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96-554: The Royal Aeronautical Society , also known as the RAeS , is a British multi-disciplinary professional institution dedicated to the global aerospace community. Founded in 1866, it is the oldest aeronautical society in the world. Members, Fellows, and Companions of the society can use the post-nominal letters MRAeS, FRAeS, or CRAeS, respectively. The objectives of The Royal Aeronautical Society include: to support and maintain high professional standards in aerospace disciplines; to provide

192-505: A whirling arm apparatus to determine drag and did some of the first experiments in aviation theory. Sir George Cayley (1773–1857) also used a whirling arm to measure the drag and lift of various airfoils. His whirling arm was 5 feet (1.5 m) long and attained top speeds between 10 and 20 feet per second (3 to 6 m/s). Otto Lilienthal used a rotating arm to accurately measure wing airfoils with varying angles of attack , establishing their lift-to-drag ratio polar diagrams, but

288-516: A centrifugal blower in 1897, and determined the drag coefficients of flat plates, cylinders and spheres. Danish inventor Poul la Cour applied wind tunnels in his process of developing and refining the technology of wind turbines in the early 1890s. Carl Rickard Nyberg used a wind tunnel when designing his Flugan from 1897 and onwards. In a classic set of experiments, the Englishman Osborne Reynolds (1842–1912) of

384-491: A century of women in flight and to honour Britain's most famous woman aviator. The Lecture is held on or close to 6 July every year to mark the date in 1929 when Amy Johnson was awarded her pilot’s licence . The Lecture is intended to tackle serious issues of interest to a wide audience, not just women. High-profile women from industry are asked to lecture on a topic that speaks of future challenges of interest to everyone. Carolyn McCall , chief executive of EasyJet , delivered

480-483: A factor), and so is not directly useful for accurate measurements. The air moving through the tunnel needs to be relatively turbulence-free and laminar . To correct this problem, closely spaced vertical and horizontal air vanes are used to smooth out the turbulent airflow before reaching the subject of the testing. Due to the effects of viscosity , the cross-section of a wind tunnel is typically circular rather than square, because there will be greater flow constriction in

576-497: A flexible strip. The strip is attached to the aerodynamic surface with tape, and it sends signals depicting the pressure distribution along its surface. Pressure distributions on a test model can also be determined by performing a wake survey , in which either a single pitot tube is used to obtain multiple readings downstream of the test model, or a multiple-tube manometer is mounted downstream and all its readings are taken. The aerodynamic properties of an object can not all remain

672-680: A more serious scientific discipline. Airmen like Otto Lilienthal , who introduced cambered airfoils in 1891, used gliders to analyze aerodynamic forces . The Wright brothers were interested in Lilienthal's work and read several of his publications. They also found inspiration in Octave Chanute , an airman and the author of Progress in Flying Machines (1894). It was the preliminary work of Cayley, Lilienthal, Chanute, and other early aerospace engineers that brought about

768-405: A pair of fans driven by 4,000 hp (3,000 kW) electric motors. The layout was a double-return, closed-loop format and could accommodate many full-size real aircraft as well as scale models. The tunnel was eventually closed and, even though it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1995, demolition began in 2010. Until World War II, the world's largest wind tunnel, built in 1932–1934,

864-537: A part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury. Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA), regulate the aerospace market with strict certification standards. This

960-451: A part. This certification guarantees that a part was repaired or overhauled to meet OEM specifications. Once a part is overhauled its value is determined from the supply and demand of the aerospace market. When an airline has an aircraft on the ground , the part that the airline requires to get the plane back into service becomes invaluable. This can drive the market for specific parts. There are several online marketplaces that assist with

1056-417: A tube, and air is blown around it to study the interaction between the object and the moving air. They are used to test the aerodynamic effects of aircraft , rockets , cars , and buildings . Different wind tunnels range in size from less than a foot across, to over 100 feet (30 m), and can have air that moves at speeds from a light breeze to hypersonic velocities. Usually, large fans move air through

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1152-512: A unique source of specialist information and a local forum for the exchange of ideas; and to exert influence in the interests of aerospace in the public and industrial arenas, including universities. The Royal Aeronautical Society is a worldwide society with an international network of 67 branches. Many practitioners of aerospace disciplines use the Society's designatory post-nominals such as FRAeS , CRAeS, MRAeS, AMRAeS, and ARAeS (incorporating

1248-425: A variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more. NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use. For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of

1344-431: A wind tunnel type of test during an actual flight in order to refine the computational model. Where external turbulent flow is present, CFD is not practical due to limitations in present-day computing resources. For example, an area that is still much too complex for the use of CFD is determining the effects of flow on and around structures, bridges, and terrain. The most effective way to simulative external turbulent flow

1440-405: Is blown or sucked through a duct equipped with a viewing port and instrumentation where models or geometrical shapes are mounted for study. Typically the air is moved through the tunnel using a series of fans. For very large wind tunnels several meters in diameter, a single large fan is not practical, and so instead an array of multiple fans are used in parallel to provide sufficient airflow. Due to

1536-527: Is for understanding exhaust gas dispersion patterns for hospitals, laboratories, and other emitting sources. Other examples of boundary layer wind tunnel applications are assessments of pedestrian comfort and snow drifting. Wind tunnel modeling is accepted as a method for aiding in green building design. For instance, the use of boundary layer wind tunnel modeling can be used as a credit for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification through

1632-803: Is hosted yearly by the Yeovil Branch of the Royal Aeronautical Society, held at Westland Leisure Complex, and is a key social and networking event of the Yeovil lecture season. It is a black tie event attracting over 200 guests drawn from all sectors of the aerospace community. John Stringfellow created, alongside William Samuel Henson , the first powered flight aircraft , developed in Chard, Somerset , which flew unmanned in 1848, 63 years prior to brothers Wilbur & Orville Wrights' flight. The Wilbur & Orville Wright Named Lecture

1728-619: Is meant to reach and ensure the highest possible level of safety. The standards AS 9100 in America, EN 9100 on the European market or JISQ 9100 in Asia particularly address the aerospace and aviation industry. These are standards applying to the functional safety of aerospace vehicles. Some companies are therefore specialized in the certification, inspection verification and testing of the vehicles and spare parts to ensure and attest compliance with

1824-416: Is particularly important in open cockpit race cars such as Indycar and Formula One. Excessive lift forces on the helmet can cause considerable neck strain on the driver, and flow separation on the back side of the helmet can cause turbulent buffeting and thus blurred vision for the driver at high speeds. The advances in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling on high-speed digital computers has reduced

1920-409: Is through the use of a boundary layer wind tunnel. There are many applications for boundary layer wind tunnel modeling. For example, understanding the impact of wind on high-rise buildings, factories, bridges, etc. can help building designers construct a structure that stands up to wind effects in the most efficient manner possible. Another significant application for boundary layer wind tunnel modeling

2016-764: The National Aerospace Laboratories and the Indian Space Research Organisation are headquartered. The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched India's first Moon orbiter, Chandrayaan-1 , in October 2008. In Russia, large aerospace companies like Oboronprom and the United Aircraft Building Corporation (encompassing Mikoyan , Sukhoi , Ilyushin , Tupolev , Yakovlev , and Irkut which includes Beriev ) are among

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2112-531: The University of Manchester demonstrated that the airflow pattern over a scale model would be the same for the full-scale vehicle if a certain flow parameter were the same in both cases. This factor, now known as the Reynolds number , is a basic parameter in the description of all fluid-flow situations, including the shapes of flow patterns, the ease of heat transfer, and the onset of turbulence. This comprises

2208-569: The Wright Brothers . Although it is unusual for more than one medal (in each of the three grades) to be awarded annually, since 2004 the Society has also periodically awarded team medals (Gold, Silver, and Bronze) for exceptional or groundbreaking teamwork in aeronautical research and development. Others awarded have included the R. P. Alston Memorial Prize for developments in flight-testing, the Edward Busk prize for applied aerodynamics,

2304-417: The static pressure , and (for compressible flow only) the temperature rise in the airflow. The direction of airflow around a model can be determined by tufts of yarn attached to the aerodynamic surfaces. The direction of airflow approaching a surface can be visualized by mounting threads in the airflow ahead of and aft of the test model. Smoke or bubbles of liquid can be introduced into the airflow upstream of

2400-497: The 'Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers' was incorporated into the Royal Aeronautical Society. The following have served as President of the Royal Aeronautical Society: In addition to the award of Fellowship of the Royal Aeronautical Society (FRAeS), the Society awards several other medals and prizes. These include its Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals. The very first gold medal was awarded in 1909 to

2496-413: The 1960s, wind tunnel testing began to receive widespread adoption for automobiles , not so much to determine aerodynamic forces in the same way as an airplane, but to increase the fuel efficiency of vehicles by reducing the aerodynamic drag. In these studies, the interaction between the road and the vehicle plays a significant role, and this interaction must be taken into consideration when interpreting

2592-587: The Amy Johnson Lecture and in 2018 Air Vice-Marshal Sue Gray , CB, OBE from the Royal Air Force gave the Amy Johnson Lecture in honour of the 100th anniversary of the RAF. The Sopwith Lecture was established in 1990 to honour Sir Thomas Sopwith CBE, Hon FRAeS. In the years prior to World War I, Sopwith became England’s premier aviator and established the first authoritative test pilot school in

2688-553: The European Union, aerospace companies such as Airbus SE , Safran , Thales , Dassault Aviation , Leonardo and Saab AB account for a large share of the global aerospace industry and research effort, with the European Space Agency as one of the largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. In India, Bangalore is a major center of the aerospace industry, where Hindustan Aeronautics Limited ,

2784-782: The Inaugural Lecture on 6 July 2011 at the Society's Headquarters in London. The second Amy Johnson Named Lecture was delivered by Marion C. Blakey , president and chief executive of Aerospace Industries Association (AIA), on 5 July 2012. The third Lecture was delivered by Gretchen Haskins, former Group Director of the Safety Regulation Group of the UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAA), on 8 July 2013. In 2017, Katherine Bennett OBE FRAeS, Senior Vice President Public Affairs, Airbus gave

2880-537: The Royal Aeronautical Society formed a group of experts to document how to better simulate aircraft upset conditions, and thus improve training programmes. The Society was founded in January 1866 with the name "The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain" and is the oldest aeronautical society in the world. Early or founding members included James Glaisher , Francis Wenham , the Duke of Argyll , and Frederick Brearey . In

2976-410: The Society's Headquarters in London. The 100th Lecture was given by Suzanna Darcy-Henneman , Chief Pilot & Director of Training, Boeing Commercial Airplanes , on 8 December 2011. The 101st Lecture was given by Tony Parasida, corporate vice president, The Boeing Company , on 20 December 2012. The 102nd Lecture was given by Thomas Enders , CEO of EADS , on 12 December 2013. The 103rd Lecture

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3072-425: The Society, with the aim of serving the interests of both enthusiasts and industry professionals. Their remit is to consider significant developments in their field through conferences and lectures, with the intention of stimulating debate and facilitating action on key industry issues. The Groups also act as focal points for all enquiries to the Society concerning their specialist subject matter. As of September 2013,

3168-585: The Specialist Group committees are: Aerodynamics, Aerospace Medicine, Air Power, Air Law, Air Transport, Airworthiness & Maintenance, Avionics & Systems, Environment, Flight Operations, Flight Simulation, Flight Test, General Aviation, Greener by Design, Historical, Human Factors, Human Powered Flight, Propulsion, Rotorcraft, Space, Structures & Materials, UAS, Weapons Systems & Technologies, and Women in Aviation & Aerospace. In 2009,

3264-741: The Swedish Air Force—;especially in support of its position as a neutral country. (See Saab AB .) Other European countries either team up in making fighters (such as the Panavia Tornado and the Eurofighter Typhoon ), or else to import them from the United States. Pakistan has a developing aerospace engineering industry. The National Engineering and Scientific Commission , Khan Research Laboratories and Pakistan Aeronautical Complex are among

3360-523: The U.S. Green Building Council. Wind tunnel tests in a boundary layer wind tunnel allow for the natural drag of the Earth's surface to be simulated. For accuracy, it is important to simulate the mean wind speed profile and turbulence effects within the atmospheric boundary layer. Most codes and standards recognize that wind tunnel testing can produce reliable information for designers, especially when their projects are in complex terrain or on exposed sites. In

3456-454: The UAE. Divisions of the Society have been formed in countries and regions that can sustain a number of Branches. Divisions operate with a large degree of autonomy, being responsible for their own branch network, membership recruitment, subscription levels, conference and lecture programmes. Specialist Groups covering various facets of the aerospace industry exist under the overall umbrella of

3552-542: The United States and Europe to fill these needs. However Canada still manufactures some military aircraft although they are generally not combat capable. Another notable example was the late 1950s development of the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow , a supersonic fighter-interceptor whose 1959 cancellation was considered highly controversial. France has continued to make its own warplanes for its air force and navy, and Sweden continues to make its own warplanes for

3648-403: The United States as part of the plan to exploit German technology developments. For limited applications, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) can supplement or possibly replace the use of wind tunnels. For example, the experimental rocket plane SpaceShipOne was designed without any use of wind tunnels. However, on one test, flight threads were attached to the surface of the wings, performing

3744-1332: The United States, European Space Agency in Europe, the Canadian Space Agency in Canada, Indian Space Research Organisation in India, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency in Japan, Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities in Russia, China National Space Administration in China, SUPARCO in Pakistan, Iranian Space Agency in Iran, and Korea Aerospace Research Institute in South Korea. Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as spacecraft and satellites . Some known companies involved in space programs include Boeing , Cobham , Airbus , SpaceX , Lockheed Martin , RTX Corporation , MDA and Northrop Grumman . These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as

3840-403: The United States, many wind tunnels have been decommissioned from 1990 to 2010, including some historic facilities. Pressure is brought to bear on remaining wind tunnels due to declining or erratic usage, high electricity costs, and in some cases the high value of the real estate upon which the facility sits. On the other hand, CFD validation still requires wind-tunnel data, and this is likely to be

3936-529: The United States. However, the UK has a very active aerospace sector, with major companies such as BAE Systems , supplying fully assembled aircraft, aircraft components, sub-assemblies and sub-systems to other manufacturers, both in Europe and all over the world. Canada has formerly manufactured some of its own designs for jet warplanes, etc. (e.g. the CF-100 fighter), but for some decades, it has relied on imports from

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4032-608: The Wakefield Medal for advances in aviation safety, and an Orville Wright Prize. Honorary Fellowships and Honorary Companionships are awarded as well. The Sir Robert Hardingham Sword The Sir Robert Hardingham Sword is awarded in recognition of outstanding service to the RAeS by a member of the Society. Nominally an annual award, in practice the award is only made about one year in two. Notable Gold Medal recipients include: The annual Henson & Stringfellow Lecture and Dinner

4128-534: The above, however, that they were simply using the accepted technology of the day, though this was not yet a common technology in America. In France , Gustave Eiffel (1832–1923) built his first open-return wind tunnel in 1909, powered by a 67 hp (50 kW) electric motor, at Champs-de-Mars, near the foot of the tower that bears his name. Between 1909 and 1912 Eiffel ran about 4,000 tests in his wind tunnel, and his systematic experimentation set new standards for aeronautical research. In 1912 Eiffel's laboratory

4224-484: The air standing still and an aircraft moving, an object would be held still and the air moved around it. In this way, a stationary observer could study the flying object in action, and could measure the aerodynamic forces acting on it. The development of wind tunnels accompanied the development of the airplane. Large wind tunnels were built during World War II, and as supersonic aircraft were developed, supersonic wind tunnels were constructed to test them. Wind tunnel testing

4320-400: The airstream to show the path that air takes around the object. Or, small threads can be attached to specific parts to show the airflow at those points. The earliest wind tunnels were invented towards the end of the 19th century, in the early days of aeronautical research, as part of the effort to develop heavier-than-air flying machines. The wind tunnel reversed the usual situation. Instead of

4416-638: The answers out of a wind tunnel." In 1941 the US constructed one of the largest wind tunnels at that time at Wright Field in Dayton, Ohio. This wind tunnel starts at 45 feet (14 m) and narrows to 20 feet (6.1 m) in diameter. Two 40-foot (12 m) fans were driven by a 40,000 hp electric motor. Large scale aircraft models could be tested at air speeds of 400 mph (640 km/h). During WWII, Germany developed different designs of large wind tunnels to further their knowledge of aeronautics. For example,

4512-405: The appropriate regulations. Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose. These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $ 5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices. These spinoffs have applications in

4608-534: The best available knowledge and present it in an authoritative and accessible form – a working tool for engineers who might come from other industries and lack the specialised knowledge required for aircraft design. This technical department became known as the Engineering Sciences Data Unit (ESDU) and eventually became a separate entity in the 1980s. In 1987 the ' Society of Licensed Aircraft Engineers and Technologists ', previously called

4704-641: The building will collapse. Determining such forces was required before building codes could specify the required strength of such buildings and these tests continue to be used for large or unusual buildings. Wind tunnel testing was first applied to automobiles as early as the 1920s, on cars such as the Rumpler Tropfenwagen , and later the Chrysler Airflow . Initially, automakers would test out scale models of their cars, but later, full scale automotive wind tunnels were built. Starting in

4800-476: The capability to design and manufacture both armed and unarmed unmanned aerial vehicles . In the People's Republic of China, Beijing , Xi'an , Chengdu , Shanghai , Shenyang and Nanchang are major research and manufacture centers of the aerospace industry. China has developed an extensive capability to design, test and produce military aircraft, missiles and space vehicles. Despite the cancellation in 1983 of

4896-555: The case for the foreseeable future. Studies have been done and others are underway to assess future military and commercial wind tunnel needs, but the outcome remains uncertain. More recently an increasing use of jet-powered, instrumented unmanned vehicles, or research drones, have replaced some of the traditional uses of wind tunnels. The world's fastest wind tunnel as of 2019 is the LENS-X wind tunnel, located in Buffalo, New York. Air

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4992-483: The central scientific justification for the use of models in wind tunnels to simulate real-life phenomena. However, there are limitations on conditions in which dynamic similarity is based upon the Reynolds number alone. The Wright brothers ' use of a simple wind tunnel in 1901 to study the effects of airflow over various shapes while developing their Wright Flyer was in some ways revolutionary. It can be seen from

5088-488: The commodity selling of aircraft parts. In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation occurred at the end of the 20th century and in the early 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 mergers and acquisitions with a total known value of US$ 678 billion were announced worldwide. The largest transactions have been: Multiple technologies and innovations are used in aerospace, many of them pioneered around World War II : Functional safety relates to

5184-632: The construction of aircraft. Modern aerospace began with Engineer George Cayley in 1799. Cayley proposed an aircraft with a "fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail," defining characteristics of the modern aeroplane. The 19th century saw the creation of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain (1866), the American Rocketry Society, and the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences , all of which made aeronautics

5280-428: The corners of a square tunnel that can make the flow turbulent. A circular tunnel provides a smoother flow. The inside facing of the tunnel is typically as smooth as possible, to reduce surface drag and turbulence that could impact the accuracy of the testing. Even smooth walls induce some drag into the airflow, and so the object being tested is usually kept near the center of the tunnel, with an empty buffer zone between

5376-403: The demand for wind tunnel testing, but has not completely eliminated it. Many real-world problems can still not be modeled accurately enough by CFD to eliminate the need for physical tests in wind tunnels. Air velocity and pressures are measured in several ways in wind tunnels. Air velocity through the test section is determined by Bernoulli's principle . Measurement of the dynamic pressure ,

5472-414: The direction of smoke from a ship's stack, to whether a given airplane would fly. Progress at Aachen, I felt, would be virtually impossible without a good wind tunnel. When von Kármán began to consult with Caltech he worked with Clark Millikan and Arthur L. Klein. He objected to their design and insisted on a return flow making the device "independent of the fluctuations of the outside atmosphere". It

5568-416: The end of the war, Germany had at least three different supersonic wind tunnels, with one capable of Mach 4.4 (heated) airflows. A large wind tunnel under construction near Oetztal , Austria would have had two fans directly driven by two 50,000 horsepower hydraulic turbines . The installation was not completed by the end of the war and the dismantled equipment was shipped to Modane , France in 1946 where it

5664-399: The experimental Shanghai Y-10 , China is still developing its civil aerospace industry. The aircraft parts industry was born out of the sale of second-hand or used aircraft parts from the aerospace manufacture sector. Within the United States there is a specific process that parts brokers or resellers must follow. This includes leveraging a certified repair station to overhaul and "tag"

5760-609: The first crewed Moon landing. In April 1981, the Space Shuttle Columbia launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with " Mir " in 1986 and is continued by the " International Space Station ". Space commercialization and space tourism are more recent features of aerospace. Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces "aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts". Most of

5856-479: The first enclosed wind tunnel in 1871. Once this breakthrough had been achieved, detailed technical data was rapidly extracted by the use of this tool. Wenham and his colleague John Browning are credited with many fundamental discoveries, including the measurement of l/d ratios, and the revelation of the beneficial effects of a high aspect ratio . Konstantin Tsiolkovsky built an open-section wind tunnel with

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5952-606: The first powered sustained flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903, by the Wright brothers. War and science fiction inspired scientists and engineers like Konstantin Tsiolkovsky and Wernher von Braun to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. World War II inspired Wernher von Braun to create the V1 and V2 rockets. The launch of Sputnik 1 in October 1957 started the Space Age , and on July 20, 1969 Apollo 11 achieved

6048-412: The first year, there were 65 members, at the end of the second year, 91 members, and in the third year, 106 members. Annual reports were produced in the first decades. In 1868 the Society held a major exhibition at London's Crystal Palace with 78 entries. John Stringfellow 's steam engine was shown there. The Society sponsored the first wind tunnel in 1870–71, designed by Wenham and Browning. In 1918,

6144-1148: The former graduate grade, GradRAeS). The RAeS headquarters is at 4 Hamilton Place , London, W1J 7BQ. In addition to offices for its staff the building is used for Society events and parts of the building are available for private hire. Branches deliver membership benefits and disseminate aerospace information. As of September 2013, branches located in the United Kingdom include: Belfast, Birmingham, Boscombe Down , Bristol, Brough , Cambridge, Cardiff, Chester, Christchurch, Coventry, Cranfield , Cranwell , Derby, FAA Yeovilton , Farnborough , Gatwick, Gloucester & Cheltenham, Hatfield, Heathrow, Highland, Isle of Wight, Isle of Man, Loughborough, Manchester, Marham , Medway, Oxford, Preston, Prestwick, Sheffield, Solent, Southend, Stevenage, Swindon, Weybridge, and Yeovil. The RAeS international branch network includes: Adelaide, Auckland, Blenheim, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Canterbury, Cyprus, Dublin, Hamburg, Hamilton, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Melbourne, Montreal, Munich, Palmerston North, Paris, Perth, Seattle, Singapore, Sydney, Toulouse, and

6240-1092: The industrial sector with fresh workers, apprenticeship programs like the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Council (AJAC) collaborate with community colleges and aerospace firms in Washington state. Important locations of the civilian aerospace industry worldwide include Washington state ( Boeing ), California ( Boeing , Lockheed Martin , etc.) and Montreal, Quebec , Canada ( Bombardier , Pratt & Whitney Canada ) in North America ; Toulouse , France ( Airbus SE ) and Hamburg , Germany ( Airbus SE ) in Europe ; as well as São José dos Campos , Brazil ( Embraer ), Querétaro , Mexico (Bombardier Aerospace, General Electric Aviation) and Mexicali , Mexico (United Technologies Corporation, Gulfstream Aerospace ) in Latin America . In

6336-561: The industry is geared toward governmental work. For each original equipment manufacturer (OEM), the US government has assigned a Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) code . These codes help to identify each manufacturer, repair facilities, and other critical aftermarket vendors in the aerospace industry. In the United States, the Department of Defense and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) are

6432-411: The lecture was delivered online by Dirk Hoke, CEO, Airbus Defence & Space . The July 18th.,1975 edition of the society's Journal included the first use of the misattributed term, " Beam Me Up, Scotty ", in a sentence, viz:"...in a sort of, 'Beam me up, Scotty', routine". Aerospace The beginning of space and the ending of the air are proposed as 100km (62mi) above the ground according to

6528-413: The major global players in this industry. The historic Soviet Union was also the home of a major aerospace industry. The United Kingdom formerly attempted to maintain its own large aerospace industry, making its own airliners and warplanes, but it has largely turned its lot over to cooperative efforts with continental companies, and it has turned into a large import customer, too, from countries such as

6624-580: The medical derivations of aerospace achievement. This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization. "These NASA technologies are not only giving companies and entrepreneurs a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial lunar landers ," said Daniel Lockney. Wind tunnel#History of wind tunnels Wind tunnels are machines in which objects are held stationary inside

6720-490: The organisation's name was changed to the Royal Aeronautical Society. In 1923 its principal journal was renamed from The Aeronautical Journal to The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society and in 1927 the Institution of Aeronautical Engineers Journal was merged into it. In 1940, the RAeS responded to the wartime need to expand the aircraft industry. The Society established a Technical Department to bring together

6816-400: The physical explanation that the air density is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity. In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of the public and private sectors. For example, several states have a civilian space program funded by the government , such as National Aeronautics and Space Administration in

6912-544: The premier organizations involved in research and development in this sector. Pakistan has the capability of designing and manufacturing guided rockets, missiles and space vehicles. The city of Kamra is home to the Pakistan Aeronautical Complex which contains several factories. This facility is responsible for manufacturing the MFI-17 , MFI-395 , K-8 and JF-17 Thunder aircraft. Pakistan also has

7008-431: The pressure at each hole. Pressure distributions can more conveniently be measured by the use of pressure-sensitive paint , in which higher local pressure is indicated by lowered fluorescence of the paint at that point. Pressure distributions can also be conveniently measured by the use of pressure-sensitive pressure belts , a recent development in which multiple ultra-miniaturized pressure sensor modules are integrated into

7104-592: The same for a scaled model. However, by observing certain similarity rules, a very satisfactory correspondence between the aerodynamic properties of a scaled model and a full-size object can be achieved. The choice of similarity parameters depends on the purpose of the test, but the most important conditions to satisfy are usually: In certain particular test cases, other similarity parameters must be satisfied, such as e.g. Froude number . English military engineer and mathematician Benjamin Robins (1707–1751) invented

7200-403: The sheer volume and speed of air movement required, the fans may be powered by stationary turbofan engines rather than electric motors. The airflow created by the fans that is entering the tunnel is itself highly turbulent due to the fan blade motion (when the fan is blowing air into the test section – when it is sucking air out of the test section downstream, the fan-blade turbulence is not

7296-426: The test model, and their path around the model can be photographed (see particle image velocimetry ). Aerodynamic forces on the test model are usually measured with beam balances , connected to the test model with beams, strings, or cables. The pressure distributions across the test model have historically been measured by drilling many small holes along the airflow path, and using multi-tube manometers to measure

7392-556: The test results. In the real world, the vehicle is moving while the road and air are stationary. In a wind tunnel test, the road must also be moved past a vehicle along with air being blown around it. This has been accomplished with moving belts under the test vehicle to simulate the moving road, and very similar devices are used in wind tunnel testing of aircraft take-off and landing configurations. Sporting equipment has also studied in wind tunnels, including golf clubs, golf balls, bobsleds, cyclists, and race car helmets. Helmet aerodynamics

7488-639: The two largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. Others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006. Most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with Missouri , New York and Texas also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U.S. are Boeing , United Technologies Corporation , SpaceX , Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin . As talented American employees age and retire, these manufacturers face an expanding labor shortfall. In order to supply

7584-459: The wind stream is upwards for the testing of models in spin situations and the concepts and engineering designs for the first primitive helicopters flown in the US. Later research into airflows near or above the speed of sound used a related approach. Metal pressure chambers were used to store high-pressure air which was then accelerated through a nozzle designed to provide supersonic flow. The observation or instrumentation chamber ("test section")

7680-404: The wind tunnel at Peenemünde was a novel wind tunnel design that allowed for high-speed airflow research, but brought several design challenges regarding constructing a high-speed wind tunnel at scale. However, it successfully used some large natural caves which were increased in size by excavation and then sealed to store large volumes of air which could then be routed through the wind tunnels. By

7776-516: The wind tunnel, while the object being tested is held stationary. The object can be an aerodynamic test object such as a cylinder or an airfoil, an individual component of an aircraft, a small model of the vehicle, or, in the largest tunnels, even a full-sized vehicle. Different measurements can be taken from these tests. The aerodynamic forces on the entire object can be measured, or on individual components of it. The air pressure at different points can be measured with sensors. Smoke can be introduced into

7872-583: The world at that time at the Washington Navy Yard. The inlet was almost 11 feet (3.4 m) in diameter and the discharge part was 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter. A 500 hp (370 kW) electric motor drove the paddle type fan blades. In 1931 the NACA built a 30 by 60 feet (9.1 by 18.3 m) full-scale wind tunnel at Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia. The tunnel was powered by

7968-537: The world. He also founded England’s first major flight school. Between 1912 and 1920 Sopwith’s Company produced over 16,000 aircraft of 60 types. In 2017 the lecture was delivered by Tony Wood, chief operating officer of Meggitt PLC . In 2018 the lecture was delivered by Group Captain Ian Townsend ADC MA RAF, Station Commander, RAF Marham . In 2019 the lecture was delivered by Billie Flynn, F-35 Lightning II Test Pilot, Lockheed Martin . In 2020

8064-550: Was Theodore von Kármán 's teacher at Göttingen University and suggested the construction of a wind tunnel for tests of airships they were designing. The vortex street of turbulence downstream of a cylinder was tested in the tunnel. When he later moved to Aachen University he recalled use of this facility: I remembered the wind tunnel in Göttingen was started as a tool for studies of Zeppelin behavior, but that it had proven to be valuable for everything else from determining

8160-460: Was an arrangement followed by a number of wind tunnels later built; in fact the open-return low-speed wind tunnel is often called the Eiffel-type wind tunnel. Subsequent use of wind tunnels proliferated as the science of aerodynamics and discipline of aeronautical engineering were established and air travel and power were developed. The US Navy in 1916 built one of the largest wind tunnels in

8256-522: Was completed in 1930 and used for Northrop Alpha testing. In 1939 General Arnold asked what was required to advance the USAF, and von Kármán answered, "The first step is to build the right wind tunnel." On the other hand, after the successes of the Bell X-2 and prospect of more advanced research, he wrote, "I was in favor of constructing such a plane because I have never believed that you can get all

8352-493: Was considered of strategic importance during the Cold War for development of aircraft and missiles. Other problems are also studied with wind tunnels. The effects of wind on man-made structures need to be studied when buildings became tall enough to be significantly affected by the wind. Very tall buildings present large surfaces to the wind, and the resulting forces have to be resisted by the building's internal structure or else

8448-533: Was established in 1911 to honour the Wright brothers , the successful and experienced mechanical engineers who completed the first successful controlled powered flight on 17 December 1903. The Wilbur & Orville Wright Lecture is the principal event in the Society’s year, given by distinguished members of the US and UK aerospace communities. The 99th Lecture was given by Piers Sellers , astronaut, on 9 December 2010 at

8544-455: Was given by Leanne Caret , Vice President, The Boeing Company and President & CEO, Boeing Defense, Space & Security on 4 December 2018. The 108th Lecture was given by David Mackay FRAeS, Chief Pilot, Virgin Galactic on 10 December 2019. The Amy Johnson Named Lecture was inaugurated in 2011 by the Royal Aeronautical Society's Women in Aviation and Aerospace Committee to celebrate

8640-708: Was given by Patrick M Dewar, executive vice president, Lockheed Martin International in December 2014. The 104th Lecture was given by Nigel Whitehead, Group Managing Director – Programmes and Support, BAE Systems plc in December 2015. The 105th Lecture was given by ACM Sir Stephen Hillier, Chief of the Air Staff, Royal Air Force on 6 December 2016. The 106th Lecture was given by Martin Rolfe, chief executive officer, NATS on 5 December 2017. The 107th Lecture

8736-480: Was lacking the notions of induced drag and Reynolds numbers . However, the whirling arm does not produce a reliable flow of air impacting the test shape at a normal incidence. Centrifugal forces and the fact that the object is moving in its own wake mean that detailed examination of the airflow is difficult. Francis Herbert Wenham (1824–1908), a Council Member of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain , addressed these issues by inventing, designing and operating

8832-456: Was located in a suburb of Paris, Chalais-Meudon , France. It was designed to test full-size aircraft and had six large fans driven by high powered electric motors. The Chalais-Meudon wind tunnel was used by ONERA under the name S1Ch until 1976 in the development of, e.g., the Caravelle and Concorde airplanes. Today, this wind tunnel is preserved as a national monument. Ludwig Prandtl

8928-412: Was moved to Auteuil, a suburb of Paris, where his wind tunnel with a two-metre test section is still operational today. Eiffel significantly improved the efficiency of the open-return wind tunnel by enclosing the test section in a chamber, designing a flared inlet with a honeycomb flow straightener and adding a diffuser between the test section and the fan located at the downstream end of the diffuser; this

9024-425: Was poured on 22 June 1942 on a site that eventually would become Calspan , where the wind tunnel still operates. By the end of World War II, the US had built eight new wind tunnels, including the largest one in the world at Moffett Field near Sunnyvale, California, which was designed to test full size aircraft at speeds of less than 250 mph (400 km/h) and a vertical wind tunnel at Wright Field, Ohio, where

9120-469: Was re-erected and is still operated there by the ONERA . With its 26 ft (8 m) test section and airspeed up to Mach 1, it is the largest transonic wind tunnel facility in the world. Frank Wattendorf reported on this wind tunnel for a US response. On 22 June 1942, Curtiss-Wright financed construction of one of the nation's largest subsonic wind tunnels in Buffalo, NY. The first concrete for building

9216-560: Was then placed at the proper location in the throat or nozzle for the desired airspeed. In the United States, concern over the lagging of American research facilities compared to those built by the Germans led to the Unitary Wind Tunnel Plan Act of 1949, which authorized expenditure to construct new wind tunnels at universities and at military sites. Some German war-time wind tunnels were dismantled for shipment to

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