total numbers to complete. This move
219-654: A census was taken in Virginia , and people were counted in almost all of the British colonies that became the United States . Between 1781 and 1786, the first "actual enumeration" was conducted separately in each state and compiled by John Kean for consideration at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. Throughout the years, the country's needs and interests became more complicated. This meant that statistics were needed to help people understand what
292-451: A coherent snapshot and avoid double counting. The actual census-taking begins before this date and extends for months thereafter. In 2020, the earliest responses were collected starting January 21 in remote parts of Alaska, and March 12 for most Americans. In addition to its primary purpose of reapportioning the House of Representatives, census data are used for a wide variety of applications, including: The census has historically and up to
365-506: A combined question and a MENA category, while also collecting additional detail to enable data disaggregation. The OMB states, "many federal programs are put into effect based on the race data obtained from the decennial census (i.e., promoting equal employment opportunities; assessing racial disparities in health and environmental risks). Race data is also critical for the basic research behind many policy decisions. States require this data to meet legislative redistricting requirements. The data
438-804: A number of controversies and legal challenges under the Trump administration due to President Donald Trump 's policies on illegal immigration, particularly those undocumented in the country. Prior to the publication of the census, the Commerce Department stated its intention to add a question asking responders about their immigration status, which many states and activists stated would cause illegal immigrants to not respond out of fear of prosecution and lead to undercounting, affecting state representation and federal funding. The Supreme Court case Department of Commerce v. New York , decided in June 2019, found
511-531: A person's origins considered in the census. Thus, in addition to their race or races, all respondents are categorized by membership in one of two ethnic categories, which are "Hispanic or Latino" and "Not Hispanic or Latino." However, the practice of separating "race" and "ethnicity" as different categories has been criticized both by the American Anthropological Association and members of US Commission on Civil Rights . In 1997,
584-523: A race. Enumerators were instructed that all people born in Mexico, or whose parents were born in Mexico, should be listed as Mexicans, and not under any other racial category. In prior censuses and in 1940, enumerators were instructed to list Mexican Americans as white, perhaps because some of them were of white background (mainly Spanish), many others mixed white and Native American and some of them Native American. The supplemental American Indian questionnaire
657-490: A snapshot of life spans and causes of death throughout the country. The first nine censuses (1790–1870) were conducted by U.S. Marshals before the Census Bureau was created. Appointed U.S. Marshals of each judicial district hired assistant marshals to conduct the actual enumeration. The census enumerators were typically from the village or neighborhood and often knew the residents. Before enabling self-identification on
730-613: A social-political construct for the race or races that respondents consider themselves to be and, "generally reflect a social definition of race recognized in this country". The OMB defines the concept of race as outlined for the census to be not "scientific or anthropological", and takes into account "social and cultural characteristics as well as ancestry", using "appropriate scientific methodologies" that are not "primarily biological or genetic in reference." The race categories include both racial and national-origin groups. Race and ethnicity are considered separate and distinct identities, with
803-539: A write-in of 'white-black' was assigned a code of 'white. ' " Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin? No, not Spanish/Hispanic United States census The United States census (plural censuses or census) is a census that is legally mandated by the Constitution of the United States . It takes place every ten years. The first census after
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#1732776708694876-790: Is controversial; up to one-third of all U.S. residents do not respond to repeated reminders. In recent censuses, the nonresponse rate has been less than 1% (it was about 0.4% in 2010), but during the 2020 census, as of September 11, many experts believed the nonresponse rate could reach double digits. By October 19, 2020, all states had topped a 99% response rate, with all but one state having a nonresponse rate below 0.1%. The Census Bureau estimates that in 1970 over six percent of African Americans went uncounted, whereas only around two percent of European Americans went uncounted. Democrats often argue that modern sampling techniques should be used so that more accurate and complete data can be inferred. Republicans often argue against such sampling techniques, stating
949-533: Is from the Indian subcontinent ) were counted as White. There was a questionnaire that was asked of only a sample of respondents. These questions were as follows: Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent Is this person's origin or descent? Mexican Puerto Rican Cuban Central American Other Spanish No, none of these This year added several options to the race question, including Vietnamese, Indian (East), Guamanian, Samoan, and re-added Aleut. Again,
1022-607: Is needed to monitor compliance with the Voting Rights Act by local jurisdictions". Data on ethnic groups are important for putting into effect a number of federal statutes (i.e., enforcing bilingual election rules under the Voting Rights Act and monitoring/enforcing equal employment opportunities under the Civil Rights Act ). Data on ethnic groups is also needed by local governments to run programs and meet legislative requirements (i.e., identifying segments of
1095-520: Is no longer the responsibility of the Census Bureau. It is also distinct from local censuses conducted by some states or local jurisdictions . The U.S. census is mandated by Article I , Section 2 of the United States Constitution , which states: " Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States... according to their respective Numbers... . The actual Enumeration shall be made within three years after
1168-480: Is that it was chosen in 1952 as slightly higher than the average female life expectancy, 71.6. Another explanation (which disputes the life expectancy number) is that this number is a holdover from 1942, when a disagreement between the Census Bureau and the National Archives was resolved with 1870 as the boundary between confidential and public records. The individual census data most recently released to
1241-549: The American Revolution was taken in 1790 under Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson . There have been 23 federal censuses since that time. The census includes territories of the United States . The United States Census Bureau is responsible for conducting the census. The most recent national census took place in 2020; the next census is scheduled for 2030. Since 2013, the Census Bureau began discussions on using technology to aid data collection starting with
1314-630: The District of Maine , New Hampshire , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Rhode Island , South Carolina , and Virginia ), and from the Southwest Territory . The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year. (From 1777 until early 1791, and hence during all of 1790, Vermont
1387-735: The Secretary of State , directed US Marshals to collect data from all 13 original states, and from the Southwest Territory . The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year. Some doubt surrounded the numbers, as President George Washington and Thomas Jefferson maintained the population was undercounted. The potential reasons Washington and Jefferson may have thought this could be refusal to participate, poor public transportation and roads, spread-out population, and restraints of current technology. No microdata from
1460-474: The US Constitution and applicable laws. The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in two of the most public places within each jurisdiction, remain for the inspection of all concerned, and that "the aggregate amount of each description of persons" for every district be transmitted to the president . The US Marshals were also responsible for governing
1533-587: The first meeting of the Congress of the United States , and within every subsequent Term of ten Years". Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment amended Article I, Section 2 to include that the "respective Numbers" of the "several States" will be determined by "counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed." The United States Census Bureau (officially the Bureau of
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#17327767086941606-488: The president ." The census was published in 1791. It was 56 pages and cost $ 44,377.28. Both Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and President George Washington expressed skepticism over the results, believing that the true population had been undercounted. If indeed an undercount was the result, possible explanations for it include dispersed population, poor transportation links, limitations of contemporary technology, and individual refusal to participate. Although
1679-416: The "Color or Race" question was slightly modified, removing the term "Mulatto". Also, there was an inclusion of an "Indian Population Schedule" in which "enumerators were instructed to use a special expanded questionnaire for American Indians living on reservations or in family groups off of reservations." This expanded version included the question "Fraction of person's lineage that is white." The 1910 census
1752-489: The 1790 census to the marshals of United States judicial districts under an act, which with minor modifications and extensions, governed census taking through the 1840 census. "The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in 'two of the most public places within [each jurisdiction], there to remain for the inspection of all concerned...' and that 'the aggregate amount of each description of persons' for every district be transmitted to
1825-532: The 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas and their compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System . However, the categories of "Free white males" of 16 years and upward, including heads of families under 16 years, "Free white females", including heads of families, All other free persons, and "Slaves," existed in
1898-414: The 2000 and 2010 censuses. The following questions were asked of a sample of respondents for the 1990 census : The 1990 census was not designed to capture multiple racial responses, and when individuals marked the "other" race option and provided a multiple write-in. The response was assigned according to the race written first. "For example, a write-in of 'black-white' was assigned a code of 'black,' while
1971-617: The 2020 census. In 2020, every household received an invitation to complete the census over the Internet, by phone or by paper questionnaire. For years between the decennial censuses, the Census Bureau issues estimates made using surveys and statistical models, in particular, the Population Estimates Program and American Community Survey . The United States census is distinct from the Census of Agriculture , which
2044-450: The Census Bureau headcount, the volume of scheduled publications, and the use of Hollerith's electromechanical tabulators) was to reduce the time required to fully process the census from eight years for the 1880 census to six years for the 1890 census. The total population, of 62,947,714, was announced after only six weeks of processing (punched cards were not used for this family, or rough , count). The public reaction to this tabulation
2117-747: The Census, as defined in Title 13 U.S.C. § 11) is responsible for the United States census. The Bureau of the Census is part of the United States Department of Commerce . Title 13 of the United States Code governs how the census is conducted and how its data are handled. Information is confidential as per 13 U.S.C. § 9 . The census law, coupled with the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984 ( Title 18 of
2190-565: The FBI, has access to census data. The census records data specific to individual respondents are not available to the public until 72 years after a given census was taken, but aggregate statistical data derived from the census are released as soon as they are available. Every census up to and including 1950 is currently available to the public and can be viewed on microfilm released by the National Archives and Records Administration ,
2263-465: The OMB built on the 1997 guidelines and suggested the addition of a Middle Eastern or North African (MENA) racial category and considered combining racial and ethnic categories into one question. In March 2024, the Office of Management and Budget published revisions to Statistical Policy Directive No. 15: Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity that included
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2336-404: The OMB issued a Federal Register notice regarding revisions to the standards for the classification of federal data on race and ethnicity. The OMB developed race and ethnic standards in order to provide "consistent data on race and ethnicity throughout the federal government ". The development of the data standards stem in large measure from new responsibilities to enforce civil rights laws. Among
2409-518: The U.S. Constitution requires an "actual enumeration" for apportionment of House seats, and that political appointees would be tempted to manipulate the sampling formulas. Groups like the Prison Policy Initiative assert that the census practice of counting prisoners as residents of prisons, not their pre-incarceration addresses, leads to misleading information about racial demographics and population numbers. The 2020 census drew
2482-528: The U.S. House of Representatives ". According to the Census Bureau, "Census Day" has been April 1 since 1930. Previously, from 1790 to 1820, the census counted the population as of the first Monday in August. It moved to June 1 in 1830, (June 2 in 1890), April 15 in 1910, and January 1 in 1920. Because people are born, die, and move during the year, the census counts people where they were or expect to be living on this specific reference date in an attempt to get
2555-448: The Union, as well as to other areas under U.S. sovereignty or jurisdiction. There were so many more inquiries of all kinds in the census of 1880 that almost a full decade was needed to publish all the results. In response to this, the census was mechanized in 1890, with tabulating machines made by Herman Hollerith . This reduced the processing time to two and a half years. For the first six censuses (1790–1840), enumerators recorded only
2628-455: The United States Code , Sections 3551, 3559, and 3571), provides for penalties of up to $ 5,000 for not responding or for willfully providing false answers to any question. Decennial U.S. census figures are based on actual counts of persons dwelling in U.S. residential structures. They include citizens, non-citizen legal residents, non-citizen long-term visitors and undocumented immigrants. The Census Bureau bases its decision about whom to count on
2701-528: The United States for the presentation of data. 1790 United States census The 1790 United States census was the first United States census . It recorded the population of the whole United States as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article 1, Section 2, of the Constitution and applicable laws. In the first census, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214 inhabitants. Congress assigned responsibility for
2774-522: The case Trump v. New York for an expedited hearing in November, given the results are to be delivered to Congress by December 31, 2020. The Court issued a per curiam decision on December 18, 2020, which vacated the District Court's ruling and remanded the case to that court with orders to dismiss it. Censuses had been taken prior to the Constitution's ratification; in the early 17th century,
2847-420: The census even though they may vote. Only Americans living abroad who are "federal employees (military and civilian) and their dependents living overseas with them" are counted. "Private U.S. citizens living abroad who are not affiliated with the federal government (either as employees or their dependents) will not be included in the overseas counts. These overseas counts are used solely for reapportioning seats in
2920-416: The census form. In 1800 and 1810, the age question regarding free white males was more detailed with five cohorts and included All other free persons, except "Indians not taxed", and "Slaves". The 1820 census built on the questions asked in 1810 by asking age questions about slaves. Also the term "colored" entered the census nomenclature. In addition, a question stating "Number of foreigners not naturalized"
2993-517: The census was proved statistically factual, based on data collected, the records for several states (including Delaware , Georgia , New Jersey , and Virginia ) were lost sometime between 1790 and 1830. Almost one-third of the original census data have been lost or destroyed since their original documentation. These include some 1790 data from Connecticut , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Rhode Island , South Carolina , and Vermont ;
Race and ethnicity in the United States census - Misplaced Pages Continue
3066-417: The census. About one-third of the original census data has been lost or destroyed since documentation. The data was lost in 1790–1830, and included data from Connecticut , Delaware , Georgia , Maine , Maryland , Massachusetts , New Hampshire , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Rhode Island , South Carolina , Vermont , and Virginia . However, the census was proven factual and
3139-438: The censuses, the U.S. Census Bureau relied on local people to have some knowledge of residents. Racial classification was made by the census enumerator in these decades, rather than by the individual. The 1890 census was the first to be compiled using the new tabulating machines invented by Herman Hollerith . The net effect of the many changes from the 1880 census (the larger population, the number of data items to be collected,
3212-482: The changes, The OMB issued the instruction to "mark one or more races" after noting evidence of increasing numbers of mixed-race children and wanting to record diversity in a measurable way after having received requests by people who wanted to be able to acknowledge theirs and their children's full ancestry, rather than identifying with only one group. Prior to this decision, the census and other government data collections asked people to report singular races. As of 2023,
3285-470: The concept of usual residence. Usual residence, a principle established by the Census Act of 1790, is defined as the place a person lives and sleeps most of the time. The Census Bureau uses special procedures to ensure that those without conventional housing are counted. Data from these operations are not as accurate as data obtained from traditional procedures. In instances where the bureau is unsure of
3358-668: The data provides a beginning for the allocation of resources. In addition, collected data are used in aggregate for statistical purposes. Replies are obtained from individuals and establishments only to enable the compilation of such general statistics. The confidentiality of these replies is very important. By law, no one—neither the census takers nor any other Census Bureau employee—is permitted to reveal identifiable information about any person, household, or business. By law ( Pub. L. 95–416 , 92 Stat. 915 , enacted October 5, 1978 ), individual decennial census records are sealed for 72 years. One explanation for this number
3431-455: The decennial census questionnaires are available online from many websites. Computerized aggregate data describing the characteristics of small geographic areas for the entire period from 1790 to 2010 are available from the National Historical Geographic Information System . The bureau recognizes four census regions within the United States and further organizes them into nine divisions. These regions are groupings of states that subdivide
3504-593: The decision and make sure the federal government treated Hispanics as white. The State Department, the Census Bureau, the Labor Department, and other government agencies therefore made sure to uniformly classify people of Mexican descent as white. This policy encouraged the League of United Latin American Citizens in its quest to minimize discrimination by asserting their whiteness. The 1940 census
3577-535: The design of the population questionnaire. Residents were still listed individually, but a new questionnaire sheet was used for each family. Additionally, this was the first year that the census distinguished among different Asian ethnic groups, such as Japanese and Chinese , due to increased immigration. This census also marked the beginning of the term "race" in the questionnaires. Enumerators were instructed to write "White", "Black", "Mulatto", " Quadroon ", "Octoroon", "Chinese", "Japanese", or " Indian ". During 1900,
3650-453: The existence of most of this data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census. Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as: free white males at least 16 years of age (to assess the country's industrial and military potential), free white males under 16 years of age, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves . Thomas Jefferson , then
3723-486: The free inhabitants schedule about color was a column that was to be left blank if a person were white, marked "B" if a person were black, and marked "M" if a person were mulatto . Slaves were listed by owner, and classified by gender and age, not individually, and the question about color was a column that was to be marked with a "B" if the slave were black and an "M" if mulatto. For 1890, the Census Office changed
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#17327767086943796-608: The legal protection of confidential census data, which was not restored until 1947. This information facilitated the internment of Japanese-Americans , following the Japanese attack on the U.S. at Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the internment of Italian- and German-Americans following the United States' entry into World War II . In 1980, four FBI agents went to the Census Bureau's Colorado Springs office with warrants to seize census documents, but were forced to leave with nothing. Courts upheld that no agency, including
3869-476: The names of the heads of household and a general demographic accounting of the remaining members of the household. Beginning in 1850, all members of the household were named on the census. The first slave schedules were also completed in 1850, with the second (and last) in 1860. Censuses of the late 19th century also included agricultural and industrial schedules to gauge the productivity of the nation's economy. Mortality schedules (taken between 1850 and 1880) captured
3942-530: The number of residents at an address after a field visit, its population characteristics are inferred from its nearest similar neighbor (hot-deck imputation ). This practice has effects across many areas, but is seen by some as controversial. The practice was ruled constitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in Utah v. Evans . Certain American citizens living overseas are specifically excluded from being counted in
4015-562: The official keeper of archived federal census records. Complete online census records can be accessed for no cost from National Archives facilities and many libraries, and a growing portion of the census is freely available from non-commercial online sources. Census microdata for research purposes are available for all censuses from 1790 forward except for 1890 through the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series ( IPUMS ), and scanned copies of each of
4088-617: The population who may not be receiving medical services under the Public Health Service Act ; evaluating whether financial institutions are meeting the credit needs of minority populations under the Community Reinvestment Act ). The 1790 United States census was the first census in the history of the United States. The population of the United States was recorded as 3,929,214 as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of
4161-440: The present been controversial due to its role in reapportioning political representation. In the 1850s, census planners suppressed information about slavery due to pressure from Southern lawmakers. The results of the 1920 census were ignored and no reapportionment took place, as rural lawmakers feared losing power to urban areas. In the 1940s, census officials were involved in organizing Japanese-American internment . The census
4234-577: The public is the 1950 census, released on April 1, 2022. Aggregate census data are released when available. Under the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), using primarily census records, compiled (1939–1941) the Custodial Detention Index ("CDI") on citizens , enemy aliens , and foreign nationals , who might be dangerous. The Second War Powers Act of 1941 repealed
4307-451: The race of interracial persons. A person with both white and black ancestry (termed "blood") was to be recorded as "Negro", no matter the fraction of that lineage (the " one-drop rule "). A person of mixed black and American Indian ancestry was also to be recorded as "Neg" (for "Negro") unless they were considered to be "predominantly" American Indian and accepted as such within the community. A person with both white and American Indian ancestry
4380-509: The racial question, and also removed Hindu and Korean from the race choices. The 1960 census re-added the word "color" to the racial question, and changed "Indian" to "American Indian", as well as adding Hawaiian, Part-Hawaiian, Aleut, and Eskimo. The "Other (print out race)" option was removed. This year's census included "Negro or Black", re-added Korean and the Other race option. East Indians (the term used at that time for people whose ancestry
4453-405: The rationale to add the question was arbitrary and capricious and required the department to provide a better reasoning before inclusion. The department dropped the question by the form's publication time. Following the decision, Trump issued an executive order directing the department to obtain citizenship data from other federal agencies rather than via the census. On July 21, 2020, Trump signed
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#17327767086944526-426: The term "color" was removed from the racial question, and the following questions were asked of a sample of respondents: Questions on Spanish or Hispanic Origin or Descent Is this person of Spanish/Hispanic origin or descent? No, not Spanish/Hispanic Yes, Mexican, Mexican American, Chicano Yes, Puerto Rican Yes, Cuban Yes, other Spanish/Hispanic The racial categories in this year are as they appear in
4599-483: The totals, claiming that he had the authority to make this determination on a Constitutional and past legal basis. Several legal challenges were filed, and a combined suit from 22 states and several non-governmental organizations were found against Trump, ruling that only Congress has the authority to interpret the manner of which people the census includes. Trump petitioned to the Supreme Court which has certified
4672-566: The validity and existence of most of these data, though, can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census. No microdata from the 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System . Under the direction of the Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson , marshals collected data from all thirteen states ( Connecticut , Delaware , Georgia , Maryland , Massachusetts including
4745-548: Was again challenged in the courts. While lower courts had ruled for an injunction against the department from implementing the Replan Schedule, the Supreme Court issued a stay of the injunction in October 2020, allowing the census to end early. Around the same time, Trump issued a memo to the Commerce Department on July 21, 2020, instructing them to use estimates of undocumented immigrants and subtract their numbers from
4818-441: Was back, but in abbreviated form. It featured a question asking if the person was of full or mixed American Indian ancestry. President Franklin D. Roosevelt promoted a Good Neighbor policy that sought better relations with Mexico. In 1935, a federal judge ruled that three Mexican immigrants were ineligible for citizenship because they were not white, as required by federal law. Mexico protested, and Roosevelt decided to circumvent
4891-406: Was disbelief, as it was widely believed that the "right answer" was at least 75,000,000. This census is also notable for the fact it is one of only three for which the original data are no longer available. Almost all the population schedules were destroyed following a fire in 1921. One purpose of the census is to divide the house seats by population. Furthermore, as with any Census Bureau survey,
4964-421: Was happening and have a basis for planning. The content of the decennial census changed accordingly. In 1810, the first inquiry on manufactures, quantity and value of products occurred; in 1840, inquiries on fisheries were added; and in 1850, the census included inquiries on social issues, such as taxation, churches, pauperism, and crime. The censuses also spread geographically, to new states and territories added to
5037-421: Was included. In the 1830 census, a new question, which stated, "The number of White persons who were foreigners not naturalized" was included. The 1850 census had a dramatic shift in the way information about residents was collected. For the first time, free persons were listed individually instead of by head of household. Two questionnaires were used - one for free inhabitants and one for slaves. The question on
5110-419: Was similar to 1910, but excluded a separate schedule for American Indians. "Hin", "Kor", and "Fil" were also added to the "Color or Race" question, signifying Hindu (Asian Indian), Korean, and Filipino, respectively. The biggest change in this census was in racial classification. Enumerators were instructed to no longer use the "Mulatto" classification. Instead, they were given special instructions for reporting
5183-537: Was similar to that of 1900, but it included a reinsertion of "Mulatto" and a question about the "mother tongue" of foreign-born individuals and individuals with foreign-born parents. "Ot" was also added to signify "other races", with space for a race to be written in. This decade's version of the Indian Population Schedule featured questions asking the individual's proportion of white, black, or American Indian lineage. The 1920 census questionnaire
5256-411: Was the first to include separate population and housing questionnaires. The race category of "Mexican" was eliminated in 1940, and the population of Mexican descent was counted with the white population. 1940 census data was used for Japanese American internment . The Census Bureau's role was denied for decades, but was finally proven in 2007. The 1950 census questionnaire removed the word "color" from
5329-408: Was to be recorded as American Indian, unless their Indigenous ancestry was small, and they were accepted as white within the community. In all situations in which a person had white and some other racial ancestry, they were to be reported as that other race. People who had minority interracial ancestry were to be reported as the race of their father. For the first and only time, "Mexican" was listed as
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