Citizenship is a membership and allegiance to a sovereign state .
123-530: The Nordic Passport Union allows citizens of the Nordic countries — Iceland , Denmark , Norway , Sweden , and Finland —to travel and reside in another Nordic country without any travel documentation (e.g. a passport or national identity card ) or a residence permit. Since 25 March 2001, all five states have also been in the Schengen Area . For citizens of any Nordic country, identity documentation
246-466: A civitas and the social class of the burgher or bourgeoisie . Since then states have expanded the status of citizenship to most of their national people , while the extent of citizen rights remain contested. Conceptually citizenship and nationality are different dimensions of state membership. Citizenship is focused on the internal political life of the state and nationality is the dimension of state membership in international law . Article 15 of
369-424: A passport . Though through discriminatory laws, like disfranchisement and outright apartheid citizens have been made second-class citizens . Historically, populations of states were mostly subjects , while citizenship was a particular status which originated in the rights of urban populations, like the rights of the male public of cities and republics , particularly ancient city-states , giving rise to
492-780: A Nordic driver's licence. Other identity cards recognised in the Nordic countries, like ID cards issued by banks or by the Swedish Tax Agency are not accepted. The European Commission has been notified regularly of the ongoing temporary border controls at internal borders at every extension of the duration. During the COVID-19 pandemic , temporary border controls were in place in Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden. As of November 2024 temporary border controls (intra-Nordic) are still in place in Norway, Denmark and Sweden. The focus
615-411: A bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. It generally describes
738-496: A citizen of Israel. Because of Israel's relatively new and culturally mixed identity, Israel does not grant citizenship to people born on Israeli soil. Instead, the government chose to enact a jus sanguinis system, with the naturalization restrictions listed above. There is currently no legislation on second-generation immigrants (those born in Israel to immigrant parents). Furthermore, foreign spouses can apply for citizenship through
861-429: A citizen on a number of bases. Every citizen has obligations that are required by law and some responsibilities that benefit the community. Obeying the laws of a country and paying taxes are some of the obligations required of citizens by law. Voting and community services form part of responsibilities of a citizen that benefits the community. The Constitution of Ghana (1992), Article 41, obligates citizens to promote
984-728: A citizen thereof." Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case Dred Scott v. Sandford , which ruled that "a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States," and that "the special rights and immunities guaranteed to citizens do not apply to them." It
1107-590: A country acquires the nationality of that country after birth. The definition of naturalization by the International Organization for Migration of the United Nations excludes citizenship that is automatically acquired (e.g. at birth) or is acquired by declaration. Naturalization usually involves an application or a motion and approval by legal authorities. The rules of naturalization vary from country to country but typically include
1230-690: A distinct Canadian Citizenship , automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948 . Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand , by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 . Citizenship most usually relates to membership of
1353-468: A distinction in the law of England and Wales between the subjects of the monarch and aliens: the monarch's subjects owed the monarch allegiance, and included those born in his or her dominions (natural-born subjects) and those who later gave him or her their allegiance (naturalised subjects). Today, the requirements for naturalisation as a citizen of the United Kingdom depend on whether or not one
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#17327651460431476-468: A few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws . Polis meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been
1599-472: A fixed or static relation but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might "really have worked" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state. Citizenship was also contingent on a variety of biopolitical assemblages, such as the bioethics of emerging Theo-Philosophical traditions. It
1722-474: A large part of the immigrant population in an illegal status, albeit with some massive regularizations. Examples include Spain under José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero 's government, and Italy under Silvio Berlusconi 's government. Myanmar and Uruguay are currently the only countries in the world that deny immigrants any path to naturalization. Uruguayan legal citizenship has special characteristics. A person who acquires it retains their nationality of origin, which
1845-491: A legal member of a specific nation. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: Responsibilities of citizens Responsibility is an action that individuals of a state or country must take note of in the interest of a common good. These responsibilities can be categorised into personal and civic responsibilities . Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within
1968-548: A less discriminatory system. The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic , so long as they were "engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class." It recognized "the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections" and declared oppression of any minority group or race "to be contrary to
2091-580: A limited right to free movement and residence in the Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights. Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States which predate the introduction of Union citizenship. Citizenship of the Mercosur
2214-425: A major issue in the United States at the end of the 20th century. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 , while tightening border controls, also provided the opportunity of naturalization for illegal aliens who had been in the country for at least four years. Today, lawful permanent residents of the United States are eligible to apply for US citizenship after five years, unless they continue to be married to
2337-411: A national identity card or a passport can be required in other Schengen countries. Most Scandinavian people do not own any Schengen approved national ID card, so they need a passport when visiting most Schengen countries outside the Nordic area, having in mind that most Schengen countries on the continent require possession of identity documentation by anyone, generally checked by hotels. From March 2001,
2460-464: A naturalized South African citizen is a privilege, not a right. Even after meeting all the requirements and going through the naturalization process, the minister holds the right to deny citizenship. Foreign spouses of South African citizens can apply for naturalization after two years of marriage, but is subject to potential denial of the minister. The minister can also grant citizenship to minors, if their parent applies for them. The minister also holds
2583-467: A naturalized citizen. The Naturalization Act of 1790 , the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that "any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, maybe admitted to becoming
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#17327651460432706-542: A near relative with Chinese nationality, if they have settled in China, or if they present another legitimate reason. In practice, few people gain Chinese citizenship; as of 2010, China had only 1,448 naturalised Chinese in total. The naturalization process starts with a written application. Applicants must submit three copies, written with a ball-point or fountain pen, to national authorities, and to provincial authorities in
2829-536: A particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens. During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy ), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution , abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship. During
2952-428: A person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions since it relates to many other aspects of society such as
3075-420: A political one. For further information, see History of citizenship . Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties . In this sense, citizenship was described as "a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations." Citizenship
3198-482: A promise to obey and uphold that country's laws and taking and subscribing to an oath of allegiance , and may specify other requirements such as a minimum legal residency and adequate knowledge of the national dominant language or culture. To counter multiple citizenship , some countries require that applicants for naturalization renounce any other citizenship that they currently hold, but whether this renunciation actually causes loss of original citizenship , as seen by
3321-546: A result of the Svalbard Treaty ; however, valid travel documentation (such as a passport, or a national identity card from a European Union or EFTA country) is required to enter Svalbard. Norwegian citizens were allowed to use other documents such as a Norwegian driving licence until 30 April 2022. As citizens of a Nordic countries (Norway and Denmark, respectively), those from Svalbard and Greenland are permitted to reside in any other Nordic country. In other parts of
3444-777: A similar condition previously. Commonwealth Act No. 473, the Revised Naturalization Law, approved June 17, 1939, provided that people having certain specified qualifications may become a citizen of the Philippines by naturalization. Republic Act No. 9139, approved June 8, 2001, provided that aliens under the age of 18 who were born in the Philippines, who have resided in the Philippines since birth, and who possess other specified qualifications may be granted Philippines citizenship by administrative proceeding subject to certain requirements. Naturalization in Russia
3567-400: A special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses. According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe , citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group. One last distinction within citizenship
3690-558: A struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class. A citizen came to be understood as a person "free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community". Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were "available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason". The law itself
3813-399: A submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties. The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through "elaborate systems of political representation at a distance" such as representative democracy . Modern citizenship
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3936-432: A subordinate social status but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship. Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially. The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism , according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power. Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify
4059-780: A third nation and this Uruguayan interpretation, become de facto stateless. The following list is a brief summary of the duration of legal residence before a national of a foreign state, without any cultural, historical, or marriage ties or connections to the state in question, can request citizenship under that state's naturalization laws. The Australian Citizenship Act 1973 ended the preferential treatment for British subjects from 1 December 1973. People who became permanent residents from 1 July 2007 must have been lawfully resident in Australia for four years before applying for citizenship by conferral. Those who were present in Australia as permanent residents before 1 July 2007 remain subject to
4182-457: A year in that country or has received either a residence or work permit . The protocol concerning the exemption of nationals of Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden from the obligation to have a passport or residence permit while resident in a Nordic country other than their own, was signed on 22 May 1954 in Copenhagen . The protocol was implemented by individual but concurrent decisions by
4305-509: Is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship. The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union . Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding
4428-499: Is determined by Uruguayan law to be that of their country of birth and therefore, is immutable. Legal citizens acquire political rights but do not acquire Uruguayan nationality as natural citizens do. According to Uruguayan law, those born in Uruguay or whose parents or grandparents are Uruguayan natural citizens are considered to be Uruguayan nationals. As a result of Uruguay's unusual distinction between citizenship and nationality (it
4551-584: Is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states . It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021 when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of "Mercosur Citizen". The concept of "Commonwealth Citizenship" has been in place ever since
4674-536: Is guided by articles 13 and 14 of the federal law "About Citizenship of Russian Federation" passed on May 31, 2002. Citizenship of Russia can be obtained in general or simplified order. To become a citizen in general order, one must be 18 years of age or older, continuously live in Russia as a permanent resident for at least five years (this term is limited to one year for valued specialists, political asylum seekers and refugees), have legal means of existence, promise to obey
4797-524: Is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is a citizenship of an individual commune , from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy special provincial citizenship within Finland , hembygdsrätt . Naturalization Naturalization (or naturalisation ) is the legal act or process by which a non-national of
4920-565: Is legally not required to enter or reside within any other Nordic country. However, identity documentation is still useful, as companies may require proof of identity for certain services, such as trains, airports, age check for alcohol purchase, or for services aimed at residents, like banking, picking up postal packages or dealing with authorities. Usually any valid proof of identity is accepted, in many cases local identity documentation like Nordic driver's license, ID card from bank or other trusted private institute are accepted. An important exception
5043-418: Is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do. From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become
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5166-417: Is often conflated with nationality in today's English-speaking world, international law does not usually use the term citizenship to refer to nationality ; these two notions are conceptually different dimensions of collective membership. Generally citizenships have no expiration and allow persons to work , reside and vote in the polity, as well as identify with the polity, possibly acquiring
5289-577: Is on arrival into Sweden and Norway from Denmark. Internal passport controls are allowed under the Schengen agreement for six months at a time; they have been extended several times. Besides these intra-Nordic passport controls, Denmark has controls at its land border to Germany; and Sweden, Norway, and Denmark have controls on airports and seaports for arrivals from the continent. Finland and Norway also have passport controls at their respective land borders with Russia. Citizens Though citizenship
5412-633: Is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China , for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called "peopleship", argued by an academic article. How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As
5535-609: Is the "temporary" border controls which were introduced in 2015 and which as of 2024 still are in place. The Faroe Islands are part of the Nordic Passport Union but not the Schengen Area, while Greenland and Svalbard are outside both. However, Greenland has an open border with all Nordic countries, and allows Nordic citizens to enter, settle and work without requiring a passport or permits. Svalbard allows Nordic citizens to settle and work without permits, as
5658-513: Is the only country in the world that recognizes the right to citizenship without being a national), legal citizens have encountered problems with their Uruguayan passports at airports around the world since 2015. This is due to recommendations in the seventh edition of Doc. 9303 of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which requires that travel documents issued by participating states include
5781-430: Is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent. Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it
5904-556: Is the spouse or civil partner of a citizen. An applicant who is a spouse or civil partner of a British citizen must: For those not married to or in a civil partnership with a British citizen, the requirements are: Persons who are not US citizens may receive citizenship through the process of naturalization, following the Congressional requirements in the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Naturalized citizens have
6027-438: Is €255, while it is €51 per dependent minor child naturalised along with their parent. The fee may be waived in cases of extreme hardship or public interest. People who naturalise as German citizens must usually give up their previous nationality, as German law takes a restrictive approach to multiple citizenship . Exceptions are made for EU and Swiss citizens (provided that the law of their country of origin does not prohibit
6150-524: The Malay language as well submitting the identity cards of two Malaysians who recommend the applicant for citizenship. As the Government of Malaysia does not recognise dual citizenship, those who seek naturalisation are needed to reside permanently in the country and renouncing their former country citizenship. The requirements are as follows: The Article 16 of 1957 Malaysian Constitution also stated
6273-620: The Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include "aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent". Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans , Asians , and others not considered "free white persons" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by
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#17327651460436396-509: The Renaissance , people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation. Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration. And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials. City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having
6519-606: The United Kingdom . Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown , and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1946 provided for
6642-572: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the right to nationality. As such nationality in international law can be called and understood as citizenship, or more generally as subject or belonging to a sovereign state , and not as ethnicity. This notwithstanding, around 10 million people are stateless . Today, the concept of full citizenship encompasses not only active political rights, but full civil rights and social rights . A person can be recognized as
6765-414: The family , military service , the individual, freedom , religion , ideas of right, and wrong , ethnicity , and patterns for how a person should behave in society. When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond that unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a "broad bond" linking "a person with the state" and gives people a universal identity as
6888-464: The "Nationality" field. The lack of a naturalization path means that the Nationality field in legal citizens' passports indicates their country of birth, which Uruguay assumes to be their nationality of origin. Many countries do not accept passports issued by a country that declares the holder to be a national of another country. As a consequence, it has severely curtailed legal citizens' exercise of
7011-766: The 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act reclassified Filipinos as aliens, and set a quota of 50 immigrants per year, and otherwise applying the Immigration Act of 1924 to them. The Magnuson Act repealed the Chinese Exclusion Act. During the 1940s, 100 annual immigrants from British India and the Philippines were allowed. The War Brides Act of 1945 permitted soldiers to bring back their foreign wives and established precedent in naturalization through marriage . The Immigration Act of 1965 finally allowed people from all nations to be given equal access to immigration and naturalization. Illegal immigration became
7134-459: The German government passed a law that entitled victims of Nazi persecution and their descendants to become naturalised German citizens. The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is jus sanguinis (citizenship by descent) for Jews and jus soli (citizenship by place of birth) for others. Many theorists suggest that there are two opposing conceptions of citizenship: an economic one, and
7257-677: The Minister of the Interior, but have a variety of restrictions and are not guaranteed citizenship. People who fulfil all of the following criteria can obtain Luxembourg citizenship through naturalisation: Naturalisation in Malaysia is guided by the 1964 Malaysian Constitution . According to the law, those who want to be the country citizen should live in the country for a period of 10–12 years. The would-be-citizens are required to speak
7380-661: The Ministry of Public Security and the Public Security Bureau. Applicants must also submit original copies of a foreign passport, a residence permit, a permanent residence permit, and four two-and-a-half inch long pictures. According to the conditions outlined in the Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China , authorities may also require "any other material that the authority believes are related to
7503-413: The Nordic Passport Union countries enjoy extra rights within the Nordic area, not available under Schengen, such as less paperwork if moving to a different Nordic country, and fewer requirements for naturalization or citizenship . Within the Nordic area, any Nordic identity documentation (e.g. a driving licence ) is valid as proof of identity for Nordic citizens because of the Nordic Passport Union, while
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#17327651460437626-572: The Nordic Passport Union. In the case of the Faroe Islands, which are not part of the Schengen Area but remain part of the Nordic Area, the strict Schengen rules apply to travellers from the Faroe Islands into the Schengen Area, including the Nordic countries, but the Nordic rules allowing for an open border apply to those going the other way from the Nordic countries, but not necessarily from the other Schengen countries. However, citizens of
7749-481: The Nordic countries shall make all necessary information available to ascertain a person's identity and citizenship in a Nordic country. The agreement between Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden to remove passport control at the internal Nordic borders, was signed on 12 July 1957 in Copenhagen and came into force on 1 May 1958. This agreement removed all passport checks at the internal Nordic borders, and required
7872-431: The Nordic countries to uphold passport control at the external borders. Aliens with residence permits are allowed to stay up to three months in other Nordic countries, except for seeking employment or conducting business. Aliens who are denied entry into one Nordic country should also be denied entry into the other Nordic countries. The Nordic countries are also obliged to readmit aliens that should have been denied entry at
7995-565: The Norwegian police for the first time suspended this agreement due to a perceived terrorist threat. The agreement for the readmittance of aliens, was signed on 14 July 1952, in Stockholm . The agreement provides that any alien, i.e. persons not citizens of the Nordic countries, having illegally entered one of the Nordic countries directly from another Nordic country should be readmitted by that country, unless that person has stayed at least
8118-525: The Schengen Area after concluding similar agreements with the EU. The Schengen Convention itself was not open for signature by non-EU member states. From 25 March 2001, the Schengen acquis applied to the area of the Nordic Passport Union with the exception of the Faroe Islands . Border checkpoints have been removed within the Schengen Area, in addition to those that had been abolished previously within
8241-488: The Schengen rules have given more relaxed customs checks from Denmark, including no passport checks at airports, since intra-Schengen travellers are separated from the travellers from outside the Schengen area. Still laws give police and guards the right to demand an identity document at airports The protocol concerning the abolition of the requirement for passports to permit travel between Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway
8364-561: The Swedish side. These controls were heavily criticised for violating the rules laid out in title III of the Schengen acquis prohibiting such carrier responsibility within the Schengen area , and were subsequently abolished by the Swedish government on 4 May 2017 to avoid potential formal sanctions. At the border, a traveller will need to be able to present a passport (and appropriate Schengen visa if required), an EU/EEA national ID card , or
8487-648: The US Congress, such as laws in 1906 , 1917 , and 1924 , would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories. Supreme Court cases such as Ozawa v. the United States (1922) and U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase "free white persons," ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not "white persons", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law. Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until
8610-537: The United States. An 1894 law extended the same privilege to honorably discharged five-year veterans of the Navy or Marine Corps. Laws enacted in 1919, 1926, 1940, and 1952 continued preferential treatment provisions for veterans. Following the Spanish–American War in 1898, Philippine citizens were classified as US nationals, and the 1917 Jones–Shafroth Act granted US citizenship to natives of Puerto Rico . But
8733-502: The acquisition of another citizenship) and citizens of countries where renouncing one's citizenship is too difficult or humiliating (e.g. Afghanistan ), prohibitively expensive (e.g. the United States ) or legally impossible (e.g. Argentina ). The Grenadian Government grants citizenship of Grenada for the following reasons: The Indian citizenship and nationality law and the Constitution of India provides single citizenship for
8856-473: The act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed "at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920". It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of
8979-598: The application up to the time of admission to citizenship, and (3) during all the periods referred to in this subsection has been and still is a person of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States , and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the United States. The Naturalization Act of 1795 set the initial rules on naturalization: "free, White persons" who had been resident for five years or more. An 1862 law allowed honorably discharged Army veterans of any war to petition for naturalization after only one year of residence in
9102-463: The assent of the President of India on 7 January 2004 and came into force on 3 December 2004. The Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005 was promulgated by the President of India and came into force on 28 June 2005. Following these reforms, Indian nationality law largely follows the jus sanguinis (citizenship by right of blood) as opposed to the jus soli (citizenship by right of birth within
9225-515: The basic responsibilities and privileges of a South African citizen. The ability to communicate in one of the official languages of South Africa is also required. Applicants must show the intention to reside in South Africa after naturalization, and they are required to make a declaration of allegiance. The Constitution of South Africa states that national legislation must provide for the acquisition, loss and restoration of citizenship. Being
9348-437: The citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honor and respect. In Athens, citizens were both rulers and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had
9471-708: The entire country. The provisions relating to citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution are contained in Articles 5 to 11 in Part ;II of the Constitution of India. Relevant Indian legislation is the Citizenship Act 1955, which has been amended by the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1986, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 1992, the Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003, and Citizenship (Amendment) Ordinance 2005. The Citizenship (Amendment) Act 2003 received
9594-685: The establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations . As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to "Commonwealth countries and Ireland". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in
9717-575: The first point of entry. In November 2015, Sweden and Norway introduced temporary border controls, and requirements for all international airlines and ferries to check identity documents, due to the European migrant crisis . From 4 January 2016, Sweden required bus and train carriers to perform identity checks on the Danish side of the Denmark–Sweden border , while still retaining the border controls on
9840-504: The five years immediately preceding the date of filing his application has been physically present therein for periods totaling at least half of that time, and who has resided within the State or within the district of the Service in the United States in which the applicant filed the application for at least three months, (2) has resided continuously within the United States from the date of
9963-545: The following criteria can obtain Spanish citizenship through naturalisation People who naturalise as Spanish citizens must usually give up their previous nationality, as Spanish law takes a restrictive approach to multiple citizenship. Chapter 2 of the South African Citizenship Act, enacted on October 6, 1995, defines who is considered a naturalized citizen at the time of the act and also outlines
10086-508: The following reasons. Indonesian nationality is regulated by Law No. 12/2006 (UU No. 12 Tahun 2006). The Indonesian nationality law is based on jus sanguinis and jus soli . The Indonesian nationality law does not recognize dual citizenship except for people under the age of 18 (limited double citizenship principle). After reaching 18 years of age individuals are forced to choose one citizenship (single citizenship principle). A foreign citizen can apply to become an Indonesian citizen with
10209-812: The following requirements: Any application for citizenship is granted by the President of Indonesia . Israel 's Declaration of Independence was made on 14 May 1948, the day before the British Mandate was due to expire as a result of the United Nations Partition Plan. The Israeli parliament created two laws regarding immigration, citizenship and naturalization: the Law of Return and the Israeli citizenship law . The Law of Return, enacted on July 15, 1950, gives Jews living anywhere in
10332-470: The four countries from another. On 1 July 1954, the agreement was extended to allow citizens to reside and work in any of the four countries without a residence or work permit. Iceland implemented the agreement on 1 January 1966. Passport checks for citizens of non-member countries at the borders between member countries were removed by a treaty between Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland signed on 12 July 1957 and which came into force on 1 May 1958. The treaty
10455-529: The fundamental laws of the Republic." The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women "irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of the election." The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with
10578-454: The future must apply to the Minister of Home Affairs and must meet a slew of requirements. First, naturalization applicants must be over the age of 18 and must have been a permanent resident of South Africa for five years prior to application (prior to 2010, the permanent residence requirement was one year prior to application and for four out of the eight years prior to application). Applicants must also demonstrate good character and knowledge of
10701-426: The governments of each of the countries, and can be revoked in case of war, danger of war, or other extraordinary international or national circumstances. The protocol provides that citizens of the Nordic countries can travel without passport or other travel documentation to any other Nordic country. Citizens of the Nordic countries can reside without residence permit in any other Nordic country. Police authorities in
10824-575: The host country and by the original country, will depend on the laws of the countries involved. Arguments for increasing naturalization include reducing backlogs in naturalization applications and reshaping the electorate of the country. The massive increase in population flux due to globalization and the sharp increase in the numbers of refugees following World War I created many stateless persons , people who were not citizens of any state. In some rare cases, laws for mass naturalization were passed. As naturalization laws had been designed to cater for
10947-683: The importance of freedom . Hosking explained: It can be argued that this growth of slavery was what made Greeks particularly conscious of the value of freedom. After all, any Greek farmer might fall into debt and therefore might become a slave, at almost any time ... When the Greeks fought together, they fought in order to avoid being enslaved by warfare, to avoid being defeated by those who might take them into slavery. And they also arranged their political institutions so as to remain free men. Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship
11070-474: The increase in international migrations created a new category of migrants, most of them economic migrants . For economic, political, humanitarian and pragmatic reasons, many states passed laws allowing a person to acquire their citizenship after birth, such as by marriage to a national – jus matrimonii – or by having ancestors who are nationals of that country, in order to reduce the scope of this category. However, in some countries this system still maintains
11193-529: The laws and Constitution of Russia and be fluent in the Russian language . There is also a possibility to naturalize in a simplified order, in which certain requirements will be waived. Eligible for that are people, at least one parent of whom is a Russian citizen living on Russian territory; people, who lived on the territories of the former Soviet republics but never obtained citizenships of those nations after they gained independence; people, who were born on
11316-421: The modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: "To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!" This form of citizenship was based on the obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to
11439-624: The nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred "subject" status upon birth, and could only obtain "citizen" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany ). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights. In 2021,
11562-421: The nation-state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as "citizens" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this
11685-599: The nationality application". People who fulfil all of the following criteria can obtain French citizenship through naturalisation: The fee for naturalisation is €55, except in French Guiana , where it is €27.50. People who fulfil all of the following criteria can obtain German citizenship through naturalisation: The dependent minor children of an applicant for naturalisation may also themselves become naturalised German citizens. The fee for standard naturalisation
11808-458: The nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship. An agreement is known as the amended EC Treaty established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided
11931-438: The naturalization process for future immigrants. Any person who immediately prior to the commencement of the act had been a South African citizen via naturalization, had been deemed to be a South African citizen by registration, or had been a citizen via naturalization of any of the former states now composing South Africa is now considered to be a naturalized citizen of South Africa. Those wishing to apply for naturalization in
12054-531: The passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s, some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans. It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However,
12177-402: The polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life could not be separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to
12300-528: The power to revoke naturalization at any time for specific reasons listed in the Act. Reasons for revoking the naturalization certificate include marrying someone who is a citizen of another country and holding citizenship in another country, or applying for citizenship of another country without prior authorization for retention of citizenship. If a permanent resident is denied naturalization, he or she must wait at least one year before reapplying. There has always been
12423-468: The prestige and good name of Ghana and respect the symbols of Ghana. Examples of national symbols includes the Ghanaian flag, coat of arms, money, and state sword. These national symbols must be treated with respect and high esteem by citizens since they best represent Ghanaians. Apart from responsibilities, citizens also have rights. Some of the rights are the right to pursue life, liberty and happiness,
12546-424: The previous residence requirement (in force since 1984, e.g. resident for two years). The People's Republic of China gives citizenship to people with one or two parents with Chinese nationality who have not taken residence in other countries. The country also gives citizenship to people born on its territory to stateless people who have settled there. Furthermore, individuals may apply for nationality if they have
12669-511: The principles of equality under the law , civic participation in government, and notions that "no one citizen should have too much power for too long", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship. If Greek citizenship was an "emancipation from the world of things", the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in
12792-428: The principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia. Nazism , the German variant of twentieth-century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship
12915-583: The relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights . Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship. Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well. Citizenship can be seen as
13038-414: The relatively few people who had voluntarily moved from one country to another (expatriates), many western democracies were not ready to naturalize large numbers of people. This included the massive influx of stateless people which followed massive denationalizations and the expulsion of ethnic minorities from newly created nation states in the first part of the 20th century. Since World War II ,
13161-400: The right to free movement, as their travel abroad is often difficult or downright impossible. Due to its current and narrow definition of nationality, Uruguay could be violating the sovereignty of other countries by assigning foreign nationalities in its official documents, thus overriding their powers. Some Uruguayan legal citizens may even, as a result of the application of a national law of
13284-542: The right to speak and vote in the political assembly. In the Roman Empire , citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as
13407-408: The right to worship, right to run for elected office and right to express oneself. Many thinkers such as Giorgio Agamben in his work extending the biopolitical framework of Foucault 's History of Sexuality in the book, Homo Sacer , point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece , although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only
13530-426: The same rights as those who acquired citizenship at birth. The INA states the following: No person, except as otherwise provided in this subchapter , shall be naturalized unless such applicant, (1) immediately preceding the date of filing his application for naturalization has resided continuously, after being lawfully admitted for permanent residence , within the United States for at least five years and during
13653-430: The sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained: The person was defined and represented through his actions upon things; in the course of time, the term property came to mean, first, the defining characteristic of a human or other being; second, the relation which a person had with a thing; and third, the thing defined as the possession of some person. Roman citizenship reflected
13776-547: The territory of RSFSR and formerly held Soviet citizenship; people married to Russian citizens for at least 3 years; people, who served in Russian Armed Forces under contract for at least 3 years; parents of mentally incapacitated children over 18 who are Russian citizens; participants of the State Program for Assisting Compatriots Residing Abroad; and some other categories. People who fulfill all of
13899-518: The territory). In 2019, a Citizenship Amendment Act was passed by the Parliament of India. This Act aims at fast tracking citizenship for illegal immigrants and refugees fleeing religious persecution for people of Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Jain, Parsi or Christian faiths who have entered India on or before 31 December 2014 from the neighbouring countries of Pakistan, Afghanistan and Bangladesh. The Italian Government grants Italian citizenship for
14022-661: The world the right to immigrate to Israel. This right to immigrate did not and still does not grant citizenship. In fact, for four years after Israel gained independence, there were no Israeli citizens. On July 14, 1952, the Israeli parliament enacted the Israeli Nationality Law. The Nationality Law naturalized all citizens of Mandated Palestine , the inhabitants of Israel on July 15, 1952, and those who had legally resided in Israel between May 14, 1948, and July 14, 1952. The law further clarified that naturalization
14145-556: The world, public officials in the foreign services of any of the Nordic countries are to assist citizens of another Nordic country if that country is not represented in the territory concerned, according to the Helsinki Treaty . The Nordic Passport Union was established in three stages. In 1952, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland agreed to abolish the requirement for passports for travel between them and to readmit citizens of other countries who had entered illegally into one of
14268-517: Was a kind of bond uniting people. Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications. During the European Middle Ages , citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns (see medieval commune ), and applied mainly to middle-class folk. Titles such as burgher , grand burgher (German Großbürger ) and the bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to
14391-590: Was available to immigrants who had arrived before Israel's creation, immigrants who arrived after statehood was granted, and those who did not come to Israel as immigrants but have since expressed desire to settle in Israel, with restriction. Naturalization applicants must also meet the following requirements: be over 18 years of age, have resided in Israel for three out of the five preceding years, have settled or intend to settle permanently in Israel, have some knowledge of Hebrew, and have renounced prior nationality or demonstrated ability to renounce nationality after becoming
14514-519: Was conferred only on males of German (or so-called " Aryan ") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich , and because of this law Jews and others who could not "prove German racial heritage" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within
14637-485: Was extended to Iceland on 24 September 1965 and to the Faroe Islands on 1 January 1966. Greenland and Svalbard remain outside the passport union. In December 1996 the two non-EU member states Norway and Iceland signed an association agreement with the signatories of the Schengen Agreement to become part of the Schengen Area . While this agreement never came into force, both countries did become part of
14760-432: Was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης politēs < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners ( metics ). The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected to one's everyday life in
14883-422: Was necessary to fit Aristotle's definition of the besouled (the animate) to obtain citizenship: neither the sacred olive tree nor spring would have any rights. An essential part of the framework of Greco-Roman ethics is the figure of Homo Sacer or the bare life. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 Modern Scholar lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for
15006-521: Was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution , ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside." Two years later,
15129-497: Was signed on 14 July 1952, in Stockholm . This protocol was implemented by the individual but concurrent decisions of the four governments. It abolished the need for citizens of the four countries to carry a passport when travelling in the three other countries provided that the trip was for such a short time that a residence permit was not necessary. The agreement could be revoked in case of war, danger of war, or extraordinary international or national circumstances. On 26 July 2014
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