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160-553: The agreement was added to the agenda of the 1962 United Nations General Assembly and precipitated General Assembly Resolution 1752 (XVII) granting the United Nations authority to occupy and administer West New Guinea. Although agreements are not able to negate obligations defined in the Charter of the United Nations, and the agreement asserted that it was for the benefit of the people of the territory, some people believed that

320-593: A hongi expedition, usually conducted by other rulers on behalf of the sultan. In 1828, the Netherlands established a settlement in Western New Guinea and also proclaimed sovereignty over the part of the island lying west of 141 degrees longitude. Considering that New Guinea had little economic value for them, the Dutch promoted Tidore as suzerain of Papua. By 1849, Tidore's borders had been extended to

480-589: A Dutch naval base, and its potential role for housing the Netherlands' surplus population including Eurasians who had become displaced by the Indonesian Revolution. The Dutch also wanted to maintain a regional presence and to secure their economic interests in Indonesia. On the other hand, Indonesia regarded West New Guinea as an intrinsic part of the country on the basis that Indonesia was

640-459: A couple of Dutch policemen were killed, around the area of Wissel Lakes , and the second incidents happened in 1959. These events were known as "Enarotali Incidents". On 6 July 1959, several former Japanese weapons were confiscated from the local people in Genyem, near Hollandia. However this led to revolt and Dutch police and marine units were sent to quell the revolt. Simultaneously with this event,

800-743: A couple of police stations and stole some guns. In response of the capture of PPI and OPI leaderships in Sorong, OPI began to be led by Bastian Samori, Yulius Worabay, Lodewijk Wosiri, Bob Warinusi, and Elias Paprindey  [ id ] . On 3 November 1956, this movement which consisted of 300 people planned a sabotage to blow up oil tank in Sorong. However the plan was foiled by the Dutch authority and they managed to capture E. Paprindey, Elimelek Ayoni and Franky Kossa in November 1959. Multiple fierce fighting happened in Enarotali , between 1952 and 1954,

960-566: A decision to free King of Sekar, Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan who went on to lead Gerakan Tjendrawasih Revolusioner Irian Barat (GTRIB) in 1953, and in that year, there were 2 revolts against Dutch New Guinea Government, one from around his kingdom regions, led by Abutalib bin Paris from Kokas, and on 10 October 1953, from Waris district. By 1953, the dispute had become the central issue in Indonesian domestic politics. All political parties across

1120-600: A full-scale amphibious operation invasion of West Irian known as Operation Jayawijaya (or Operation Djajawidjaja). In response to Indonesian aggression, the Netherlands increased its military presence and intelligence-gathering efforts in West New Guinea. Since 15 April 1954, the Royal Netherlands Navy had been responsible for the territorial defence of West New Guinea. A signals intelligence agency known as Marid 6 Netherlands New Guinea (NNG)

1280-535: A ground assault on the territory's capital Hollandia. Unknown to the Indonesians, Marid 6 NNG had intercepted Indonesian transmissions and obtained intelligence on Indonesian battle plans. However, a ceasefire agreement known as the New York Agreement , which facilitated the transfer of West New Guinea to Indonesia control by 1963, was signed by the Dutch and Indonesians on 15 August 1962. As a result,

1440-419: A harder penalty, with capital punishment for Petero Jandi, and live sentence to Stevanus Yoseph. In Sorong , a revolt happened under the movement of Pioneers of Independence Organization in 1946. This organization formed by former Heiho was led by Sangaji Malan. Meanwhile, besides pioneers of independence organization and the branch of PKII groups, another organization was formed on the 17 August 1947, called

1600-594: A local branch of KIM was transformed into Party of Indonesian Independence (PIM) under the head of Lukas Rumkorem. Lukas would be captured and exiled to Hollandia, with the charge he instigated violence among local population. Still the movement did not disappear in Biak , Stevanus Yoseph together with Petero Jandi from Polongbangkeng 's group, Terianus Simbiak, Honokh Rambrar, Petrus Kaiwai and Hermanus Rumere on 19 March 1948, instigated another revolt. The Dutch authorities had to send reinforcements from Jayapura. The Dutch imposed

1760-854: A member of Volksraad in Batavia and influential veteran member of Indonesian nationalist, who succeeded in convincing the court to release him. On 1 March 1946, he ordered that all the Dutch's flags in Kokas to be changed into Indonesian flags. The Dutch authorities later aided with incoming troops from Sorong arrested the King Rumagesan and he was given capital punishment, although later commuted to live imprisonment under popular demands. In 1946 in Kaimana , son of commissioned King of Sran , Muhammad Achmad Aituarauw founded an organization called Independence With Kaimana, West Irian (MBKIB). Through MBKIB,

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1920-617: A more forceful stance towards the Dutch. Initially, he unsuccessfully tried to force the Indonesian government to formally abrogate the Round Table agreements and to adopt economic sanctions but was rebuffed by the Natsir Cabinet . Undeterred by this setback, Sukarno made recovering West Irian an important priority of his presidency and sought to harness popular support from the Indonesian public for this goal throughout many of his speeches between 1951 and 1952. In New Guinea, while

2080-694: A motion to recognize the People's Republic of China as the sole legal China, initiated by 17 UN members led by Albania, was passed as General Assembly Resolution 2758 . It was supported by most of the communist states (including the Soviet Union ) and non-aligned countries (such as India ), but also by some NATO countries, such as the United Kingdom and France . After the PRC was seated on 15 November 1971, Nixon then personally visited mainland China

2240-614: A number of towns throughout the island. The program of the GPNG was essentially, repudiation of the Indonesian claim and support of the Netherlands administration. Between 1950 and 1953, the Netherlands and Indonesia tried to resolve the dispute through bilateral negotiations, conflicts arose because by the end of 1950, federal government structure collapsed and taken over by republican government which means The Netherlands had less say in Indonesian affairs. The Netherlands refused to follow on New Guinea provision of Round Table agreement as it

2400-511: A peace settlement known as the New York Agreement on 15 August 1962. As a face-saving measure, the Dutch would hand over West New Guinea to a provisional United Nations Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) on 1 October 1962, which then ceded the territory to Indonesia on 1 May 1963; formally ending the dispute. As part of the New York Agreement, it was stipulated that a popular plebiscite would be held in 1969 to determine whether

2560-519: A place of settlement for Indos. However, during the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference of 1949, both Indonesia and the Netherlands could not agree on the status of New Guinea, with the Netherlands arguing that it should keep West New Guinea for the eventual self-determination of the natives, once those inhabitants had become sufficiently "mature". The resulting accord was unclear on the final status of New Guinea, although

2720-555: A protest against the Netherlands' New Guinea policy. In mid-January, Robert F. Kennedy , President Kennedy's brother, travelled to Jakarta and announced that the United States, "as a former colony , is committed to anti-colonialism". President Kennedy later met with both the Dutch Foreign Minister Joseph Luns and Sukarno, with both agreeing to a United Nations Trusteeship but disagreeing on

2880-953: A protest openly demanded that West Irian be returned to Indonesia during Dutch minister Bost visit to Fakfak . Aside from Papuan revolting in New Guinea, multiple Papuan individuals evade capture and fled to Indonesia, with some joining Cendrawasih Battalion , like Corinus Krey, A. Koromath, A.B. Karubuy , A.L.Maranni, N.L. Suages, Lt. Henkie Antaribaba, Lt. Ramandey, H.L. Rumaseuw, Lt. Wanggai, Lt. Numberi, and others who would become leaders for military infiltration during Operation Trikora. Other figures that received military training included AJ. Dimara, Benny Torey, Marinus Imbury, Zadrack Rumbobiar, Melkianus Torey, and Metusalim Fimbay. While others joined Indonesian diplomatic delegations, which include: M. Indey , Frits Kiriheo, J.A. Dimara , alongside S. Papare who had been living in Indonesian territories. Although no exact number of escapees from 1949 to 1961

3040-677: A rebellion with messianic movement roots also erupted near the region of Asmat . This movement began in 1956, which invited brutal retaliation by Dutch colonial authority and around 700 would be killed in Ayan village. Another revolt would begin in 1958–1959, when Dutch authority would deploy HNLMS Piet Hein and resulted in around 1,000 deaths in Agats . These events would be known as "Agats Incident". In 1960, successive rebellions happened, specifically in Kokas, Fakfak , in August and December 1960 which

3200-517: A red and white flag-raising ceremony to commemorate the Indonesian independence day . KIM and PKII members began to start movements in other areas of New Guinea, most of these were unsuccessful, and the perpetrators were either imprisoned or killed. In Manokwari , a movement called Red and White Movement (GMP) was founded, which was led by Petrus Walebong and Samuel D. Kawab. This movement later spread to Babo, Kokas, Fakfak, and Sorong. In Biak ,

3360-574: A referendum "to give the Papuans freedom" with the United Nations Secretary-General and other United Nations personnel. The Netherlands responded that the proposal was a "shocking betrayal by the United States", initially wanting the referendum to take place under UN administration. Although after the United States threatened to make the negotiations public, it acceded with the addition of a "right to self-determination" into

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3520-455: A referendum of the 816,000 Papuans, only 1,022 Papuan tribal representatives were allowed to vote, and they were coerced into voting in favour of integration. While several international observers including journalists and diplomats criticised the referendum as being rigged, the U.S. and Australia supported Indonesia's efforts to secure acceptance in the United Nations for the pro-integration vote. That same year, 84 member states voted in favour for

3680-643: A resolution supporting its claim to West New Guinea from the Afro-Asian countries. Besides the Afro-Asian countries, Indonesia was also supported by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies. Meanwhile, the Netherlands' stance was supported by the United States, the United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , and several Western European and Latin American countries. However, these countries were unwilling to commit to providing military support to

3840-663: A rival resolution which favoured an independent West New Guinea. Indonesia favoured the Indian resolution while the Netherlands, Britain, Australia, and New Zealand supported the Francophone African resolution. On 27 November 1961, both the Francophone African (52-41-9) and Indian (41-40-21) resolutions were put to the vote failed to gain a two–thirds majority at the United Nations General Assembly . The failure of this final round of diplomacy in

4000-453: A seaborne incursion into the territory, but this operation proved to be a failure. Of the twenty-three infiltrators, seven were killed, and the remaining sixteen were captured within four months. On 14 September 1961, a new infiltration attempt was launched, but once again the infiltration party was promptly intercepted and defeated by Dutch forces. Following the failure of diplomacy in the United Nations and persisted Dutch efforts to prepare

4160-1171: A sense of West Papuan national identity, and these efforts led to the creation of a national flag (the Morning Star flag ), a national anthem, and a coat of arms . The Dutch had planned to transfer independence to West New Guinea in 1970. Exclusion in the New Guinea Council were parties and movements which openly supported Papuan integration with Indonesia, like KIM, PKII , Independence Fighter Association of West Irian ( Persatuan Pedjuang Kemerdekaan Irian Barat , PPKI) led by J. Dimara and I. Kilikulat, Irian Indonesian Youth Organization ( Organisasi Pemuda Indonesia Irian , OPII) led by N.C. Krey, PPI led by S.K. Tumengkol, Irian Youth Organization ( Organisasi Pemuda Irian , OPI) led by D. Wosiri, Indonesian Independence Party ( Partai Kemerdekaan Indonesia , PKI) led by Tan Tjung Ek, PIN, Islamic Indonesian Party ( Partai Indonesia Islam ), GMP, Indonesian Youth Movement ( Gerakan Pemuda Indonesia , GPI) led by Rumbewas, and West Irian People's Movement ( Gerakan Rakyat Irian Barat , GRIB). In 1962, GRIB staged

4320-536: A thousand move to the Netherlands. Following a sustained period of harassment against Dutch diplomatic representatives in Jakarta, the Indonesian government formally severed relations with the Netherlands in August 1960. In response to Indonesian aggression and facing local pressure, the Netherlands government stepped up its efforts to prepare the Papuan people for self-determination in 1959. These efforts culminated in

4480-541: A trusteeship. Both supporters of Indonesia and supporters of the Netherlands in the administration cast their positions as favourable to anticolonialism . Although the idea of Papuan independence appealed to senior advisers in the U.S. government, few thought it realistic. US officials were also concerned about world opinion in favour of Indonesia; diplomatic displays of Third World solidarity were increasing, and in January 1962, Egypt closed its Suez Canal to Dutch ships as

4640-764: A two-thirds majority (34-23-3). In response to growing tensions between Jakarta and the Hague, the Indonesian government unilaterally dissolved the Netherlands-Indonesian Union on 13 February 1956, and also rescinded compensation claims to the Dutch. Undeterred by this setback, Indonesia resubmitted the West New Guinea issue to the UNGA's agenda in November 1956. On 23 February 1957, a thirteen country–sponsored resolution ( Bolivia , Burma , Ceylon , Costa Rica , Ecuador , India , Iraq , Pakistan , Saudi Arabia , Sudan , Syria, and Yugoslavia) calling for

4800-503: A two–thirds majority in the United Nations General Assembly. On 30 November 1954, the Indian representative Krishna Menon initiated a resolution calling for the Indonesians and Dutch to resume negotiations and to report to the 10th UNGA Session. This resolution was sponsored by eight countries ( Argentina , Costa Rica , Cuba , Ecuador , El Salvador , India , Syria , and Yugoslavia ) but failed to secure

4960-472: A unanimous decision is reached... [was] not conducive to an atmosphere in which people could secretly and therefore fearlessly express their preference"), and the lack of an option for union with the Netherlands. At the United Nations General Assembly, a group of African states, led by Ghana , denounced the Act of Free Choice as an act of "Moslem imperialism" and "Asian racialism". Other states such as India refuted

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5120-594: A valuation total of around $ 1.5 billion was nationalised. By January 1958, ten thousand Dutch nationals had left Indonesia, many returning to the Netherlands. This spontaneous nationalisation had adverse repercussions on the Indonesian economy, disrupting communications and affecting the production of exports. President Sukarno also abandoned efforts to raise the dispute at the 1958 United Nations General Assembly, claiming that reason and persuasion had failed. By June 1960, around thirteen thousand Dutch nationals mostly Eurasians from New Guinea left for Australia , with around

5280-488: Is misleading due to lobbying efforts, while the U.S. and UK expressed disappointment, and Russia and Gambia praised China's approach. Publishing in 2024, academic Sun Yi states that China has "played an increasingly dynamic role in energizing" the UN's Intangible Cultural Heritage Cooperation program. China works hard to cultivate favorable votes from African countries at the United Nations. It has often been successful, and

5440-571: Is more than one kind of ultimate reality. The Declaration, he said, should reflect more than simply Western ideas and Dr. Humphrey would have to be eclectic in his approach ... at one point Dr. Chang suggested that the Secretariat might well spend a few months studying the fundamentals of Confucianism! The Universal Declaration of Human Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly as Resolution 217 A(III) on 10 December 1948, as

5600-642: The Arab awakening and the NATO invasion of Libya in 2011. China voted yes on UNSCR 1970 to refer Muammar Gaddafi to the International Criminal Court , but abstained on UNSCR 1973 , which established a no-fly zone and authorized sanctions against Libya. Shortly after the vote, NATO invaded Libya, resulting in the overthrow of Gaddafi, his public execution, a civil war that continues through 2022. China has since "held up Libya as an example of

5760-722: The Chinese Civil War between the government of Republic of China and the rebel forces of the Chinese Communist Party, led to the latter's victory on the mainland and the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949. Nearly all of Mainland China was soon under its control and the ROC government (then referred to in the West as "Nationalist China") retreated to the island of Taiwan . The One-China policy advocated by both governments dismantled

5920-579: The Dutch Labor Party defeated an amendment that would have explicitly excluded New Guinea from Indonesian independence. From 1951, the Indonesian government interpreted the results of the Round Table Conference as giving it sovereignty over all of the former Dutch East Indies , including New Guinea. Throughout negotiations with the Indonesians, the Netherlands maintained it could give up sovereignty over Dutch New Guinea, because

6080-717: The Indies ". Although this province was never achieved, the Indos maintained a privileged and resented position in Indonesia, such that they were the strongest advocates for an autonomous New Guinea. From 1945 during the Indonesian National Revolution , the Netherlands tried to negotiate for a special place for New Guinea in various conferences with Indonesian nationalists, with the Linggadjati Agreement among other things reserving New Guinea as

6240-666: The International Olympic Committee . The Republic of China's most recent request for admission was turned down in 2007, but a number of European governments—led by the United States—protested to the UN's Office of Legal Affairs to force the global body and its secretary-general to stop using the reference "Taiwan is a part of China". The Government of the Republic of China (ROC) (now Taiwan) used its Security Council veto only once, to stop

6400-798: The International Refugee Organization and the World Health Organization . Peng Chun Chang of ROC was the vice-chairman of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights that drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Eleanor Roosevelt , as the driving force behind the Declaration, recalled in her memoirs: Dr. Chang was a pluralist and held forth in charming fashion on the proposition that there

6560-633: The People's Republic of China on 25 October 1971. As a result of the Republic of China losing the UN China seat, the country became referred to as "Taiwan" by other countries since Taiwan covers 99% of the ROC-controlled territories. As of June 2012 , the People's Republic of China had used its Security Council veto eight times, fewer than all other countries with the veto: in 1972 to veto

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6720-564: The Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in 1945. After the third and final vote in the United Nations General Assembly in 1957, in which a resolution urging Dutch–Indonesian dialogue, with the support of a majority of nations representing the majority of the world's people, was blocked by the colonial powers , the Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio said that it would no longer seek to resolve

6880-665: The Rome Statute that established the Court, but the PRC is not one of them. The PRC, as well its neighbouring rival India, has been critical of the court, as is the US which is also a non-signatory nation. Since the mid-2010s, China has sought more leadership roles and policy influence in UN bodies. Chinese diplomats have held leadership roles in the Food and Agriculture Organization, Interpol,

7040-487: The United States to intervene in the conflict as a third-party mediator between Indonesia and the Netherlands. Following the New York Agreement on 15 August 1962, the Netherlands, under U.S. pressure, handed West New Guinea over to a United Nations Temporary Executive Authority , which subsequently handed the territory over to Indonesia on 1 May 1963. Following a controversial plebiscite in 1969, West New Guinea

7200-612: The United States of Indonesia , the successor state to the Netherlands East Indies, on 27 December 1949. However, the Dutch refused to include Netherlands New Guinea in the new Indonesian Republic and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Following the failure of the Dutch and Indonesians to resolve their differences over West New Guinea during the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference in late 1949, it

7360-560: The West Irian dispute , was a diplomatic and political conflict between the Netherlands and Indonesia over the territory of Dutch New Guinea . While the Netherlands had ceded sovereignty over most of the Dutch East Indies to Indonesia on 27 December 1949 following an independence struggle , it retained control over its colony on the western half of New Guinea . The Indonesian government claimed this territory as well, on

7520-623: The "West Irian" (West New Guinea) issue at the United Nations. Mass strikes and illegal seizures broke out in Indonesia against Dutch businesses in 1958, organized by the Communist Party , youths and veterans' groups which led to Dutch nationals fleeing the country. Diplomatic ties were severed with the Netherlands in 1960. During the 1950s, the United States had poor relations with Indonesia , because of its secret support of anti-government rebels in Sumatra and its unwillingness to support

7680-591: The 1920s, large numbers of unemployed Indo people in Java persuaded the Dutch government to set up colonies in northern West New Guinea, which eventually failed to give the colonists the prosperity they expected. However, New Guinea was conceived of as a "promised land" in the imagination of groups such as the Vaderlandsche Club and the Dutch Nazi Party who lobbied for a " white Dutch province in

7840-729: The Act of Free Choice as illegitimate and noncompliant with the New York Agreement, the United Nations officially maintains that West New Guinea's status as part of Indonesia is "final". In 2002, a nationalist assembly of Papuans led by independence activist Theys Eluay declared the New York Agreement "unlawful and morally unacceptable, because Representatives from [West New Guinea] were not involved in it". However Indonesia negotiation teams led by Soebandrio in New York included Papuan representatives such as: Marthen Indey , Johannes Abraham Dimara , Albert Karubuy , Silas Papare , Frits Kirihio, and Efraim Somisu. West New Guinea dispute The West New Guinea dispute (1950–1962), also known as

8000-413: The Association of Young Men of Indonesia (PPI) under the leadership of Abraham Koromath. Around the Bomberai Peninsula area of Fakfak , specifically in Kokas, Indonesian nationalism emerged under the King Al-Alam Ugar Sekar, Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan. He had history of disobedience against the Dutch authorities and was imprisoned in Hollandia. In prison, he managed to write a letter to Husni Thamrin ,

8160-403: The Council decided to support the agreement and to cooperate with the United Nations and Indonesian authorities in keeping peace and order. A small minority of Council members, including Nicolaas Jouwe , refused to support the agreement and went into exile in the Netherlands, he only returned to Indonesia in 2009. The period of United Nations administration ended on 1 May 1963, as envisioned by

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8320-404: The Dutch authorities acted with brutality, inviting protests from the Dutch public, and local populations. In Biak , there were also numerous arrests, including a teacher named Petrus Wettebessy who was arrested for his activities against the Dutch leading the Party for Irian Inside the United States of Indonesia ( Partai Irian Dalam Republik Indonesia Serikat , PIDRIS) alongside Corinus Krey and

8480-402: The Dutch authorities increased its effort to imprison them or persuade them to switch sides although later on encourage them to pursue independence outside Indonesian Republic. In this early efforts, The most prominent members captured was Martin Indey , Hemanus Rumere and his associates from Biak were captured and imprisoned in Hollandia , meanwhile Corinus Krey was exiled to Digul . In 1949,

8640-626: The Dutch military position in West New Guinea. Alongside this the Dutch authorities began capturing Papuan youths members of Organisasi Pembebasan Irian (OPI) from Sorong branch, as Dimara was a former chairman in 1950, he was exiled to Digul until 1960. In Digul Prison, an organization called Untuk Pembebasan Irian (UPI) was formed in 1955 led by Benyamin Felubun, under the advice of Johannes Abraham Dimara , this organization then spread to other location including in Okaba led by C. Tamnge, in Muting, Merauke  [ id ] led by Yan Kameubun, and in Mimika led by L. Renwarin. Mimika branch

8800-414: The Dutch police officer Sergeant van Krieken back to Indonesian territory. The infiltration force was engaged by Dutch marines, resulting in eleven Indonesian casualties and the capture of the remaining Indonesian forces, the Indonesian government reluctantly accepted it could not mount a credible military challenge against the Dutch in West New Guinea, and it was not until 1960 that Indonesia would again test

8960-453: The Eisenhower Administration's covert support for the Permesta / PRRI regional uprisings in Sumatra and Sulawesi. These factors convinced the Kennedy Administration to intervene diplomatically to bring about a peaceful solution to the dispute that favoured Indonesia. Throughout 1962, the U.S. diplomat Ellsworth Bunker facilitated top–secret high–level negotiations between the Dutch and Indonesian governments. These protracted talks produced

9120-435: The German territory in 1914. In 1901, the Netherlands formally purchased West New Guinea from the Sultanate of Tidore, incorporating it into the Netherlands East Indies . During World War Two , Western New Guinea was occupied by the Japanese but was later recaptured by the Allies, who restored Dutch rule over the territory. Following the Indonesian National Revolution , the Netherlands formally transferred sovereignty to

9280-407: The ITU. China seeks to obtain support in the ITU for China's internet protocol . Institutional connections between China's Belt and Road Initiative and multiple UN bodies have also been established. UN Secretary General António Guterres has praised the BRI for its capacity to advance the UN's sustainable development goals . In United Nations bodies, China argues for a way of looking at

9440-435: The Indies Archipelago either geographically or geologically.... Neither the Javanese, the Acehnese, nor the inhabitants of Palembang have any right to this 'empty' country. The Dutch were the first to occupy it, and have the right to use it for the population surplus of the Netherlands ..."  —Colonization advocate P. E. Winkler, 1936 The origins of the dispute over Dutch New Guinea are agreed to have originated in

9600-435: The Indonesian Navy became the second most potent force in East Asia after China . The Indonesian Air Force also benefited from an infusion of Soviet military hardware and training, developing a long-range capability. Bolstered by Soviet military weapons and equipment, Indonesia had begun to reconsider the viability of renewing military operations against Dutch forces in West New Guinea. On 9 November 1960, Indonesia launched

9760-492: The Indonesian authorities, which continues to this day. In 2017, a petition smuggled and claimed to be signed by 1.8 million West Papuans was presented to the United Nations demanding a new independence referendum and a UN representative to investigate suspected human rights violations by Indonesian security forces. Signing of the petition was made illegal under threat of prison by Indonesian authorities. Australia continued to support Indonesia's sovereignty over West Papua, citing

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9920-442: The Indonesian claim to West New Guinea. Indonesia was also displeased with the "virtually unanimous hostility of the American press" in its international campaign for West New Guinea. In early 1959, a counsellor wrote a memo on behalf of the US Ambassador suggesting a plan for "special United Nations trusteeship over the territory for a limited number of years, at the end of which time sovereignty would be turned over to Indonesia". At

10080-434: The Indonesian nationalists, Prime Minister Robert Menzies viewed Indonesia as a potential threat to its national security and distrusted the Indonesian leadership for supporting the Japanese during World War II. In addition, New Zealand and South African governments also opposed the Indonesian claim to West New Guinea. The New Zealand government accepted the Dutch argument that the Papuans were culturally different from

10240-422: The Indonesian political spectrum, particularly the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), supported Sukarno's efforts to integrate West Irian into Indonesia. According to the historians Audrey and George McTurnan Kahin , the PKI's pro-integration stance helped the party to rebuild its political base and to further its credentials as a nationalist Communist Party that supported Sukarno. In the same year, during visit of

10400-410: The Indonesian position argued that Indonesia was already ethnically diverse, that Indonesia wanted to reunite territories separated by colonialism, and that Dutch arguments about democracy were "a trick" to create "at the doorstep of Indonesia a puppet state ... under Dutch tutelage". By March 1961, Indonesia had indicated agreement for United Nations trusteeship on condition that it would not be called

10560-458: The Indonesian torpedo boats was sunk, while the remaining two boats were forced to retreat. The operation ended disastrously for Indonesia, with many crew members and embarked marines being killed and 55 survivors taken prisoner. Among the casualties was Commodore Yos Sudarso , the deputy chief of the Indonesian Navy Staff. On 24 June 1962, four Indonesian Air Force C-130 Hercules aircraft dropped 213 paratroopers near Merauke . Throughout

10720-437: The Indonesians and thus supported maintaining Dutch sovereignty over the territory until the Papuans were ready for self-rule. By contrast, newly independent India , another Commonwealth member supported Indonesia's claim to West New Guinea. Between 1954 and 1957, Indonesia and their Afro-Asian allies made three attempts to get the United Nations to intervene in the dispute. However, all these three resolutions failed to gain

10880-463: The International Civil Aviation Organization, the UN Industrial Development Organization, and the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. China is active in its diplomacy with the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), the UN agency in charge of establishing common standards for telecommunications technologies. China is an active participant in the agency's work, is a significant donor, and Chinese experts have held leadership roles in

11040-415: The KPM ships. In 1962, the Royal Netherlands Navy deployed a sizeable naval task group including the aircraft carrier HNLMS Karel Doorman to West New Guinea. On 15 January 1962, the Indonesian Navy attempted to land a force of 150 marines near Vlakke Hoek, on West Irian's south coast. The Indonesians had intended to raise the Indonesian flag on Dutch territory to weaken the Netherlands position during

11200-399: The Kennedy administration pressed the Netherlands to accept this agreement was that it believed that Cold War considerations of preventing Indonesia from going Communist overrode the Dutch case." "... if Java, Sumatra, etc., should be severed from the Netherlands within the foreseeable future—which God forbid!—then that does not need to be the case of New Guinea. New Guinea does not belong to

11360-420: The Lombok treaty. China and the United Nations China is one of the members of the United Nations and is one of five permanent members of its Security Council . One of the victorious Allies of World War II (the Chinese theatre of which was the Second Sino-Japanese War ), the Republic of China (ROC) joined the UN as one of its founding member countries in 1945. The subsequent resumption of

11520-565: The Middle East and sub-Saharan Africa, with those disagreements increasing over time. These areas of increasing disagreement often involve the Palestinian-Israeli conflict and matters of state sovereignty, as discussed below. Before its entry to the UN, China viewed UN peacekeeping missions negatively, regarding them as an attempt to infringe on countries' sovereignty. After its UN entry, China's opposition to such missions

11680-471: The Netherlands , although the government excluded an amendment that would have specified self-determination as the goal of Dutch sovereignty over the territory. Inside West New Guinea, the Netherlands liberalized political parties but banned pro-Indonesia parties as subversive . In response to the Netherlands' hardening, Indonesia's position on New Guinea gradually shifted to say that the people of New Guinea already exercised their right to self-determination with

11840-771: The Netherlands Parliamentary mission, petitions were received from GPNG leaders in Hollandia , Biak , and Manokwari . In addition to the usual expressions of loyalty these petitions voiced a strong desire for more education. Although local resentments over land disputes with Eurasian settlers brought by Dutch authorities were also expressed. A Protestant labor organization, the Christelijk Werknemers Verbond Nieuw-Guinea-Perserikatan Sekerdia Kristen di Nieuw-Guinea (CWNG-Persekding)

12000-590: The Netherlands during the Geneva Summit and the Asian–African Conference in 1955, after which Dutch newspapers and churches, previously stalwartly in favour of keeping New Guinea, advocated bringing New Guinea "into a quieter sphere" of United Nations Trusteeship . Nevertheless, in 1956, the Netherlands amended its constitution to include West New Guinea as a constituent country of the Kingdom of

12160-409: The Netherlands in the event of a conflict with Indonesia. The Eisenhower Administration was open to non-violent territorial changes but rejected the use of any military means to resolve the dispute. Until 1961, the U.S. pursued a policy of strict neutrality and abstained on every vote on the dispute. According to the historian Nicholas Tarling , the United Kingdom government took the position that it

12320-751: The Netherlands signed the "Agreement between the Republic of Indonesia and the Kingdom of the Netherlands Concerning West New Guinea (West Irian)" at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City . Some members of the quasi-legislative New Guinea Council established under the Dutch were disappointed that the Netherlands had signed the agreement without consulting the Council. Nevertheless,

12480-456: The Netherlands' traditional Western allies—the United States, Great Britain, Australia, and New Zealand—were sympathetic to Dutch policy, they were unwilling to provide any military support in the event of a conflict with Indonesia. On 26 September 1961, the Dutch Foreign Minister Joseph Luns offered to hand over West New Guinea to a United Nations trusteeship. This proposal was firmly rejected by his Indonesian counterpart Subandrio, who likened

12640-484: The New Guineans were pro-Indonesian, although this assessment of local opinion is contradicted by reports from foreign embassies. Between July and August 1969, the Act of Free Choice overwhelmingly concluded in favour of staying with Indonesia. Professor of International Law H.F. Van Panhuys attributes the lopsided results to the lack of demilitarization of the territory, the process of musyawarah ("talking until

12800-523: The New York Agreement. Fernando Ortiz-Sanz , the United Nations Secretary-General's representative in New Guinea, observed and approved the process of musyawarah during March and April 1969 for the final Act of Free Choice , although recommending that the councils be enlarged to better comply with the adult eligibility provision of the New York Agreement. In his report, he said that the majority of petitions he received from

12960-579: The Papuans would choose to remain in Indonesia or seek self-determination. While U.S. diplomacy averted the escalation of the dispute into a full–blown war between Indonesia and the Netherlands, Washington failed to win over President Sukarno. Buoyed by his success in the West New Guinea campaign, Sukarno turned his attention to the former British colony of Malaysia , resulting in the Indonesian-Malaysian Confrontation which induced deterioration of Indonesia's relations with

13120-437: The Round Table Conference concluded with Indonesia granted Independence as RIS with Republic of Indonesia as a constituent while New Guinea was under the administration of Dutch authorities with provision to discuss its fate after 1 year. Civil bureaucrats formerly filled with other Indonesian islanders suspected of harboring republican sympathies, were replaced by displaced Eurasians from Java, who filled many posts, especially in

13280-627: The Trikora Command cancelled Operation Jayawijaya on 17 August 1962. By 1961, the United States government had become concerned about the Indonesian military's purchase of Soviet weapons and equipment for a planned invasion of West New Guinea. The Kennedy Administration feared an Indonesian drift towards communism and wanted to court Sukarno to draw him away from the Soviet bloc and Communist China . The U.S. government also wanted to repair relations with Jakarta , which had deteriorated due to

13440-511: The UN convinced Indonesia to prepare for a military invasion of West Irian. As the dispute began to escalate, Sukarno also developed closer relations with the Soviet Union, which shared Indonesia's anti-colonial outlook. In July 1959, the Indonesian government adopted a policy of Confrontation ( Konfrontasi ) against the Dutch. According to the Indonesian political scientist J. Soedjati Djiwandono , Indonesia's Confrontation policy involved

13600-582: The United Nations failed to bring about a solution to the dispute that favoured Indonesia. That month, the Indonesian Communist Party and affiliated trade unions lobbied for retaliatory economic measures against the Dutch. On 26 November 1957, a third Indonesian resolution was put to the vote but failed to gain a two-thirds majority (41-29-11). In response, Indonesia took retaliatory measure against Dutch interests in Indonesia. In 1956, Papuan youths from Fakfak revolted and managed to burn

13760-692: The United Nations peacekeeping operations since military team to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . For 2013–2015, China ranked seventh among member states for contributing 3.93% of the United Nations Peacekeeping operations. By 2019, it was the tenth largest contributor but was providing more troops, police officers, and military observers than any other permanent member of the Security Council. As of 2022, it

13920-500: The United Nations to accept the result, with 30 others abstaining. A number of Papuans refused to accept the territory's integration into Indonesia, which anti-independence supporters and foreign observers attributed to the Netherlands' efforts to promote a West Papuan national identity among right-leaning Papuans and suppressed left-leaning Papuans pro-Indonesian sympathies. These formed the separatist Organisasi Papua Merdeka (Free Papua Movement) and have waged an insurgency against

14080-465: The United Nations to appoint a "good offices commission" for West New Guinea was submitted to the UN General Assembly. Despite receiving a plural majority (40-25-13), this second resolution failed to gain a two-thirds majority. Undeterred, the Afro-Asian caucus in the United Nations lobbied for the dispute to be included on the UNGA's agenda. On 4 October 1957, the Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio warned that Indonesia would embark on "another cause" if

14240-525: The United States and the rest of the West using humanitarian concerns to justify aggression and regime change by force." Its views on territorial sovereignty have thus hardened since 2011. Thus, for example, between 2010 and 2020 China vetoed ten resolutions regarding Syria and takes a more vocal position in the UN regarding matters of sovereignty. From 1991 to 2020, the vast majority of China's abstentions and all of its vetoes have occurred on issues that involve territorial integrity, primarily sanctions and

14400-418: The United States managed to keep the PRC out of the UN. The General Assembly Resolution 1668 which demanded a majority of two thirds for the recognition of new members was adopted in 1961. Canada and other allies of the United States individually shifted their recognitions of China to the PRC, which the US opposed. Some attempted to recognize both Chinas separately which both Chinas opposed declaring each one

14560-592: The United States of Indonesia and proclaimed the unitary Republic of Indonesia . "... The issue of Irian is not about ethnology; it is also not about whether we are ready (to administer) or not... The issue of Irian is about colonialism or not colonialism, about colonialism or independence. A part of our homeland is still colonized by the Dutch, this is a reality, and we don't want this. We want all of our homeland to be independent, all of our homeland "from Sabang to Merauke ", zonder (without) exception ..."  —Sukarno, 17 August 1950 The Dutch argued that

14720-598: The West New Guinea dispute to Katanga 's attempted secession from the Republic of Congo during the Congo Crisis . By October 1961, Britain was open to transferring West New Guinea to Indonesia while the U.S. floated the idea of a jointly-administered trusteeship over the territory. On 23 November 1961, the Indian delegation at the United Nations presented a draft resolution calling for the resumption of Dutch–Indonesian talks on terms which favoured Indonesia. On 25 November 1961, several Francophone African countries tabled

14880-462: The West Papuans for self-rule , Indonesia's Confrontation against the Dutch in West New Guinea reached a new crescendo. On 19 December 1961, President Sukarno gave orders for the Indonesian military to prepare for a full–scale military invasion of the territory; codenamed Operation Trikora . He also ordered the creation of a special People's Triple Command or Tri Komando Rakyat (Trikora) with

15040-472: The West", although the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation and the struggling Indonesian economy cooled relations. For Indonesia, the implementation of the New York Agreement completed the early Indonesian nationalist goal of what Sukarno called a "Republic of Indonesia from Sabang to Merauke ", and represented successful resistance against partition on ethnic or religious grounds. On the other hand,

15200-431: The West. Ultimately, President Sukarno was overthrown during the Indonesian coup attempt of 1965 and subsequently replaced by the pro-Western Suharto . In addition, the U.S. mining company Freeport-McMoRan was interested in exploiting Western New Guinea's copper and gold deposits. Following the Act of Free Choice plebiscite in 1969, Western New Guinea was formally integrated into the Republic of Indonesia. Instead of

15360-706: The activities of PKII and KIM associated groups were greatly diminished after most of their leaderships was captured under subversive law, some successors groups still exist and fighting for integration with Indonesia. In Hollandia 1951, some Papuan from Western part of New Guinea founded the Partai Indonesia Islam, the party was fiercely against Dutch authorities and as a result was imprisoned and given sentences of 12 years. Another wave of arrest happened on 3 February 1952, this time group led by Simon Jentara who intended for advocating Western New Guinea integration with Indonesia. On 2 May 1950, RIS court release

15520-598: The admission of Bangladesh (which it recognized as a province of Pakistan), in 1997 to veto ceasefire observers to Guatemala (which recognised the ROC as the legitimate government of China), in 1999 to veto an extension of observers to the Republic of Macedonia (same), in 2007 (in conjunction with Russia) to veto criticizing Myanmar (Burma) on its human rights record, in 2008 (with Russia) to veto sanctions against Zimbabwe, in 2011 (with Russia) to veto sanctions against Syria, and in February 2012 (with Russia) to veto for

15680-581: The admission of the Mongolian People's Republic to the United Nations in 1955 on the grounds it recognized all of Mongolia as a part of China. During the 1950s the PRC began to demand to be recognized by the UN instead of the Government of the ROC. The UN seat for "China" was originally occupied and represented by delegates of the Republic of China , and due to UN Resolution 2758 , these delegates were expelled and replaced with delegates from

15840-456: The agreement was sacrificing the people of the territory for the benefit of the foreign powers. A United States Department of State summary from 1962 asserts the "agreement was almost a total victory for Indonesia and a defeat for the Netherlands" , that the United States "Bureau of European Affairs was sympathetic to the Dutch view that annexation by Indonesia would simply trade white for brown colonialism" , and that "The underlying reason that

16000-512: The agreement. Foreign Minister Subandrio , who regarded UN supervision and organization of the referendum as a "humiliation for Indonesia", only agreed to a set of pared-down guidelines for the plebiscite when the United States threatened to "switch sides and support the Dutch". Article XVIII of the final version of the Agreement provided the following parameters for the "act of free choice": On 15 August 1962, representatives from Indonesia and

16160-496: The area around Wissel Lakes were the center of a messianic movement called Wege. It was centered around the believe of Ratu Adil from Java would come and found kingdom of happiness which was based on a local folktale of Situgumina which travel to the west, in the direction of Java, and will return again to bring secret of life and death and wealth, as a result the Ekari should prepare for their arrival. The local people would begin

16320-487: The basis that it had belonged to the Dutch East Indies and that the new Republic of Indonesia was the legitimate successor to the former Dutch colony. During the first phase of the dispute (1950–1954), Indonesia pursued bilateral negotiations with the Netherlands. During the second phase (1954–1958), Indonesia attempted to raise support for its territorial claims in the United Nations General Assembly . During

16480-501: The charges and celebrated Indonesian unity. In October 1969 the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution 84 to 0 with 30 abstentions that noted "with appreciation the fulfilment... [of] the 1962 Agreement" and thanked Indonesia for "its efforts to promote the economic and social development of West Irian". The dissenting African states proposed an amendment to direct a second referendum in 1975, but it failed because of Indonesian and American opposition. The Dutch government accepted

16640-535: The concept of universal human rights that differs from the Western view. China's view is that a focus on political rights and values is a too narrow view of human rights, and should instead focus on economic outcomes, material well-being of people, and national sovereignty. On 4 July 2024, China rejected Western human rights reform recommendations at a U.N. Human Rights Council session but accepted nearly 70% of suggestions from allies. Critics argue this acceptance rate

16800-550: The conservative parties in the Dutch parliament , deeply humiliated by Indonesian independence and wanting to maintain a colonial stronghold in the area, would not vote to ratify any such agreement. When the Indonesian government withdrew from the Netherlands-Indonesia Union due to frustration at the slow pace of talks over New Guinea, the Netherlands felt relieved from any obligation to continue negotiations on

16960-1013: The continuing Dutch presence in West New Guinea was an obstacle to the process of nation-building in Indonesia and that it would also encourage secessionist movements. In 1944, Jan van Eechoud set up a school for bureaucrats in Hollandia (now Jayapura ). One early headmaster of the school was Soegoro Atmoprasojo, an Indonesian nationalist graduate of Taman Siswa and former Boven-Digoel prisoners who fled to Australia after Japanese occupation , he later on tried to revolt on 31 December 1945 which failed. Many of these school early graduates and former associates of Soegoro would go on to found Indonesian independence movement in Western New Guinea, while some also go on to support Dutch authorities and pursue Papuan independence. The news of Indonesian independence proclamation arrived in New Guinea primarily through shipping laborers associated with Sea Transport Union of Indonesia (Sarpelindo), who were working for ships under

17120-535: The defeat of the third Afro-Asian resolution in November 1957, the Indonesian government embarked on a national campaign targeting Dutch interests in Indonesia; leading to the withdrawal of the Dutch flag carrier KLM 's landing rights, mass demonstrations and worker strikes in Dutch-owned companies, and the seizure of the Dutch shipping line KPM , BPM , Borsumij  [ nl ] , Dutch-owned banks, and other estates. A total of 700 Dutch-owned companies with

17280-497: The details. When the United States sponsored a "compromise" resolution in the United Nations which Indonesia opposed, relations with Indonesia soured. In December, National Security Advisor McGeorge Bundy decisively advised Kennedy towards a more pro-Indonesian position, lest the " Soviet bloc ... draw Indonesia even closer to it". American-mediated secret Ambassadorial level talks began in March 1962, without preconditions, but Sukarno

17440-685: The dispute to the United Nations and succeeded in having it placed on the agenda for the upcoming ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA). In response, the Dutch Ambassador to the United Nations, Herman van Roijen , warned that the Netherlands would ignore any recommendations which might be made by the UN regarding the dispute. During the Bandung Conference in April 1955, Indonesia succeeded in securing

17600-575: The establishment of a new hospital in Hollandia (currently RSUD Jayapura), a shipyard in Manokwari , agricultural research sites, plantations, and a military force known as the Papuan Volunteer Corps . By the end of 1960, a legislative New Guinea Council had been established with a mixture of legislative, advisory and policy functions had been established. Half of its members were to be elected, and elections for this council were held

17760-506: The failed 1926 uprising) had been interned at a remote prison camp north of Merauke called Boven-Digoel in 1935 prior to World War II. They made contact with many Papuan civil servants which formed Indonesian revolution groups in Papua. Some support also came from native kingdoms mainly around Bomberai Peninsula which had extensive relationship with Sultanate of Tidore , these efforts was led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan , King of Sekar in

17920-510: The first incursions were 'amateurish', the first infiltration of Gag Island in 1952 led to the arrest of the infiltrators within days. A second infiltration attempt one year later in 1953, this time directed at Kaimana, in like manner was promptly contained and the infiltrators arrested. A third infiltration attempt in Etna Bay 1954 was a more serious affair, a well-armed party of 42 infiltrators led by Johannes Abraham Dimara were able to abduct

18080-777: The flag of Australian and Dutch. This led to the formation of the Committee on Indonesian Independence (KIM) in Abepura (currently in Jayapura) in October 1946. Originally it was led by J.A. Gerungan, a woman doctor who at that time led a hospital in Abepura-Hollandia. In December 1946, the leadership of KIM Jayapura changed to be led by Martin Indey , a former colonial police who were former prison guard of Soegoro. His deputy

18240-1027: The following year. These include setting up of local political parties, Those parties were: National Party ( Partai Nasional , Parna) led by Herman Wayoi, Democratic People's Party ( Democratische Volks Partij , DVP) led by A. Runtuboy, Kena U Embay (KUD) led by Essau Itaar, National Party of Papua ( Nasional Partai Papua , Nappa), Independent Papua Party ( Partai Papua Merdeka , PPM) led by Mozes Rumainum, Papua National Committee ( Committee Nasional Papua , CNP) led by Willem Inury, Papuan National Front ( Front Nasional Papua , FNP) led by Lodewijk Ayamiseba, New Guinean Party ( Partai Orang Nieuw Guinea , PONG) led by Johan Ariks, New Guinea Unity Party ( Eenheidspartij Nieuw Guinea , EPANG) led by Lodewijk Mandatjan, Party of Equal Human ( Sama-Sama Manusia , SSM), Christian-Islam Union of Radja Ampat ( Persatuan Christen Islam Radja Ampat , Perchisra) led by M.N. Majalibit, and Association of Papuan Youths ( Persatuan Pemuda-Pemudi Papua , PERPEP) led by A.J.F. Marey. The Dutch also sought to create

18400-616: The idea of a united New Guinea state, consisting of both Dutch and Australian territories. This idea received little support from both Indonesia and other Western governments. Later that year, the Malayan Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman proposed a three-step initiative, which involved West New Guinea coming under United Nations trusteeship. The joint administrators would be three non-aligned nations Ceylon , India , and Malaya, which supported Indonesia's position on West Irian. This solution involved

18560-484: The implementation of the New York Agreement is one of the most cited grievances of the militant Free Papua Movement (OPM), and the years immediately following its implementation were the most violent in the emerging guerrilla conflict with independence supporters , as OPM fighters kidnapped and attacked police, military, and transmigrant targets while the Indonesian military strafed whole villages in response. Although supporters of independence for West New Guinea regard

18720-641: The inauguration of President John F. Kennedy in 1961, the United States Ambassador to Indonesia , supported by the White House National Security Council , proposed a seven-point plan "to prevent Indonesia from falling under communist control and to win it over to the west", which included promising Indonesia reunion with West New Guinea. The Government's Bureau of European Affairs , Central Intelligence Agency and U.S. Secretary of State Dean Rusk opposed

18880-520: The issue. Indonesia, supported by all of the African and Asian nations except nationalist China , tried to pass a United Nations General Assembly resolution urging the Netherlands to negotiate with it on the status of West New Guinea. However, the resolutions were blocked by the opposition of all of the Western nations except Greece . Indonesia gained more international support for negotiations with

19040-634: The jurisdiction of the International Criminal Court. In her analysis of China's security council voting behavior, Professor Dawn C. Murphy concludes, "These votes directly correspond to China's promotion of the Five Principles , especially the principles of mutual respect for territory and sovereignty and mutual noninterference in the internal affairs of other states." China consistently opposes sanctions, although there have been some exceptions. For example, in addition to

19200-537: The middle and lower-middle position, which as a result stunted Papuan upward mobility. A Papuan advisory council in Biak , the Kainkain Karkara Biak, was established in 1947 on an elected basis but degenerated into a body that only advised the local District Officer on matters of customary law. A kind of municipal council had been envisaged in 1950 for some of the larger towns but discussions about their competence and membership composition dragged on over

19360-497: The next year, beginning the normalization of PRC-USA relations . The Republic of China maintained the view it was the sole legitimate representative of China until 1988, but eventually turned to a foreign policy which sought international recognition through a so-called checkbook diplomacy . These moves have been opposed and mostly blocked by the People's Republic of China, forcing the Republic of China to join international organizations under other names, including " Chinese Taipei " at

19520-621: The objective of 'liberating' West New Guinea by 1 January 1963. Trikora's operational command was to be called the Mandala Command for the Liberation of West Irian ( Komando Mandala Pembebasan Irian Barat ) and was led by Major-General Suharto , the future President of Indonesia. In preparation for the planned invasion, the Mandala command began making land, air, and sea incursions into West Irian. General Suharto also planned to launch

19680-483: The ongoing negotiations in New York. However, Marid 6 NNG managed to intercept Indonesian radio messages and learned about the Indonesian plans. In response, the Dutch authorities deployed a Lockheed Neptune patrol aircraft and three destroyers to intercept the three Indonesian motor torpedo-boats (the fourth boat had experienced engine trouble and did not participate). During the ensuing Vlakke Hoek incident , one of

19840-519: The party's deputy leader, Marthen Indey who was arrested separately in Ambon. Then in December there was a rebellion between school children and teachers because of the arbitrary actions of a Dutch official against a Papuan youths. In Sorong , another incident happened involving members of OPI under the leadership of Bastian Samori, he was finally arrested and imprisoned by the Dutch authorities. After

20000-652: The people boycotted the celebration of Queen Wilhelmina anniversary every 31 August. In response of this activity, Aituarauw was arrested by the Dutch and was exiled to Ayamaru for 10 years in 1948. Other movements opposing the Dutch under local Papuan kings includes, New Guinea Islamic Union (KING) led by Ibrahim Bauw, King of Rumbati, Gerakan Pemuda Organisasi Muda led by Machmud Singgirei Rumagesan and Abbas Iha, and Persatuan Islam Kaimana (PIK) of Kaimana led by Usman Saad and King of Namatota, Kasim Ombair. Since 1947, in response to many civil servants, both Papuan locals and other islanders, sympathizing with Republican movement,

20160-581: The plan, both because of hostility towards the Indonesian President Sukarno , who had collaborated with the Japanese , and support for the Netherlands, a NATO ally. The Dutch position argued that the native Papuan people were racially different from Indonesia, that incorporation into Indonesia would be "substitution of brown colonialism for white colonialism", and that the "backward" Papuans were not ready for independence; while

20320-653: The positions of regional groupings in the global South like the Arab League or the African Union . Where there are differences among African countries, China generally encourages those countries to reach a regional consensus. Within the United Nations Security Council, China is generally aligned with the other permanent members. From 1991 to 2020, its disagreements with the United States have primarily come over issues related to

20480-474: The pre- World War II need to find a homeland for the Eurasian Indo people . According to C.L.M. Penders, "None" of the other reasons, including to develop the island, "advanced by the Netherlands for the continuation of their rule of West New Guinea" rationally served the Dutch national interest enough to hold a territory that would lead it to lose so much business and international goodwill. Beginning in

20640-543: The preparation by setting up barracks in the middle of forest and participated in ceremony for weeks. The leader of this movement was Zacheus Pakage, a former priest from Bomou which had studied in Makassar ; he was captured and imprisoned in mid 1954, only freed in 1962. Another incident happened in Obano, 3 November 1956 when a missionary Cessna plane was burned by Ekaris which resulted in Dutch retaliations. In August 1957,

20800-467: The proximity of the current international border between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea . Dutch activity in New Guinea was minimal until 1898 when the Dutch established an administrative centre, which was subsequently followed by missionaries and traders. Under Dutch rule, commercial links were developed between West New Guinea and Eastern Indonesia. In 1883, New Guinea was divided between the Netherlands, Britain , and Germany ; with Australia occupying

20960-469: The region's western part. These sentiments were also reflected in the popular Indonesian revolutionary slogan Indonesia Merdeka — dari Sabang sampai Merauke ("Free Indonesia — from Sabang to Merauke "). The slogan indicates the stretch of Indonesian territory from the most western part in Sumatra, Sabang, and the most eastern part in Merauke, a small city in West New Guinea. Sukarno also contended that

21120-578: The result of the experience of the Second World War. The ROC was one of the 48 states that voted for it. On 1 February 1951, after cease fire negotiations failed, United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 498 and called the intervention of the People's Republic of China in Korea an act of aggression. As of June 2012 , China had sent 3,362 military personnel to 13 UN peacekeeping operations in its first dispatch of military observers to

21280-459: The results and said that the process was compliant with the New York Agreement. Reflecting on the vote, retired United Nations Under-Secretary-General Chakravarthy Narasimhan said in 2001, "The mood at the United Nations was to get rid of this problem as quickly as possible", and "[M]y heart isn't bleeding [for the Papuans]". The United States partially achieved its goal "to win [Indonesia] over to

21440-678: The second time a draft resolution calling for foreign military intervention in Syria . The ROC co-founded the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) in 1943 (prior to the establishment of UN). UNRRA provided supplies and services to areas under occupation by the Axis Powers. The largest project undertaken by UNRRA was the China program which had a total estimated cost of $ 658.4 million. UNRRA China Office

21600-474: The solution of dual representation but, amid the Cold War and Korean War , the United States and its allies opposed the replacement of the ROC at the United Nations until 1971, although they were persuaded to pressure the government of the ROC to accept international recognition of Mongolia 's independence in 1961. The PRC sought to be recognized by the United Nations from the 1950s, but at least until 1961,

21760-410: The successor state to the Dutch East Indies. A number of Papuans participated in the momentous 1928 Youth Pledge , which is the first proclamation of an "Indonesian identity" which symbolically was attended by numerous ethnic youth groups from all over Indonesia. Indonesian irredentist sentiments were also inflamed by the fact that several Indonesian political prisoners (mainly leftist and communist from

21920-542: The territory did not belong to Indonesia because the Melanesian Papuans were ethnically and geographically different from other Indonesians, had always been administrated separately, did not participate in the Indonesian Revolution and that the Papuans did not want to be under Indonesian control. According to the political scientist Arend Lijphart , other underlying Dutch motives included West New Guinea's lucrative economic resources, its strategic importance as

22080-420: The third phase (1960–1962), Indonesia pursued a policy of confrontation against the Netherlands which combined diplomatic, political, and economic pressure with limited military force. The final stage of the confrontation with Indonesia also involved a planned military invasion of the territory. The Indonesians also secured military weapons and political and military support from the Soviet Union , which induced

22240-554: The two belligerents, Indonesia and the Netherlands, re-establishing bilateral relations and the return of Dutch assets and investments to their owners. However, this initiative was scuttled in April 1961 due to opposition from the Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio , who publicly attacked the Tunku's proposal. By 1961, the Netherlands government was struggling to find adequate international support for its policy to prepare West New Guinea for independent status under Dutch guidance. While

22400-504: The use of political, economic, and military force to induce an opponent to reach a diplomatic solution on Indonesian terms. Later that year, the Soviet government decided to supply warships and other military hardware directly to the Indonesians. By 1965, the Indonesian Navy had grown to 103 combat vessels and other auxiliaries (including a cruiser, twelve submarines, and sixteen destroyers and frigates). Due to Soviet military aid,

22560-552: The voting pattern of the Africa countries which rotate on the Security Council and African members of the Human Rights Council generally align more frequently with China than with the United States, France, and the United Kingdom. The General Assembly votes of African countries and China have also generally aligned. As part of China's view of South-South cooperation , it often seeks to base its UN voting behavior on

22720-404: The year, a total of 1,200 Indonesian paratroopers and 340 naval infiltrators landed in West New Guinea. By mid-1962, the Indonesian military had begun preparations to launch Operation Jayawijaya around August 1962. This operation was to be carried out in four phases and would have involved joint air and naval strikes against Dutch airfields, paratroop and amphibious landings at Biak and Sentani, and

22880-451: The years. Meanwhile, the Dutch managed to persuade some right-leaning Papuan elites like Markus Kaisepo, Abdullah Arfan, Johan Ariks, and also among leftist leaning elites like Nicolaas Jouwe , while other elites, mostly leftist leaning, who refused to change sides were accused of subversive activities and mostly imprisoned. Right-leaning Papuan elites then went on to set up Gerakan Persatuan Nieuw Guinea (GPNG), or New Guinea Unity Movement, in

23040-475: Was "strategically undesirable" for control of the territory to pass to Indonesia because it created a precedent for encouraging territorial changes based on political prestige and geographical proximity. The Australian Menzies Government welcomed the Dutch presence in West New Guinea as an "essential link" in its national defence since it also administrated a trust territory in the eastern half of New Guinea. Unlike its Labor Party successor which had supported

23200-416: Was Corinus Krey while the secretary is Petrus Walebong. KIM was one of the first Indonesian nationalist groups in New Guinea, whose members were mostly former associates of Soegoro. Simultaneously another separate Indonesian nationalist movement in New Guinea formed when G.S.S.J. Ratulangie , was exiled at Serui , along with his six staff by NICA on 5 July 1946. In this exile he met with Silas Papare , who

23360-483: Was also established in April 1955 to provide the Netherlands New Guinea authorities with intelligence on Indonesian intentions towards West Irian. One of Marid 6 NNG's successes was providing early warning of Indonesian plans to seize all KPM ships and facilities in December 1957. This enabled the Dutch authorities to evacuate 45 of these 83 ships. Later, Marid 6 NNG helped Dutch naval units to recapture

23520-667: Was also exiled there due to his participation in Soegoro's revolt on 31 December 1945. This meeting resulted in the formation of an organization called Indonesian Irian Independence Party (PKII) on 29 November 1946. PKII was led by Silas Papare, alongside Alwi Rahman as chiefs, Ari Kamarea, Andarias Samberi as secretaries, and Thung Tjing Ek as treasurer. A year later, on 17 August 1947, Silas Papare and former students of Soegoro, including Albert Karubuy , Marthen Indey , Johans Ariks, Lodewijk Mandatjan, Barent Mandatjan, Semuel Damianus Kawab, Franz Joseph Djohari and their supporters would held

23680-473: Was considered void after this change. These negotiations were unsuccessful and led the two governments to harden their position. On 15 February 1952, the Dutch Parliament voted to incorporate New Guinea into the realm of the Netherlands. After that, the Netherlands refused further discussion on the question of sovereignty and considered the issue to be closed. In response, President Sukarno adopted

23840-501: Was decided that the present status quo of the territory would be maintained and then negotiated bilaterally one year after the date of the transfer of sovereignty. However, both sides were still unable to resolve their differences in 1950, which led the Indonesian President Sukarno to accuse the Dutch of reneging on their promises to negotiate the handover of the territory. On 17 August 1950, Sukarno dissolved

24000-561: Was formally integrated into Indonesia. Prior to the arrival of the Dutch, Indonesian principalities such as the Sultanate of Bacan , the Sultanate of Ternate and the Sultanate of Tidore claimed suzerainty over parts of Western New Guinea . These sultanates collected tributes from local rulers in the form of massoy, nutmeg , turtle shell , other spices, bird of paradise feathers, resins , and slaves or their value equivalent in other goods, which if not fulfilled would be punished by

24160-799: Was founded in 1952. At that time, the salaries of Dutch officials and the fate of Eurasian contract workers were its main concern. It gradually developed specific Papuan welfare interests and became active in the educational field. Associated kaum ibu (women's clubs) were organized and mainly fought for modern labor legislation. Membership, especially the Papuan, increased rapidly after 1957 and reached over 3,000 by 1960. Many of these Papuan members would go on to join National Party (Parna) advocating for Papuan independence, although over time, some members like E.J. Bonay and Frits Kirihio of Parna, advocated working with Indonesia with Parna becoming branch of Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI) led by Herman Wayoi. This

24320-511: Was generally verbal, rather than reflected in its votes; it chose not to participate in such decisions rather than actively using its votes against them. Thus, China rarely used its veto power before 2011. It instead used abstention to avoid express disapproval without directly confronting its fellow permanent members. Also prior to 2011, China was increasingly open to the concept of responsibility to protect , especially in relation to Sudan and Darfur . These trends began to change following

24480-502: Was in opposition with Kena U Embay, formed later on, who claimed Parna only advocated for position in bureaucracy and criticised Kirihio as 'Papuan Hitler', and advocated for union with Netherlands. At the urging of President Sukarno, Prime Minister Ali Sastroamidjojo began authorising limited incursions into West New Guinea in 1952. However, these early incursions were militarily unsuccessful, and Indonesia did not launch any more military operations until 1960. According to Ken Conboy,

24640-661: Was known, Yayasan Badan Kontak Keluarga Besar Perintis Irian Barat (Foundation for Irian Barat Veterans), listed 154 notable Indonesian nationalists from all over Papua, with most fled during 1959–1961. By 1960, other countries in the Asia-Pacific region had taken notice of the West Irian dispute and began proposing initiatives to end the dispute. During a visit to the Netherlands, the New Zealand Prime Minister Walter Nash suggested

24800-463: Was led by Lapadanga and many of the perpetrators, were captured and exiled to Digul . Then in November 1960, approximately 25 Papuan youths in Merauke were arrested by the Dutch for holding a movement against the Dutch government. In Hollandia (now Jayapura ) there was also a fierce rebellion in the same year and is better known as the "Baliem Valley Incident." In suppressing this multiple rebellions,

24960-641: Was mainly composed of many teachers from Kei Islands who was assigned in this area under Dutch administration and also work against RMS operatives in the area. By February 1960, UPI was transformed to Persatuan Semangat Pemuda 1945 (PSP-45). This organization memberships mainly work in intelligence in conjunction with Indonesian intelligence operatives and were trained and equipped to contact infiltration by Indonesia forces at later dates. In August 1960, Dutch authorities would capture 19 members of PSP-45 including its leaders, they would only be released on 15 October 1962 under UNTEA . In 1954, Indonesia decided to take

25120-404: Was opened in Shanghai at the end of 1944, and operated until the official termination of the office on 31 December 1947. Final work and responsibilities were finished by March, 1948. UNRRA cooperated with Chinese National Relief and Rehabilitation Administration , led by Jiang Tingfu , to distribute relief supplies in China. UNRRA functions were later transferred to several UN agencies, including

25280-460: Was providing roughly 20% of the UN peacekeeping standby force, more than all other Security Council members combined. The International Criminal Court is a permanent tribunal to prosecute individuals for genocide , crimes against humanity , war crimes , and the crime of aggression . The court has jurisdiction if a situation is referred to the court by the United Nations Security Council . As of May 2013, 122 states have ratified or acceded to

25440-420: Was sceptical of American intentions. The talks were held at the Huntland estate at Middleburg, Virginia . An outline of the plan by American diplomat Ellsworth Bunker in 1962 proposed that the Netherlands transfer control over New Guinea to neutral United Nations administrators, who would be gradually replaced by Indonesian administrators, and then entirely to Indonesia, which would then be required to organize

25600-476: Was the only legitimate representative of China. Annual motions to replace the ROC with the PRC were introduced first by the Soviet Union, then India and also Albania, but these were defeated. Amid the Sino-Soviet split and Vietnam War , United States President Richard Nixon entered into negotiations with Chinese Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong , initially through a secret 1971 trip undertaken by Henry Kissinger to visit Zhou Enlai . On 25 October 1971,

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