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47-566: Facundo Melgares , the last Spanish governor of New Mexico before independence in 1821, conducted two unsuccessful expeditions against the Navajo , who were attacking the New Mexican settlers. In October 1821 he sued for peace. Melgares's successor, Governor José Antonio Vizcarra met Navajo leaders at Paguate on 12 February 1823. His terms essentially stated that the Mexicans would settle

94-415: A bedraggled, motley lot and said of Malgares himself, Melgares remained a staunch monarchist despite the strong likelihood of Mexican independence. Following Agustín de Iturbide 's Plan of Iguala , Melgares reluctantly supported the new empire. On 26 December 1821, Melgares received official word that he should swear allegiance to the new Mexican government. In 1821, after independence, Melgares welcomed

141-486: A famine in the winter of 1857-1858. A time of social disruption ensued. Surrounding tribes gradually increased their attacks on the weakened Navajo. The Navajo demanded in 1858 that Fort Defiance stop grazing their livestock on prime Navajo land. Soldiers shot 48 cattle and 8 horses belonging to Manuelito. Navajo warriors killed a servant of the commanding officer in retaliation for the killing of their people's livestock without compensation. The United States military demanded

188-526: A finely woven blanket. He couldn't wait for his first battle. When word came in the winter of 1835 that 1000 Mexicans (from New Mexico) were coming to attack the Navajos, Manuelito fought his first in what would be many violent battles. There he earned the name Hashkeh Naabaah (″Angry Warrior″). In the years that followed, Manuelito led one raiding party after another, joining forces with other leaders such as Ganado Mucho and Barboncito to attack not only

235-797: A horse race between Navajo & New Mexican Volunteers forces at Fort Wingate, and Manuel Antonio Chaves of the New Mexico Volunteers ended up ordering his men to fire into the Navajo. This incident incensed the Navajo, and they raided the New Mexicans. The Confederate forces pushed up the Rio Grande into New Mexico in 1862, But they were driven back into Texas by Union forces , of the Colorado Volunteers, assisted by some New Mexican Volunteer militia units. With

282-598: A militia and raided Navajo land, followed by independent raids by citizens to take captives. In retaliation for the attack on Fort Defiance, Canby's Campaign set out in early October. Over the next several months seven army expeditions killed 23 Navajo and destroyed Navajo stock and crops. In 1861, another treaty was signed at Fort Fauntleroy (later Fort Wingate ). Ft. Defiance was decommissioned on February 24. Raiding continued between groups of citizens and Navajo warriors. A dispute arose in August from allegations of cheating at

329-495: A reservation for the Navajo. Manuelito was also an advocate for western education for Navajo children, with his famous quote, “… My grandchildren, education is a ladder. Tell our people to take it.” Manuelito was born into the Bit'ahnii Clan (within his cover clan) near Bears Ears, Utah where he was born and raised. He married Juanita a daughter of Narbona (1766–1849) after joining Narbona's Band, and went to live at their camp near

376-508: A small party of American soldiers under the command of Captain John Reid who journeyed deep into Navajo country and contacted him, Narbona and other Navajo negotiated a treaty of peace with Colonel Alexander Doniphan on November 21, 1846 at Bear Springs , Ojo del Oso (later the site of Fort Wingate ). The treaty was not honored by young Navajo raiders who continued to steal stock from New Mexican villages and herders. On August 16, 1849

423-487: A trip to Los Angeles to view the dress. Cassandra Manuelito-Kerkvliet is his great-great granddaughter. Manuelito, as he was known to the white settlers and government forces, was Ashkii Diyinii, Holy Boy, to his own people, later to earn the name Haastin Chʼil Haajiní , or Sir Black Reeds, named for 'the place among the black reeds'. Upon his return, he again lived east of Tohatchi. He became principal chief of

470-611: A winter at Pikes Peak ). Despite the enmity between Spain and the United States, the two men became close friends and it is Pike's surviving map which details Melgares' expedition. In 1810, shortly after the Mexico Declaration of Independence , Melgares was promoted to captain. He led the army of Carriza against the insurgents led by Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla at Saltillo, Coahuila . On 21 March 1811, after several days of heavy fighting, Melgares prevailed and

517-550: The Chuska Mountains to the Hopi mesas in what is now Arizona, then north towards Utah, reaching Oljeto Creek in what is now San Juan County, Utah . Thirty-three Navajo were killed, of whom eight were women, and about 30 were captured. The expedition reached Canyon de Chelly in what is now eastern Arizona. In retaliation for Vizcarra's expedition, the Navajo raided Socorro again, and attacked Tome, Albuquerque, and reached

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564-402: The Chuska Mountains . Narbona's reputation as a wealthy and powerful headman impressed Manuelito. He especially admired Narbona's fearless attitude, although Narbona tried to teach him the value of peace as well as war. Manuelito spent his days shooting arrows and competing with other young men in countless foot races and wrestling matches, always winning. He dressed in well-fitting buckskins and

611-821: The Missouri River ; and negotiating a treaty with the Pawnee Indians in which they would prevent the Anglo-American egress. Melgares led 105 Spanish soldiers, 400 New Mexican militiamen, 100 Amerindians, and more than 2,000 animals (a caballada of horses). He reached Nebraska . In the third task, Melgares succeeded and planned to build a fort on the Arkansas River . On 1 October 1806, Melgares returned to Santa Fe accompanied by his prisoner, Zebulon Pike , an explorer of Wilkinson, Governor of Louisiana, whom Melgares had detained (or saved from

658-723: The Native Americans in every way he could. However, Melgares continued to fight under the unlikely mandate of the Hopi requesting Spanish protection against the Navajo. Despite the objections of Viceroy Ruiz de Apodaca and General Cordero, Melgares succeeded and on 21 August 1819, imposed a formal peace agreement between Spain and the Navajo. The next three years in New Mexico were peaceful. In 1821, Thomas James, an American trader commented that Melgares' troops in Santa Fe were

705-696: The Presidio of San Fernando de Carrizal, south of El Paso del Norte . He took part in battles against the Apaches , who raided the settlements along the Rio Grande . Melgares was tasked with suppressing the Pawnee , who had attacked a Spanish scouting party. Melgares arrived in Santa Fe, New Mexico , with a force of sixty well-equipped soldiers. The Louisiana Purchase had not made a well defined boundary of

752-533: The Colorado: Hoskinini, Kayelli, Old Scarbreast (Spaneshank), Daghaa Sikaad, Blackhorse, Old Arrow, Peokon and Many Wishkers were their leaders. One Navajo elder said of the Long Walk: By slow stages we traveled eastward by present Gallup and Shush Bìtó, Bear Spring, which is now called Fort Wingate . You ask how they treated us? If there was room, the soldiers put the women and children on

799-566: The Navajo in pueblos and energetically convert them to the Catholic religion. The Navajo were not interested in either of these proposals. They rejected the treaty and renewed the fight. Six New Mexicans were killed at Socorro in April and eight more at Sabinal in May. On 18 June 1823, Vizcarra led 1,500 troops in a 74-day expedition against the Navajo of western New Mexico. His route took him through

846-419: The Navajo would have to reimburse the U.S. government for the cost of the expedition. Washington still suggested to the Navajo that in spite of the hostile situation, they and the whites could "still be friends if the Navajo came with their chiefs the next day and signed a treaty." This is what they did. The next day Chief Narbona came to Canyon de Chelly for a "talk peace", along with several other headmen. In

893-459: The Navajo, killing and capturing a few. Crops were burned, stock was confiscated, hogans were burned. Carson attempted to capture a Navajo stronghold in the Battle of Canyon de Chelly . Although the army missed destroying the entire force, they destroyed much Navajo property as part of a scorched-earth policy . Without food or shelter to sustain them through the winters, and continuously chased by

940-763: The New Mexican militia, the New Mexico District Military Governor, General James Henry Carleton , told 18 Navajo chiefs that they must surrender by July 20, 1863, and move to Fort Sumner, at the Bosque Redondo . In July, under orders from Gen. Carleton, Col. Kit Carson began a simultaneous campaign against the Mescelaro Apache and Navajo. In a series of raids and skirmishes Carson's troops began rounding up Navajo and Apache and sending them to Bosque Redondo. Between September 1863 and January 1864, Carson and his men chased

987-527: The Spanish - US border (and the border of Arkansas was not made certain until 1819). On 30 May 1806, Melgares was called to see the governor of New Mexico, Joaquín del Real Alencaster . He was tasked with detaining Thomas Jefferson 's explorers of the region, Lewis and Clark (which Pedro Vial before him had twice failed to do); resisting American settlement at the Red River ; exploring New Mexico to

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1034-631: The U.S. Army, groups of Navajo began to surrender. Starting in January 1864, many bands and their leaders— Barboncito , Armijo , and finally in 1866 Manuelito —surrendered or were captured and made what is called the " Long Walk " to the Bosque Redondo reservation at Fort Sumner , New Mexico . Between 1000-2000 Navajo evaded capture and never surrendered, taking refuge in the Grand Canyon, Black Mesa, Navajo Mountain, Echo Cliffs, and along

1081-411: The U.S. officer, he estimated more than 300 Indians were trained and armed. Although Melgara did not believe the sergeant, he notified General Garcia Conde and sent Lieutenant Jose Maria de Arce north of the New Mexico border to confirm the intelligence. On 1 September 1818, Arce left Taos with 120 men. Shortly after his departure from northern New Mexico, 400 men under the command of Juan de Dios Peña,

1128-762: The US Army began an expedition into the heart of Navajo country on an organized reconnaissance to impress the Navajo with the might of the U.S. military. They also mapped the terrain and planned forts. Col. John Washington , the military governor of New Mexico at the time, led the expedition. Forces included nearly 1000 infantry (US and New Mexican volunteers), hundreds of horses and mules, a supply train, 55 Pueblo scouts, and four artillery guns. On August 29–30, 1849, Washington's expedition needed water, and began pillaging Navajo cornfields. Mounted Navajo warriors darted back and forth around Washington's troops to push them off. Washington reasoned he could pillage Navajo crops because

1175-545: The arrival of the California Volunteers under the command of General James H. Carleton , Fort Wingate was re-established at Ojo del Oso (formerly Fauntleroy). The Navajo took advantage of the distraction caused by the Confederate movements to step up their raids. The citizens complained to the government that Navajo and Apaches stole 30,000 sheep in 1862. In 1863, as raids continued between the Navajo and

1222-466: The first U.S. trade delegation (under William Becknell ) to Santa Fe. On 6 January 1822, a local celebration of independence was made. On 5 July 1822, Melgares was dismissed from his post. He continued as a soldier under the command of his replacement, Francisco Xavier Chávez . The charges leading to Melgares demotion are not known but may have involved the priest of Abiquiu who tried to appropriate town property for his church. In August 1823, Melgares

1269-782: The hated Mexicans, but also the Hopis in Arizona, the Puebloan peoples of New Mexico, the Utes , the Comanches , and the Apaches . Food supplies, livestock, and women and children were all fair game, and eventually Manuelito married one of his many Mexican slaves, Juanita (1845–1910). Juanita's Navajo name was Asdzáá Tl'ógí , ("Weaver Woman"); a dress and saddle blanket woven by Juanita survive to this day. Her biographer and great-great-great granddaughter Jennifer Nez Denetdale describes taking

1316-402: The horse had passed through several owners by this time, and rightfully belonged to its Navajo owner). Washington sided with the New Mexican. Since the Navajo owner took his horse and fled the scene, Washington told the New Mexican to pick out any Navajo horse he wanted. The rest of the Navajo also left. At this, Col. Washington ordered his soldiers to fire. Seven Navajo were killed in the volleys;

1363-510: The insurgent leaders were arrested near Monclova, Coahuila . Melgares was an equitable civil administrator in his dealings with the Navajo and the Puebloans . He delivered the 1812 Constitution in New Mexico with support for inclusion of the indigenous people in its governance, for example, the right to vote and hold public office. By the end of 1820, municipal governments representing most pueblo people had been formed. In 1817, Melgares

1410-683: The mayor of Taos, joined the expedition. Arce crossed the Sangre de Cristo Mountains into the Huerfano Valley and proceeded to the Platte River but did not find any invading force. Arce confirmed that the Amerindians were loyal to Spain and would alert New Mexico of any planned invasion by the U.S. Despite the reassurances, Melgares requested a reinforcement of 500 soldiers, half as infantry, armed with rifles and bayonets, to strengthen

1457-437: The middle of Diné bikéyah (Navajo territory). Col Sumner entered Canyon de Chelly but Navajo harassment attacks caused him to withdraw. In 1855 a treaty was signed at Laguna Negra by Manuelito and Zarcillos Largos for the Navajo and Henry L. Dodge (Indian agent), Governor Merriweather, and General John Garland . Two years later a severe drought hit the Navajo and decimated their livestock and agricultural resources, causing

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1504-650: The military second in Taos , with marching to Jemez and attacking no later than 7 November 1818. Melgares determined that the Navajo should yield or be driven to the Deserts of California . Two months before the New Mexico viceroy's alert about an imminent attack by the United States, Melgares had ordered a reconnaissance of the Arkansas Valley to verify rumours of a U.S. presence among the Pawnees. Melgares source

1551-620: The murderer be brought to them, or they would begin a war. The Miles Campaign was sent against them, leaving Fort Defiance on September 9. In 1860 the U.S. military, Mexican-Americans, Zunis , and Utes all raided Navajo land. The Navajo killed four soldiers from Fort Defiance in January. On April 29, Manuelito, Barboncito and 1,000 Navajo attacked the US army in the Second Battle of Fort Defiance . Meanwhile, others raided sheep near Santa Fe . 400 New Mexicans under Manuel Antonio Chaves formed

1598-771: The name Immanuel ; Manuelito translates to Little Immanuel . He was born to the Bit'ahnii or ″Folded Arms People Clan″, near the Bears Ears in southeastern Utah about 1818. As many Navajo, he was known by different names depending upon context. He was Ashkii Diyinii ("Holy Boy"), Dahaana Baadaané ("Son-in-Law of Late Texan"), Hastiin Ch'ilhaajinii ("Man of the Black Plants Place") and as Nabááh Jiłtʼaa (War Chief, "Warrior Grabbed Enemy") to other Diné, and non-Navajo nicknamed him "Bullet Hole". Manuelito

1645-650: The north. The governor issued a call to all the citizens of New Mexico, for contributions of grain and other supplies (such as metals for weapons) to aid his forces stationed in Santa Fe. Melgares himself, made a personal donation of cereals, metal and sheep. A local priest donated his local church bell to be cast into munitions. The Presidio of Santa Fe had only 167 soldiers to battle the Navajo and so Melgares sent troops from Chihuahua and some 60 soldiers from San Eleazario (near El Paso ). In late October 1818, Melgares tasked Captain Andrés Gómez Sanudo, chief of

1692-523: The officials of the Spanish crown in his time, a member of the Spanish upper class. He is described as a "portly man of military demeanour" and as "a gentleman and gallant soldier". Melgares was born in 1775 in Caravaca , Murcia , Spain , to an aristocrat family. A member of the family was a judge of the Audiencia of New Spain . Melgares received a good education and military training and reached

1739-414: The outposts of the north. Melgares also resumed war against the Navajo. He sent 600 soldiers to Taos, and 400 to El Vado. 800 men were held in reserve to deal with the Navajo. Melgares fought ongoing difficulties related to unrealistic demands of his distant commanders. In February 1819, when it seemed the U.S.-Mexico border was safe, the commander, General Antonio Cordero, tasked Melgares to make peace with

1786-428: The outskirts of Santa Fe. The 1823 raid marked the start of a long period of raids and counter raids lasting until 1848 as New Mexicans took Navajo captive to work as slaves, and as Navajo raided to recover their people and to obtain livestock. The U.S. military assumed nominal control of the southwest from Mexico by 1846. And raids continued between the Navajo and the New Mexican civilians. Following an invitation from

1833-560: The position of lieutenant . With the assistance of his father-in-law, Lieutenant Colonel Alberto Maynez , a future governor of New Mexico and assistant to the commanding general of the Western Provinces, based in Chihuahua, Chihuahua , Melgares began his military career. He was stationed near the northern border of the Spanish territory and remained at that post for approximately ten years. In 1803, Melgares enlisted at

1880-452: The rest ran and could not be caught. One of the dying was Chief Narbona, who was scalped as he lay dying by a New Mexican souvenir hunter. This massacre prompted the warlike Navajo leaders such as Manuelito to gain influence over those who were advocates of peace. Col. Edwin Sumner conducted a campaign against the Navajo in 1851. He delegated Maj. Electus Backus to build Fort Defiance in

1927-419: The treaty the Navajo acknowledged the jurisdiction of the United States and allowed forts and trading posts in Navajo land. The United States, on its part promised "such donations [and] such other liberal and humane measures, as [it] may deem meet and proper". After reaching an accord, a scuffle broke out when a New Mexican thought he saw his stolen horse and tried to claim it from the Navajo. (The Navajo held that

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1974-450: The wagons. Some even let them ride behind them on their horses. I have never been able to understand a people who killed you one day and on the next played with your children ... Facundo Melgares Facundo Melgares (1775, Caravaca , Murcia , Spain - after 1823) was a Spanish military officer who served as both the last Spanish Governor of New Mexico and the first Mexican Governor of New Mexico . Melgares was, like most of

2021-653: Was Sergeant José Cayetano Hernández, who said that while he was in captivity, a U.S Army officer visited the Pawnees to propose a plan of unification with the Kiowas in an effort to invade the Spanish territory. The officer, according to Hernández, promised to arm the Indians in exchange for their allegiance. Both tribes were to meet in the fall, in the Gerbidora ( Colorado Springs , Colorado ), to finalize plans for an attack on New Mexico. While admitting that he never really saw

2068-531: Was a prominent Navajo leader who rallied his nation against the oppression of the United States military. For several years he led a group of warriors in resisting federal efforts to forcibly remove the Navajo people to Bosque Redondo , New Mexico via the Long Walk in 1864. After being relocated to Bosque Redondo, Manuelito was among the leaders who signed the 1868 treaty, ending a period of imprisonment in United States government internment camps and establishing

2115-584: Was cleared of all charges. After that, at age 58, Melgares falls from the pages of history. Manuelito Chief Manuelito or Hastiin Chʼil Haajiní ("Sir Black Reeds", "Man of the Black Plants Place") (c. 1818–1893) was one of the principal headmen of the Diné people before, during and after the Long Walk Period. Manuelito is the diminutive form of the name Manuel , the Iberian variant of

2162-469: Was held under the scrutiny of the commanding general of Chihuahua and the viceroy in Mexico City . His responsibilities included administration of civilian activities; defence of the province from local Indian hostilities and foreign invaders in the north; and control of the prison troops and civilian militia. In the first month of Melgares' office, there were hostilities by Navajo against villages in

2209-538: Was promoted to commander of the Presidio of Santa Fe. He arrived there in July 1818 with his veteran troops and set about defending the city. He later became acting governor of the province. In August 1818, King Ferdinand VII of Spain , advised by his viceroy , Ruiz de Apodaca and General García Conde, appointed Melgares Governor of New Mexico with the rank of lieutenant colonel. Melgares' post as Governor of New Mexico

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