142-550: Nakula ( Sanskrit : नकुल ) was the fourth of the five Pandava brothers in the ancient Indian epic, the Mahabharata . He and his twin brother Sahadeva were the sons of Madri , one of the wives of the Pandava patriarch Pandu , and Ashvini Kumaras , the divine twin physicians of the gods, whom she invoked to beget her sons due to Pandu's inability to progenate. Nakula is described as the most handsome man of his lineage, and
284-425: A dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead." Yudhisthira Traditional Yudhishthira ( Sanskrit : युधिष्ठिर, IAST : Yudhiṣṭhira ) also known as Dharmaraja , was the king of Indraprastha and later
426-521: A dice game, the Pandavas and Draupadi were exiled for thirteen years. During the Pandavas' year of incognito exile, he disguised as a horse trainer named Granthika, and worked in the kingdom of Virata . Nakula was a skilled warrior who fought in the Kurukshetra War between the Pandavas and their cousins Kauravas . After the war, Yudhishthira appointed Nakula as the king of northern Madra . At
568-408: A fierce duel where Yudhishthira was ultimately defeated by Drona. Yudhishthira would later assist his nephew Ghatotkacha in slaying the asura Alambusha. Yudhishthira would later defeat Duryodhana twice and the latter had to be rescued by Drona. Drona and Yudhishthira would engage in an archery duel which would end up as a stalemate. Yudhishthira would later be defeated by Kritavarma . On
710-433: A focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship; for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna (~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had
852-448: A horse was released to wander for a year, and Yudhishthira's brother Arjuna led the Pandava army, following the horse. The kings of all the countries where the horse wandered were asked to submit to Yudhishthira's rule or face war. All paid tribute, once again establishing Yudhishthira as the undisputed Emperor of Bharatavarsha. During his reign, Yudhisthira duly consulted with and reported to Dhritarashtra on governances. After 15 years,
994-591: A language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages ( prākṛta - ). The term prakrta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin Southworth . The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to
1136-658: A limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit
1278-454: A natural part of the earliest Vedic language, and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters. The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other. This
1420-479: A negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder, On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be
1562-431: A palace made of wax called Lakshagriha . One night, Shakuni's man, Purochana , set it on fire. However, the princes and their mother survived. They were heartbroken and decided to hide from Hastinapura. Later, Arjuna attended Draupadi's swayamvar and won her hand in marriage. But due to Kunti's misunderstanding, Draupadi became the common wife of all the Pandavas. Later at Indraprastha , Draupadi bore Yudhishthira
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#17327759419911704-546: A pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given
1846-653: A physical form. Upon his arrival, Yudhishthira finds Duryodhana and his Kaurava cousins in heaven but not his brothers and Draupadi. Furious, Yudhishthira demands that Narada take him to where he might find his family. Narada brings Yudhishthira to Hell where he encounters Karna, his brothers, Draupadi, Dhrishtadyumna, and the Upapandavas. Yudhishthira, enraged, decides that he would rather live in Hell with his family than in Heaven with his cousins. Indra then appears and lifts
1988-578: A refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars, the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of Pāṇini . The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, Kālidāsa , wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit. The two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and
2130-435: A report that his nemesis went into hiding in a nearby swamp. The Pandavas brothers and Krishna thus went to the swamp, and taunted Duryodhana off his refuge. Yudhishthira proposed a final challenge to Duryodhana, to a battle against any of the Pandavas under any weapon of Duryodhana's desire. Yudhishthira also promised Duryodhana that should he win, he would reign as the next King of Hastinapura. With Duryodhana choosing Bhima,
2272-538: A restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded". The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond
2414-439: A similar phonetic structure to Tamil. Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit. Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from
2556-459: A snake due to the curse of the sages, Bhrigu and Agastya . Nahusha used his own story to warn Yudhishthira about the consequences of being arrogant. Agastya and Bhrigu had prophesized that Yudhishthira would rescue Nahusha from his curse. After conversing with Yudhishthira, Nahusha regained his original form and returned to Svarga. The ever-youthful sage, Markandeya , once visited Yudhishthira. He narrated many stories to Yudhishthira, including
2698-433: A son, Prativindhya and a daughter, Suthanu. Suthanu was later married to Asvabhanu, Krishna and Satyabhama's eldest son. Although Yudhishthira had another wife named Devika , Draupadi was his chief consort as well as the empress. Yudhishthira was married to Devika in a self-choice marriage ceremony, arranged by her father Govasena, who was the king of Sivi Kingdom . They had a son, Yaudheya. According to Puranas, Yaudheya
2840-521: A son, Shatanika who was killed by Ashwatthama in the Kurukshetra War . He also married Karenumati , the daughter of Shishupala , who bore him one son, Niramitra . Nakula was sent west by Yudhisthira to subjugate kingdoms for the Rajasuya sacrifice, after crowning as the Emperor of Indraprastha . Nakula set forth to the kingdom once dominated by Vasudeva with a huge army. He first attacked
2982-453: A truthful, knowledgeable and justice knowing son who can rule Hastinapur. On the full moon of May (Sanskrit: Jyeshth masa) first and the eldest of the Pandavas, Yudhishthira was born. Yudhishthira's four younger brothers were Bhima (born by invoking Vayu ); Arjuna (born by invoking Indra ); and the twins Nakula and Sahadeva (born by invoking Aśvins ). Yudhishthira was trained in religion, science, administration and military arts by
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#17327759419913124-516: Is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent , particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent. Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand
3266-452: Is found in the writing of Bharata Muni , the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar". Sanskrit belongs to
3408-430: Is often cited as an example of Yudhishthira's upright principles. The Yaksha later identified himself as Yudhishthira's father, Dharma, and pointed them to the kingdom of Matsya to spend their last year of exile in anoymity. Along with his brothers, Yudhishthira spent his last year of exile in the kingdom of Matsya. He disguised himself as a Brahmin named Kanka (among themselves Pandavas codenamed him Jaya) and advised
3550-532: Is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different. The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in
3692-479: Is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases. The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Yet,
3834-589: Is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh) . Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. The structure and capabilities of
3976-540: The Bhagavata Purana , the Panchatantra and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside
4118-464: The Ashvini Kumaras to beget Nakula and Sahadeva , as twins. Madri committed self immolation, called Sati when her husband died and entrusted her children's care to Kunti. Despite different divine paternal parentage these five children, first three of Kunti – Yudhisthira , Bhima and Arjuna - and latter two of Madri – Nakula and Sahadeva, were called Pandavas , or sons of Pandu. Nakula
4260-460: The Ashvins and as Mādravatīputra, Mādravatīsuta, Mādreya, Mādrinandana, Mādrinandanaka, Mādrīputra, Mādrīsuta, Mādrītanūja because they are the sons of Mādrī. Due to Pandu 's inability to bear children (because of the curse of Rishi Kindama ), Kunti had to use the boon given by Sage Durvasa to give birth to her three children. She shared the boon with Pandu's second wife, Madri , who invoked
4402-580: The Dalai Lama , the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet. The Sanskrit language created
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4544-675: The Indo-European family of languages . It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-European : Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin ( c. 600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages ), Gothic (archaic Germanic language , c. 350 CE ), Old Norse ( c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan ( c. late 2nd millennium BCE ) and Younger Avestan ( c. 900 BCE). The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in
4686-525: The Indo-European languages . It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late Bronze Age . Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism , the language of classical Hindu philosophy , and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism . It was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in
4828-554: The Lakshagriha incident, he was presumed to be dead and his cousin Duryodhana was appointed as the new heir. The kingdom was split in half due to a succession dispute between Yudhishthira and Duryodhana. Yudhishthira received the barren half, which he later transformed into the magnificent city of Indraprastha . Yudhishthira and his brothers had a polyandrous marriage with Draupadi , the princess of Panchala , who became
4970-429: The Rajasuya yagna. Arjuna , Bhima , Nakula , and Sahadeva led armies across the four corners of the world to obtain tributes from all kingdoms for Yudhishthira's sacrifice. The non-compliant Magadha king, Jarasandha was defeated by Bhima and Krishna. At his sacrifice, Yudhishthira chose Krishna as his honored guest. At the yajna, many kings were present there, including Duryodhana and Shishupala . Shishupala
5112-753: The Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha 's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages. The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to Pāṇini , along with Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work. Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became
5254-532: The Rigveda , a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across northern Pakistan and into northwestern India. Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the ancient Dravidian languages influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax. Sanskrit can also more narrowly refer to Classical Sanskrit ,
5396-531: The Rāmāyaṇa , however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit. In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language. The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to
5538-575: The Vattadhanas and the Utsava-sanketas. Yudhishthira's loss in the game of dice meant that all Pandavas had to live in exile for 13 years. Once in exile, Jatasura , disguised as a Brahmin , kidnapped Nakula along with Draupadi , Sahadeva and Yudhishthira . Bhima rescued them eventually and in the fight that ensued, Nakula killed Kshemankara, Mahamaha, and Suratha. In the 13th year, Nakula disguised himself as an ostler and assumed
5680-406: The sandhi rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature. Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of
5822-500: The verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta - ('made, formed, work'). It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred". According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined
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5964-414: The 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared, perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock. The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century. As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and
6106-409: The 15th day, Yudhishthira was approached by Drona , in the latter' inquiry on the death of his son Ashwatthama whom he heard to have died at Bhima's hand. Torn between his duty to cripple Drona and upholding his morals, Yudhishthira opted to half truth where he confirmed the death of Ashwatthama the elephant, but omitted the contextual part that it was an elephant and not his son. This was effective in
6248-532: The 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia, parts of the East Asia and the Central Asia. It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to
6390-425: The Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language? They speculated on
6532-532: The Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence". Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with
6674-521: The Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language. Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of
6816-476: The Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit . The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda , a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that
6958-519: The Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both are Iranian languages . Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages. Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of
7100-466: The King of Kuru Kingdom in the epic Mahabharata . He is the eldest among the five Pandavas , and is also one of the central characters of the epic. Yudhishthira was the son of Kunti , the first wife of King Pandu , fathered by the god Yama due to Pandu's inability to have children. Yudhishthira held a belief in dharma (morals and virtues) and was chosen to be the crown prince of Kuru. But after
7242-617: The Kuru Kingdom for 36 years until announcing his retirement. At the end of the epic, he was the only one among his brothers to ascend to heaven while retaining his mortal body. The word Yudhiṣṭhira is an aluk compound (meaning it preserves the case ending of its first part). It means "one who is steady in battle". It is composed of the words, yudhi (masculine locative singular) meaning "in battle"—from yudh (युध्) meaning 'battle, fighting'—and sthira (स्थिर) meaning 'steady'. His other names are: According to Buddhist sources, by
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#17327759419917384-561: The Kuru preceptors, Kripa and Drona . Specifically, he became a master in using the spear and war chariot. It is said that his spear was so strong that it could penetrate a stone wall as though it were a piece of paper. His chariot always flew at a 4 finger distance above the ground due to his piety. After Yudhishthira and his brothers completed their studies, they returned to Hastinapur . Duryodhana along with Shakuni planned to kill them and sent Yudhishthira, his siblings, and his mother to
7526-532: The Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the Mughal Empire . Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression. With the fall of Kashmir around
7668-496: The Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire , reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support
7810-459: The Pandavas, accompanied by a dog, made their final journey of pilgrimage to the Himalayas . During their pilgrimage, each one starting with Draupadi, fell down dead upon the mountains. Yudhishthira cites Draupadi's partiality for Arjuna, Sahadeva's pride in his wisdom, Nakula's vanity in his beauty, Arjuna's boastfulness of his archery, and Bhima's negligence of the needs of others while eating as
7952-499: The Saṃskṛta language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World , Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of cognate forms (with the addition of Old English for further comparison): The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of
8094-638: The South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire , so did Sanskrit. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar . Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with
8236-447: The Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into
8378-451: The Vedic Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language. The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature, are negligible when compared to
8520-459: The alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called Saṃskṛta . From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound
8662-517: The battlefield to search for him, only to find him taking refuge in camp. Furious at Arjuna for not killing Karna yet, Yudhishthira insults him by suggesting Arjuna should hand over the Gandiva to another warrior if he does not think he is able to slay Karna. Arjuna, enraged from Yudhishthira's insult, attempted to kill him with his sword but was stopped from doing so due to Krishna's intervention. Filled with regret, Arjuna attempted to commit suicide but
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#17327759419918804-445: The battlefield, the brothers proved valiance, defending King Virata before finally defeating King Susharma. While Yudhishthira and King Virata were away battling Susharma, the city was marched upon by the host from Hastinapur. Prince Uttar and Brihannala ( Arjuna ), who were left in defense of the city, rallied to defend the kingdom, where Arjuna revealed his identity and fended off the invasion. When King Virata returned from his battle,
8946-440: The capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi . A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language. However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era
9088-477: The characteristics of the Yugas, the story of King Shibi , and the story of Savitri and Satyavan . He also narrated the story of Rama to Yudhishthira, and discoursed on spiritual philosophy. During their exile, the four other Pandavas happened upon a lake, which was haunted by a Yaksha . The Yaksha challenged the brothers to answer his moral questions before drinking the water; the four Pandavas laughed and drank
9230-527: The close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages , vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages , and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on
9372-614: The context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana . Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ( Prakrits ) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these Apabhramsa , literally 'spoiled'. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo-European languages but which are found in
9514-711: The crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit. Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting
9656-536: The departure of Krishna , the Pandavas retired. Giving up all their belongings and ties, the Pandavas and Draupadi , along with a dog, made their final journey of pilgrimage to the Himalayas . Except Yudhishthira, all of the Pandavas grew weak and died before reaching heaven. Nakula was the third one to fall after Draupadi and Sahadeva . When Bhima asked Yudhishthira why Nakula fell, Yudhishthira replied that Nakula took pride in his beauty and believed that there
9798-467: The detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as Lipi ('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī . The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and
9940-471: The differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir. The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in
10082-460: The distant major ancient languages of the world. The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region , during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes
10224-490: The early medieval era, it became a language of religion and high culture , and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies. Sanskrit generally connotes several Old Indo-Aryan language varieties. The most archaic of these is the Vedic Sanskrit found in
10366-582: The empress of the Indraprastha. After Yudhishthira performed the Rajasuya Yagna , he was invited to play a game of dice by his jealous cousin, Duryodhana and his uncle, Shakuni . Shakuni, a master at the game, represented Duryodhana against Yudhishthira and manipulated him into gambling his kingdom, wealth, the freedom of his brothers, Draupadi, and even himself. After the game, the Pandavas and Draupadi were sent into exile for thirteen years, with
10508-456: The end of the epic, during the Pandavas' journey to the Himalayas to enter heaven, Nakula was the third to fall, following Draupadi and Sahadeva, due to his excessive pride in his beauty. In Sanskrit, the word nakula means "mongoose" or "mongoose-colored." Nakula and his brother Sahadeva are both also referred to in the epic as Āśvineya, Aśvinīsuta and Aśvisuta because they are the sons of
10650-455: The event of Lakshagriha, people thought that he was dead, and Duryodhana was made the new crown prince of Hastinapura. On Bhishma 's advice, Dhritarashtra gave half of the kingdom to Pandavas to rule. However the land was under the control of Takshaka . Pandavas defeated Takshaka and with the help of Mayasura , they built a magnificent city named Indraprastha . Some years after his coronation at Indraprastha, Yudhishthira set out to perform
10792-548: The first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to
10934-541: The former king, his consort Gandhari , Queen Mother Kunti , and Prime Minister Vidura decided to retire to the forest, where they pass away years later. These events greatly saddened Yudhishthira and the Pandavas brothers. Upon the onset of the Kali Yuga and the departure of Krishna, Yudhishthira and his brothers retired, leaving the throne to their only descendant to survive the war of Kurukshetra, Arjuna's grandson, Parikshit . Giving up all their belongings and ties,
11076-553: The former purpose of crippling Drona, but also caused his own chariot to finally fall down to the ground, instead of slightly levitating as it had been before this incident. Yudhishthira was one of 5 individuals who witnessed Drona's spirit leaving his body. On the 17th day, he injured Duryodhana badly and was about to kill him but decided to spare him on Bhima's advice who reminded him of his vow to kill Duryodhana. Yudhishthira would be defeated by both Karna and Ashwatthama . Worried for Yudhishthira's safety, Arjuna retreats from
11218-412: The foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga . The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world". Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as
11360-487: The game of dice to the king. Following the death of Kichaka by Bhima, Matsya was invaded by King Susharma of Trigarta , in retaliation to the raidings his kingdom had suffered by Kichaka, and in cooperation with Duryodhana of Hastinapur. When Susharma's army closed the kingdom, Kanka volunteered to follow King Virata to face the invader, and took along his three brothers, Vallabha ( Bhima ), Granthika ( Nakula ), and Tantripala ( Sahadeva ), with him and while disguised. On
11502-537: The gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature. O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names they first set forth the beginning of Language, Their most excellent and spotless secret was laid bare through love, When the wise ones formed Language with their mind, purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan, Then friends knew friendships – an auspicious mark placed on their language. — Rigveda 10.71.1–4 Translated by Roger Woodard The Vedic Sanskrit found in
11644-431: The historic Sanskrit literary culture and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment. Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead ". After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with
11786-442: The identities of all Pandavas were revealed, and Yudhishthira congratulated the marriage between Princess Uttarā and Abhimanyu , as Arjuna has suggested. When the period of exile was completed, Duryodhana refused to return Yudhishthira's kingdom. Yudhishthira made numerous diplomatic efforts to retrieve his kingdom peacefully but in vain. Left with no other option, Yudhishthira wages war. The flag of Yudhishthira's chariot bore
11928-528: The illusion, informing Yudhishthira of his deception. Indra reveals that Yudhishthira has been shown a glimpse of Hell due to deceiving Drona with his white lie. Yama congratulates his son on passing his third and final test, the first being the Yaksha Prashna, and the second being his refusal to abandon the dog. Yudhishthira would then bathe in the Heavenly Ganga, casting off his mortal form and
12070-411: The image of a red deer with a golden back. His conch, which was blown among others at the start of the war, was named Sughosha. On the 1st day of the war, Nakula defeated Dussasana , sparing his life so that Bhima could fulfill his oath. On the 11th day, Nakula defeated Shalya , destroying his chariot. On the 13th day, his advance into Dronacharya 's formation was repulsed by Jayadratha . On
12212-496: The image of a golden moon with planets around it. Two large and beautiful kettle-drums, called Nanda and Upananda, were tied to it. Before the war started, Yudhishthira stepped down from his chariot to take blessings from his grandsire Bhishma , teachers Drona and Kripa and uncle Shalya , who all were in his opposite side in the war showing his respect towards his elders. He also asked the willing Kauravas to join his side. On his request one of Dhritarashtra sons, Yuyutsu joined
12354-486: The intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as
12496-432: The largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press. — Foreword of Sanskrit Computational Linguistics (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni and Peter Scharf Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, music, drama , scientific , technical and others. It
12638-462: The last year requiring them to go incognito. During his exile, Yudhisthira was tested by his divine father Yama. For the last year of the exile known as Agyaata Vaasa , Yudhishthira disguised himself as Kanka and served the King of Matsya Kingdom . Yudhishthira was the leader of the successful Pandava faction in the Kurukshetra War and defeated many venerable warriors such as Shalya . He then ruled
12780-510: The late and post-Vedic periods, Kuru had become a minor state ruled by a chieftain called Koravya and belonging to the Yuddhiṭṭhila ( Yudhiṣṭhira ) gotta . Once a Brahmin rishi, Kindama and his wife were enjoying nature in the forest when Yudhishthira's father Pandu accidentally shot at them, mistaking them for deer. Before dying, Kindama cursed the king to die when he engages in intercourse with any woman. Due to this curse, Pandu
12922-516: The latter would regain his kingdom fourteen years later. Sage Vyasa imparts the Pratismriti to Yudhishthira and tells him to pass it down to Arjuna. On Vyasa's advice, Yudhishthira permits Arjuna to perform penance in the Himalayas and obtain celestial weapons from the gods. During Arjuna's absence, Sage Brihadashva consoles Yudhishthira by narrating the story of Nala and Damayanti . Brihadashva advises Yudhishthira not give in to misery despite
13064-412: The linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language. Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced. Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and
13206-456: The literary works. The Indian tradition, states Winternitz , has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the Ramayana , the Mahabharata ,
13348-511: The modern age include the Samaveda , Yajurveda , Atharvaveda , along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and the early Upanishads . These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of
13490-429: The more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah . Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of Greater India
13632-401: The most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century. Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created
13774-602: The most archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the Gathas of old Avestan and Iliad of Homer . As the Rigveda was orally transmitted by methods of memorisation of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity, as a single text without variant readings, its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European . Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around
13916-463: The name of Granthika (between themselves, the Pandavas called him Jayasena ) at the Kingdom of Virata . He worked as a horse-trainer who looked after horses in the royal stable. Nakula desired Drupada to be the general of the Pandava army, but Yudhishthira and Arjuna opted for Dhristadyumna . As a warrior, Nakula slew prominent war-heroes on the enemy side. The flag of Nakula's chariot bore
14058-418: The night of the 14th day, he vanquished Shakuni . On the 15th day, he was defeated by Duryodhana in a one-on-one duel. On the 16th day, he was defeated and spared by Karna . On the 18th day, he killed Karna's sons Chitrasena, Satyasena and Sushena. After the war , Yudhishthira appointed Nakula as the King of Northern Madra and Sahadeva as King of southern Madra. Upon the onset of Kali Yuga and
14200-489: The number he wanted and Yudhisthira was allowed to bet whatever he had he was proud of and had right over. After losing his brothers and his empire, he bet himself and also his wife which lead to the Vastraharan. Later, he lost his kingdom in the game again and was forced into exile for 13 years, which included one year in anonymity. Some time after going to the forests, Yudhishthira became troubled upon realising that he
14342-597: The numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language. Sanskrit has been taught in traditional gurukulas since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791 during East India Company rule . Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist hymns and chants . In Sanskrit,
14484-403: The oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition. However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as
14626-446: The other Pandavas brothers, Krishna and Balarama witnessed the mace duel between the mace fighters. When Bhima finally defeated Duryodhana and started insulting his nemesis, Yudhishthira became sufficiently displeased with his brother's disrespect and ordered Bhima off the battleground. Ultimately, Yudhishthira heard out Duryodhana's final conversation and lamentation, before leaving the fallen Kauravas' overlord on his deathbed. After he
14768-431: The other." Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English: A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for
14910-414: The possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit". The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and
15052-439: The previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock. Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes
15194-480: The problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view
15336-861: The prosperous mountainous country of Rohitaka . He defeated the Mattamyurakas of the land in a fierce encounter. In another battle with the sage Akrosha, Nakula subjugated the regions of Sairishaka and Mahetta . He also defeated many tribes and small dynasties, including the Dasarnas , the Sivis , the Trigartas , the Amvashtas, the Malavas , the five tribes of the Karnatas , the Madhyamakeyas ,
15478-465: The reasons for their fall. Finally, it was Yudhishthira who was able to reach the top, with the dog accompanying him. On reaching the top, Indra congratulates him and promises Yudhishthira immortality and godhood upon his ascent to Heaven. However, Indra asks him to abandon the dog before entering Heaven. But Yudhishthira refused to do so, citing the dog's unflinching devotion as a reason. Indra retorts that he has abandoned his brothers and wife to reach
15620-609: The regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism , the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, states Paul Dundas , these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly
15762-497: The relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India,
15904-562: The role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other. These speculations became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal —a scholar of Linguistics with
16046-508: The royal families visited Bhishma , who had been lying on the bed of arrows since his defeat. Bhishma bestowed the new king with Anushasana , teaching the new king in series of dharma and royal conducts, before the elder guardian surrendered his life by his own will. Yudhishthira then cremated the former protector of Hastinapur in a great ceremony. Later, he performed the Ashvamedha on Krishna and Vyasa 's insistence. In this sacrifice,
16188-496: The same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin". The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had
16330-556: The semi-nomadic Aryans . The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the " Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey. Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes
16472-462: The snake introduces itself to be the ancient King Nahusha , the father of Yayati , and the legendary ancestor of the Pandavas. Nahusha posed questions on spirituality to Yudhishthira and was satisfied with his answers. In turn, he also clarified Yudhishthira's doubts on some spiritual topics. Nahusha then narrated his story to Yudhishthira, on how he used to rule Svarga in the days of yore, how he became intoxicated with hubris, and how he turned into
16614-615: The social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres. While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it
16756-409: The top of the Himalayas, but Yudhishthira said he could not prevent their deaths, but to abandon a poor creature was a great sin. It turns out that the dog was his father Yama in disguise. Yama congratulates his son and commends him on his unwavering principles. Yudhishthira proceeds to Heaven upon a celestial vehicle with Narada as his guide, who informs him that he is the first mortal to enter Heaven in
16898-653: The turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various Brahmic scripts , and in the modern era most commonly in Devanagari . Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of India 's Eighth Schedule languages . However, despite attempts at revival, there are no first-language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue, but
17040-489: The tutelage of Drona . Nakula turned out to be an accomplished wielder of the sword. Along with the other Pandava brothers, Nakula was trained in religion, science, administration, and military arts by the Kuru preceptors Kripacharya and Dronacharya . He was particularly skilled at horse-riding. When the Pandavas and their mother, Kunti were in hiding after the event of Lakshagriha , Arjuna won Draupadi's hand in marriage. Nakula married her along with his brothers and had
17182-408: The variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa , Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja , Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana. In the Aṣṭādhyāyī , language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines
17324-564: The vernacular Prakrits. Many Sanskrit dramas indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi , Paithan , Pune and Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era. According to Lamotte , Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit
17466-487: The war on the side of Pandavas. Yudhishthira was described to be an excellent car-warrior and a master at spear-fighting. Yudhishthira defeated many warriors in the war, like Duryodhana. Yudhishthira’s spear originally belonged to Ishana which he would use to kill Shalya during the war. On the 14th day of the war, while Arjuna was busy searching for Jayadratha , Drona attempted to capture Yudhishthira but Arjuna would foil Drona's plans. Yudhishthira and Drona engaged in
17608-543: The water anyway. As a result, they choked on the water and died. Yudhishthira went in last, answered many questions put forth to him by the Yaksha. After the Yaksha was satisfied with the answers, he offered Yudhishthira the choice to bring back one of his brother, and Yudhishthira chose Nakula. When the Yaksha questioned him on his reasoning, Yudhishthira replied that he is still alive as Kunti's lineage, but there are no one alive as Madri 's lineage, so he chose Nakula. The Yaksha
17750-399: The wretched conditions he lives in. At the end of the story, Yudhishthira received a mantra from the sage, which makes him a master of gambling. One day, while Bhima was roaming the forests, he was captured by a giant serpent, who suppressed the Pandava's might with his gaze. Meanwhile, a worried Yudhishthira searched for Bhima and found him at the mercy of the snake. To Yudhishthira's shock,
17892-502: The Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey . According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times
18034-408: Was a spoken language ( bhasha ) used by the cultured and educated. Some sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region. According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit
18176-427: Was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit. This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in
18318-472: Was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE. Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit. Reinöhl mentions that not only have
18460-738: Was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati . The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. Xuanzang , another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in
18602-436: Was also the name of the son of Prativindhya. The Bhagavata Purana , as well as Vishnu Purana , also mention Pauravi as one of the wives of Yudhishthira. A son named Devaka was born to this couple. When the Pandavas returned to Hastinapura after hiding, there was conflict between Yudhishthira and Duryodhana regarding as the crown prince of Hastinapura. Yudhishthira was originally made the crown prince of Hastinapura, but after
18744-522: Was beheaded by Krishna for his evil deeds. An annoyed and jealous Duryodhana returned to Hastinapura. Yudhishthira was challenged to play a game of dice in Hastinapura by his cousin, Duryodhana. Duryodhana invited him because he was jealous of Yudhishthira's wealth and power that he witnessed at the Rajasuya. Shakuni used the dice made from the bones of his father, which always ensured that he got
18886-499: Was dissuaded from doing so by Krishna . The brothers would reconcile their differences and embrace each other. On the last day of the war, Yudhishthira was highly energetic for the day, and engaged in a fierce duel against the Kauravas' final supreme commander, Shalya . With Bhima's assistance, Yudhishthira managed to slay his uncle. With the battlefield cleared of the Kauravas but no sight of Duryodhana, Yudhishthira received
19028-687: Was impressed again, and revived all of the Pandavas siblings. The Yaksha asked for any other wish as he was impressed and told him he could ask for wealth, strength, power, anything he wished. Yudhishthira said he already got the strength, wealth and power when all his four brothers were revived and said he could not ask for any other wish. Yudhishthira replied, "It is enough that I have beheld thee with my senses, eternal God of gods as thou art! O father, whatever boon thou wilt confer on me I shall surely accept gladly! May I, O lord, always conquer covetousness and folly and anger, and may my mind be ever devoted to charity, truth, and ascetic austerities!" This story
19170-627: Was known to be the most handsome person in the Kuru lineage. In his childhood, Nakula mastered his skills in fencing and knife throwing under his father Pandu and a hermit named Suka at the Satasringa ashram. Later, Pandu lost his life when he attempted to make love with his wife, Madri. She committed suicide. Thus, Nakula along with his brothers moved to Hastinapura where he was brought up by Kunti . Kunti loved him as much as her own sons. Nakula greatly improved his archery and swordplay skills under
19312-404: Was made aware that Karna was his elder brother, Yudhishthira cursed all women with not being able to hide any secrets. Had Yudhishthira's mother Kunti not kept that fact a secret, the war might have been averted, with millions spared. After getting victory in the war, Yudhishthira was crowned as the Emperor of Hastinapura and reigned for 36 years. Fifty days after the war, Yudhishthira and
19454-420: Was nobody equal to him in looks. Nakula is seen among the Ashvins , alongside Sahadeva, when Yudhisthira ascended to Svarga . Sanskrit language Sanskrit ( / ˈ s æ n s k r ɪ t / ; attributively 𑀲𑀁𑀲𑁆𑀓𑀾𑀢𑀁 , संस्कृत- , saṃskṛta- ; nominally संस्कृतम् , saṃskṛtam , IPA: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm] ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of
19596-575: Was renowned for his beauty, skill in swordsmanship and horse keeping. He shared the common wife, Draupadi , with his four brothers. He was also married to Karenumati of Chedi Kingdom . He had two sons Shatanika and Niramitra from his two wives respectively. During the Rajasuya of his eldest brother Yudhishthira, he conquered the kings of the Sivis, the Rohitakas and other dynasties. After Yudhishthira lost all his possessions to his cousin Duryodhana in
19738-593: Was reunited with his family in Svarga . Yudhishthira was master in spear-fighting and chariot racing. Yudhishthira was a polyglot, knowing unusual languages. After being exiled by Duryodhana, Yudhishthira became adept at controlling the dice after learning a mantra from Sage Brihadashwa. He was a hero known for his honesty, justice, sagacity, tolerance, good behavior and discernment. Yudhishthira could burn down anyone into ashes when he sees someone with his wrath and anger. That's why he used to be calm and composed most of
19880-401: Was unable to become a father. As an additional penance for the murder, Pandu abdicated the throne of Hastinapura , and his blind brother Dhritarashtra took over the reins of the kingdom. After knowing the curse of Pandu, Kunti told him that he could be the father of the child and told her boon of sage Durvasa. Then Pandu requested Kunti to apply her boon and suggested to call Dharma to get
20022-576: Was unable to feed the Brahmanas who followed him to the forests. On the advice of his priest, Sage Dhaumya, Yudhishthira stood in river and appeased Surya , the Sun god, by reciting his 108 names. The god gifted a copper plate, the Akshaya Patra , to Yudhishthira, saying that any food cooked in that vessel would be inexhaustible, until Draupadi finished her daily meal. He also blessed Yudhishthira that
20164-442: Was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit. Sanskrit as
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