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107-556: In a Nabataean votive inscription from Salkhad , an Aramaic heap of stones set up in memorial is described as "for Allat and her wgr ", a term equated to the Hasaitic nephesh . In Sabaean , this term could mean a tumulus above a tomb, while in Arabic this term could indicate a grotto or a tomb. The term nephesh is also linked to the Greek stele . An aniconic culture,

214-480: A graduate and post-graduate degree. A Pew Center study about religion and education around the world in 2016, found that Christians ranked as the second most educated religious group around in the world after Jews with an average of 9.3 years of schooling, and the highest of years of schooling among Christians found in Germany (13.6), New Zealand (13.5) and Estonia (13.1). Christians were also found to have

321-469: A centre of learning. While Princeton University was a Presbyterian foundation. Protestantism also initiated translations of the Bible into national languages and hereby supported the development of national literatures. A large number of mainline Protestants have played leadership roles in many aspects of American life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of

428-621: A dangerous voyage. In the Spanish-speaking world a milagro is a small metal offering, equivalent to the Orthodox tamata . Many Catholic churches still have areas where such offerings are displayed. Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, Paris , displays over 10,000, with a military specialization and including many military decorations given by their recipients. The Votive Church, Vienna is a late example of many churches which are themselves votive offerings, in this case built to give thanks for

535-409: A god or goddess. The offerings were in certain cases created by a separate person due to the gifter having an injury or other circumstances, which was allowed. Some Greek offerings, such as bronze tripods at Delphi , were apparently displayed for a period and then buried in groups. At Olympia many small figurines, mostly of animals, were thrown onto the huge pile of ashes from animal sacrifices at

642-591: A great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford , an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation; and Saint Albert the Great , a pioneer of biological field research The Catholic church has always been involved in education, since the founding of the first universities of Europe. It runs and sponsors thousands of primary and secondary schools, colleges and universities throughout

749-578: A higher level of contemporary architectural style and the work of accomplished craftsmen, and occupy a status both ecclesiastical and social that an ordinary parish church does not have. Such a cathedral or great church is generally one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of abbey churches are among the world's most renowned works of architecture. These include St. Peter's Basilica , Notre Dame de Paris , Cologne Cathedral , Salisbury Cathedral , Prague Cathedral , Lincoln Cathedral ,

856-693: A huge golden grape vine artifact outside of the holy site of the Temple in Jerusalem before its destruction by the Romans. The tradition of votive offerings has been carried into Christianity in both the East and the West. The particular type of the votive crown , originally Byzantine, was also adopted in the West. According to Sacred Tradition , after Constantine the Great 's conversion and subsequent victory at

963-556: A leading medical school, translating the work of Greek and Arabic physicians into Latin. Bologna University became the most influential of the early universities, which first specialised in canon law and civil law . Paris University , specialising in such topics as theology, came to rival Bologna under the supervision of Notre Dame Cathedral . Oxford University in England later came rival Paris in Theology and Salamanca University

1070-771: A more rare and expensive tablet was made from metal. Historically, votive tablets can be found in Asian Buddhist lands, from Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, China, Indonesia and Malaysia. In Thailand, votive tablets are known as Thai Buddha amulets , a kind of Thai Buddhist blessed item used to raise temple funds by producing the amulets. Ayagapata is a type of votive slab associated with worship in Jainism . Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near Mathura in India. Some of them date back to

1177-463: A multitude of innovative virtuosos sponsored by the Church. British art historian Kenneth Clark wrote that Western Europe's first "great age of civilisation" was ready to begin around the year 1000. From 1100, he wrote, monumental abbeys and cathedrals were constructed and decorated with sculptures, hangings, mosaics and works belonging one of the greatest epochs of art and providing stark contrast to

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1284-492: A narrow escape from assassination by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria in 1853. Medieval examples include: Especially in the Latin world, there is a tradition of votive paintings, typically depicting a dangerous incident which the offeror survived. The votive paintings of Mexico are paralleled in other countries. In Italy, where more than 15,000 ex-voto paintings are thought to survive from before 1600, these began to appear in

1391-525: A painting, from Orthodox Christianity . Christianity has used symbolism from its very beginnings. In both East and West, numerous iconic types of Christ, Mary and saints and other subjects were developed; the number of named types of icons of Mary, with or without the infant Christ, was especially large in the East, whereas Christ Pantocrator was much the commonest image of Christ. Christian symbolism invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas. Christianity has borrowed from

1498-425: A review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. The Bible has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of Western law , art , texts , and education. With a literary tradition spanning two millennia,

1605-735: A separate political unit. Major Constantinopolitan churches built under Constantine and his son, Constantius II , included the original foundations of Hagia Sophia and the Church of the Holy Apostles . As the Western Roman Empire disintegrated and was taken over by "barbarian" peoples, the art of the Byzantine Empire reached levels of sophistication, power and artistry not previously seen in Christian art, and set

1712-502: A single exception, the great artists of the time were all sincere, conforming Christians. Guercino spent much of his mornings in prayer; Bernini frequently went into retreats and practised the Spiritual Exercises of Saint Ignatius ; Rubens attended Mass every morning before beginning work. The exception was Caravaggio , who was like the hero of a modern play, except that he happened to paint very well. This conformism

1819-871: A votive practice with ancient roots. In archaeology , votive deposits differ from hoards ; although they may contain similar items, votive deposits were not intended to be recovered. In Europe , votive deposits are known from as early as the Neolithic , with polished axe hoards , reaching a peak in the late Bronze Age . High status artifacts such as armor and weaponry (mostly shields , swords , spears and arrows), fertility and cult symbols, coins, various treasures and animal statuettes (often dogs, oxen and in later periods horses) were common offerings in antiquity. The votive offerings were sacrificed and buried or more commonly cast into bodies of water or peat bogs , whence they could not possibly have been recovered. In certain cases entire ships have been sacrificed, as in

1926-784: A vow. cf Leviticus 22.23 where the Hebrew root letters for a freewill offering are נדב (nadab), but for a votive offering are נדר (nadar). In this verse a clear differentiation is made between the two. See Strongs numbers H5068 where the Hitpael is to volunteer, or make a free will offering and H5087 where the Qal is to vow a vow. When Solomon built the first temple he provided a number of furnishings above and beyond what had been commanded to Moses on Mount Sinai (see Temple of Solomon ). Oral tradition in Rabbinic Judaism also speaks of

2033-582: Is a small sheet of tin or lead on which a message wishing misfortune upon someone else was inscribed. Usually found rolled up and deliberately deposited, there are five main reasons for dedicating a curse tablet: 1 – Litigation, 2 – Competition, 3 – Trade, 4 – Erotic Ambition, 5 – Theft Of those in Britain the vast majority are of type 5. The two largest concentrations are from the sacred springs at Aquae Sulis , where 130 examples are recorded, and at Uley, where over 140 examples are visible. The use of

2140-643: Is also a considerable history of aniconism in Christianity from various periods. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration. The earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD 400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland, Constantinople and Italy. The majority of surviving manuscripts are from the Middle Ages , although many illuminated manuscripts survive from

2247-590: Is due to the educational facilities that were created by Christian missionaries during the colonial era for fellow believers. Christian literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view . This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing. Christian poetry is any poetry that contains Christian teachings, themes, or references. The influence of Christianity on poetry has been great in any area that Christianity has taken hold. Christian poems often directly reference

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2354-486: Is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Prior to the establishment of universities, European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools ( Scholae monasticae ), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to

2461-476: Is one or more objects displayed or deposited, without the intention of recovery or use, in a sacred place for religious purposes. Such items are a feature of modern and ancient societies and are generally made to gain favor with supernatural forces. While some offerings were apparently made in anticipation of the achievement of a particular wish, in Western cultures from which documentary evidence survives it

2568-528: Is thus a memorial that evokes the essence or spirit of the deceased. Dated to the first century BCE, Jason's Tomb bears an Aramaic inscription that states: "because I built for you a tomb ( nephesh ) and a memorial ( qubr ), be in peace in Jer[u]sa[le]m." The Tomb of Benei Hezir also bears an epithet in Hebrew that states: "This is the tomb and the stele/memorial ( nephesh ) of Eleazar ...". Votive A votive offering or votive deposit

2675-482: The Athenian Treasury and Siphnian Treasury ) were buildings by the various Greek city-states to hold their own votive offerings in money and precious metal. The sites also contained large quantities of votive sculptures, although these were clearly intended to glorify each city in view of its rivals as well as to give thanks to the gods. Votive offerings were also used as atonement for sins committed against

2782-845: The Basilica of St Denis , the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore , the Basilica of San Vitale , St Mark's Basilica , Westminster Abbey , Saint Basil's Cathedral , Washington National Cathedral , Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception , Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis , Gaudí's incomplete Sagrada Familia and the ancient church of Hagia Sophia , now a museum. Hagia Sophia has been described as architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilization . The earliest large churches date from Late Antiquity . As Christianity and

2889-550: The Battle of the Milvian Bridge , he donated one of the crosses he carried in battle to the Church. This cross is reputed to be preserved on Mount Athos . One of the most famous Orthodox votive offerings is that by Saint John of Damascus . According to tradition , while he was serving as Vizier to Caliph Al-Walid I , he was falsely accused of treachery and his hand was cut off. Upon praying in front of an icon of

2996-613: The Byzantine Empire were culturally influenced by it, without actually being part of it (the " Byzantine commonwealth "). These included Bulgaria, Serbia , and Kievan Rus' , as well as some non-Orthodox states like the Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Sicily , which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. Art produced by Eastern Orthodox Christians living in

3103-670: The Catholic Church is "at the center of the development of the values, ideas, science, laws, and institutions which constitute what we call Western civilization." The Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe , the Caucasus , and the Near East . The Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of Armenia , Egypt , Turkey , Eritrea , Ethiopia , Sudan and parts of

3210-560: The Church of Sweden , continued after the Reformation. In Buddhism , votive offerings usually take the form of a small clay or terracotta tablet bearing Buddhist images, usually Buddharupa and contain text. These tablets are left in sacred Buddhist sites by devotees as an offering during their pilgrimage. An example are Buddhist Tibetan votive tablets made for a pilgrimage to Bodhgaya . Votive tablets served both as meritorious offerings and as souvenirs. Most were made of clay, while

3317-653: The Eastern Church . Byzantine art became increasingly conservative, as the form of images themselves, many accorded divine origin or thought to have been be painted by Saint Luke or other figures, was held to have a status not far off that of a scriptural text. They could be copied, but not improved upon. As a concession to Iconoclast sentiment, monumental religious sculpture was effectively banned. Neither of these attitudes were held in Western Europe, but Byzantine art nonetheless had great influence there until

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3424-731: The High Middle Ages , and remained very popular long after that, with vast numbers of icons of the Cretan School exported to Europe as late as the Renaissance . Where possible, Byzantine artists were borrowed for projects such as mosaics in Venice and Palermo . The enigmatic frescoes at Castelseprio may be an example of work by a Greek artist working in Italy. The art of Eastern Catholicism has always been rather closer to

3531-524: The Late Antique period iconography began to be standardised, and to relate more closely to biblical texts, although many gaps in the canonical Gospel narratives were plugged with matter from the apocryphal gospels . Eventually the Church would succeed in weeding most of these out, but some remain, like the ox and ass in the Nativity of Christ . An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly

3638-475: The Mainline Protestantism , as were later Carleton , Duke , Oberlin , Beloit , Pomona , Rollins and Colorado College . According to Pew Center study there is correlation between education and income, about (59%) of American Anglican have a graduate and post-graduate degree, and about (56%) of Episcopalians and (47%) of Presbyterians and (46%) United Church of Christ , have

3745-574: The Middle East and India . Protestants have extensively developed a unique culture that has made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences , the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization , in particular, the Catholic Church and Protestantism . Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture, and much of

3852-553: The Ottoman Empire is often called "post-Byzantine". Certain artistic traditions that originated in the Byzantine Empire, particularly in regard to icon painting and church architecture, are maintained in Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, Macedonia, Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. Roman Catholic art consists of all visual works produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form

3959-614: The Protestant work ethic ), natural law (which would later influence the creation of international law ), politics, architecture, literature, personal hygiene ( ablution ), and family life. Historically, extended families were the basic family unit in the Christian culture and countries . Christianity played a role in ending practices common among pagan societies, such as human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy. Scientists such as Newton and Galileo believed that God would be better understood if God's creation

4066-464: The Theotokos his hand was miraculously restored. In thanksgiving, he had a silver replica of his hand fashioned and attached it to the icon ( see image at right ). This icon, now called " Trojeručica " (The Three-handed) is preserved at Hilandar Monastery on Mount Athos . Orthodox Christians continue to make votive offerings to this day, often in the form of tamata , metal plaques symbolizing

4173-626: The development of science . Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution . Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis , there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare , founding hospitals , economics (as

4280-480: The 1490s, probably modelled on the small predella panels below altarpieces . These are a form of folk art , typically painted on tin plates salvaged from packaging. Other examples may be large and grand paintings, such as Titian 's Jacopo Pesaro being presented by Pope Alexander VI to Saint Peter , given in thanks for a naval victory. The practice of votive offerings in Lutheran Churches , such as

4387-469: The 15th-century Renaissance , along with a very limited number from Late Antiquity . Most illuminated manuscripts were created as codices , which had superseded scrolls; some isolated single sheets survive. A very few illuminated manuscript fragments survive on papyrus . Most medieval manuscripts, illuminated or not, were written on parchment (most commonly of calf , sheep, or goat skin), but most manuscripts important enough to illuminate were written on

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4494-536: The 19th century the leadership in western art moved away from the Catholic Church which, after embracing historical revivalism was increasingly affected by the modernist movement, a movement that in its "rebellion" against nature, counters the Church's emphasis on nature as a good creation of God. Renaissance artists such as Raphael , Michelangelo , Leonardo da Vinci , Bernini , Botticelli , Fra Angelico , Tintoretto , Caravaggio , and Titian , were among

4601-439: The 1st century. These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the stupa , dharmacakra and triratna . A large number of ayagapata (tablet of homage) votive tablets for offerings and the worship of tirthankara were found at Mathura . These stone tablets bear a resemblance to the earlier Shilapatas , stone tablets that were placed under trees to worship Yakshas . However, this

4708-535: The 5th century BC. These votive offerings give evidence to the presence of literacy in Spartan culture. Placing greater emphasis on inscriptions which seem to have been made by the individual making the offering, archaeologists can interpret that, of the early dedicators, there were very few in number and that most, if not all, were from the upper classes. One piece of pottery was found that may have had measurement signs on it. This would indicate an everyday literacy among

4815-399: The 6th century AD. Missionary activity for the Catholic Church has always incorporated education of evangelized peoples as part of its social ministry. History shows that in evangelized lands, the first people to operate schools were Roman Catholics. In some countries, the Church is the main provider of education or significantly supplements government forms of education. Presently,

4922-492: The Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of personal hygiene to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette , letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more. The Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed in Europe using movable type . Since

5029-526: The Bible is widely considered to be the best-selling book of all time. It sells approximately 100 million copies annually, and has been a major influence on literature and history, especially in the West , where the Gutenberg Bible was the first book printed using movable type . In Byzantine literature , four different cultural elements are recognised: the Greek , the Christian, the Roman , and

5136-550: The Bible, while others provide allegory . While falling within the strict definition of literature, the Bible is not generally considered literature. However, the Bible has been treated and appreciated as literature; the Bible is a corner stone of Western civilization. The King James Version in particular has long been considered a masterpiece of English prose, whatever may be thought of its religious significance. The Authorized Version has been called "the most influential version of

5243-404: The Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches . Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization , in particular, the Catholic Church and Protestantism . Western culture, throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture. Outside

5350-484: The Church operates the world's largest non-governmental school system. Many of Western Civilization's most influential universities were founded by the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church founded the West's first universities, which were preceded by the schools attached to monasteries and cathedrals, and generally staffed by monks and friars. Universities began springing up in Italian towns like Salerno , which became

5457-503: The Danish bog Nydam Mose . Often all the objects in a ritual hoard are broken, possibly 'killing' the objects to put them even further beyond utilitarian use before deposition. The purposeful discarding of valuable items such as swords and spearheads is thought to have had ritual overtones. The items have since been discovered in rivers, lakes and present or former wetlands by construction workers, peat diggers, metal-detectorists, members of

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5564-854: The Jewish Old Testament . The earliest surviving art works are the painted frescoes on the walls of the catacombs and meeting houses of the persecuted Christians of the Roman Empire. The Christian Church in Rome was influenced by the Roman style of art and the religious Christian artists of the time. The stone sarcophagi of Roman Christians exhibit the earliest surviving carved statuary of Jesus, Mary and other biblical figures. The legalisation of Christianity transformed Catholic art, which adopted richer forms such as mosaics and illuminated manuscripts. The iconoclasm controversy briefly divided

5671-580: The King James Version as being "a giant step in the maturing of English literature" and "a great work of literature", respectively, with Dawkins then adding, "A native speaker of English who has never read a word of the King James Bible is verging on the barbarian". Several retellings of the Bible, or parts of the Bible, have also been made with the aim of emphasising its literary qualities. With estimated sales of over 5 billion copies,

5778-546: The Nabataean representation of deities lacked figural imagery. Related to betyls, nepheshes served as aniconic memorial markers for the dead. Unlike the Israelite prohibition of the graven image, Nabataean aniconism allows anthropomorphic representation of deities but demonstrates a preference for non- figural imagery. Betyls are one form of Nabataean aniconic sculpture. Often explained as representations of Dushara ,

5885-663: The Oriental. Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: historians and annalists, encyclopaedists (Patriarch Photios, Michael Psellus , and Michael Choniates are regarded as the greatest encyclopaedists of Byzantium) and essayists, and writers of secular poetry. The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas . The remaining two groups include the new literary species: ecclesiastical and theological literature, and popular poetry. And it

5992-535: The Orthodox art of Greece and Russia, and in countries near the Orthodox world, notably Poland, Catholic art has many Orthodox influences. The Black Madonna of Częstochowa may well have been of Byzantine origin – it has been repainted and this is hard to tell. Other images that are certainly of Greek origin, like the Salus Populi Romani and Our Lady of Perpetual Help , both icons in Rome, have been subjects of specific veneration for centuries. Although

6099-601: The Spartans if this is true. Unfortunately, scholars have not recovered any other piece of pottery with a similar inscription to support that single find. The 13 Ancient Votive Stones of Pesaro were unearthed in 1737 on a local Pesaro farm in the Province of Pesaro e Urbino , Italy , and date to pre-Etruscan times. They are inscribed with the names of various Roman gods such as APOLLO , MAT[ER]-MATVTA , SALVS , FIDE , and IVNONII ( Juno ). A curse tablet or defixio

6206-569: The Virgin , parts of the Old Testament, and, increasingly, the lives of popular saints . Especially in the West, a system of attributes developed for identifying individual figures of saints by a standard appearance and symbolic objects held by them; in the East they were more likely to identified by text labels. Each saint has a story and a reason why he or she led an exemplary life. Symbols have been used to tell these stories throughout

6313-553: The Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa and Asia. Christians have made a noted contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, both historically and in modern times, including science and technology , medicine , fine arts and architecture , politics, literatures , music , philanthropy , philosophy , ethics , humanism , theatre and business. According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes

6420-605: The altar outside the Temple of Zeus . Much of our knowledge of ancient Greek art in base metal comes from these and other excavated deposits of offerings. Arms and armour, especially helmets, were also given after a victory. In Mesoamerica , votive deposits have been recovered from the Olmec site of El Manati (dated to 1600–1200 BC) and the Maya Sacred Cenote at Chichen Itza (850–1550 AD). Archaeologists have recovered some votive offerings in ancient Sparta from

6527-429: The ancient Vikramshila University and other contemporary structures. Votive offerings have been described in historical Roman era and Greek sources, although similar acts continue into the present day—for example, in traditional Catholic culture and, arguably, in the modern-day practice of tossing coins into a wishing well or fountain. The modern construction practice of topping out can be considered an example of

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6634-470: The architecture of churches designed many centuries apart. Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are

6741-512: The basis of our belief of the value of art until today". Later, during The Renaissance and Counter-Reformation , Catholic artists produced many of the unsurpassed masterpieces of Western art – often inspired by biblical themes: from Michelangelo's Moses and David and Pietà sculptures, to Da Vinci's Last Supper and Raphael's various Madonna paintings. Referring to a "great outburst of creative energy such as took place in Rome between 1620 and 1660", Kenneth Clarke wrote: [W]ith

6848-504: The best quality of parchment, called vellum , traditionally made of unsplit calfskin , although high quality parchment from other skins was also called parchment . Christian art began, about two centuries after Christ, by borrowing motifs from Roman Imperial imagery, classical Greek and Roman religion and popular art. Religious images are used to some extent by the Abrahamic Christian faith, and often contain highly complex iconography, which reflects centuries of accumulated tradition. In

6955-408: The central Nabataean deity, betyls occur in a wide variety of shapes, groupings, and niches. This variety suggests that betyls may be representative of other deities as well. The Nabataean nephesh is a standing stone, obeliskoid in shape, often featuring a blossom/pinecone or stylized crown on the top. Roughly carved or engraved in bas-relief , these structures are often set upon a base that bears

7062-406: The central role of the Western world and Western culture . Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, Central Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians in the Middle East have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since

7169-402: The common stock of significant symbols known to most periods and to all regions of the world. Religious symbolism is effective when it appeals to both the intellect and the emotions. Especially important depictions of Mary include the Hodegetria and Panagia types. Traditional models evolved for narrative paintings, including large cycles covering the events of the Life of Christ, the Life of

7276-414: The construction of churches and cathedrals spread throughout the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Different styles of architecture developed and their fashion spread, carried by the establishment of monastic orders, by the posting of bishops from one region to another and by the travelling of master stonemasons who served as architects. The styles of

7383-472: The country's leading institutes of higher education. The Ivy League universities have strong White Anglo-Saxon Protestant historical ties, and their influence continues today. Until about World War II, Ivy League universities were composed largely of WASP students. Some of the first colleges and universities in America, including Harvard , Yale , Princeton , Columbia , Dartmouth , Williams , Bowdoin , Middlebury , and Amherst , all were founded by

7490-464: The curiosity and passion of the pagan world of old. Although Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman Empires , as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment , Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music, and science. Christian disciplines of

7597-768: The curse-tablet in seeking restoration of stolen property is strong evidence of invoking divine power through a non-traditional religious ceremony, often involving some form of water-deposition. The usual form of divine invocation was through prayer, sacrifice and altar dedication so access to this information provides useful insights into Roman provincial culture. Many unrecovered ancient votive offerings are threatened in today's world, especially those submerged in wetlands or other bodies of water. Wetlands and other aquatic sites often protect and preserve materials for thousands of years, because of their natural occurring anaerobic environments. However, many seabeds have been disturbed, rivers and streams have been stretched out or re-routed in

7704-475: The eastern and western churches, after which artistic development progressed in separate directions. Romanesque and Gothic art flowered in the Western Church as the style of painting and statuary moved in an increasingly naturalistic direction. The Protestant Reformation produced new waves of image-destruction, to which the Church responded with the dramatic and emotive Baroque and Rococo styles. In

7811-489: The first modern universities. The Catholic Church established a hospital system in Medieval Europe that vastly improved upon the Roman valetudinaria . These hospitals were established to cater to "particular social groups marginalized by poverty, sickness, and age", according to historian of hospitals, Guenter Risse. Christianity also had a strong impact on all other aspects of life: marriage and family, education,

7918-410: The great church buildings are successively known as Early Christian , Byzantine , Romanesque , Gothic , Renaissance , Baroque , various Revival styles of the late 18th to early 20th centuries and Modern . Overlaid on each of the academic styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a particular country or region that they appear, regardless of style, in

8025-543: The history of the Church. A number of Christian saints are traditionally represented by a symbol or iconic motif associated with their life, termed an attribute or emblem , in order to identify them. The study of these forms part of iconography in Art history . The dedication of Constantinople as capital in 330 AD created a great new Christian artistic centre for the Eastern Roman Empire , which soon became

8132-633: The humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy, and the arts. Christianity had a significant impact on education and science and medicine as the church created the basis of the Western system of education , and was the sponsor of founding universities in the Western world as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made numerous significant contributions to

8239-514: The influence has often been resisted, especially in Russia, Catholic art has also affected Orthodox depictions in many respects, especially in countries like Romania, and in the post-Byzantine Cretan School , which led Greek Orthodox art under Venetian rule in the 15th and 16th centuries. El Greco left Crete when relatively young, but Michael Damaskinos returned after a brief period in Venice, and

8346-795: The introduction of Islam , and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Mashriq , Turkey , and Iran . Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world (particularly Jacobite and Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Umayyad and the Abbasid , by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic . They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine. Historian Paul Legutko of Stanford University said

8453-714: The landscape, and many wetlands have been fully or partially drained or landfilled for various reasons in the last 100–200 years. Therefore, many remaining objects are in danger of oxidation and eventual rapid deterioration. The leading causes of the disturbances are dredging , bottom trawling fishing boats, agricultural activities, peat cutting, groundwater extraction by water wells and establishments of larger infrastructural facilities like expressways, water treatment plants, and in some instances, large-scale nature re-establishment projects. The Torah makes provision for "free-will offerings" which may be made by any individual. These are different from votive offerings which are linked to

8560-483: The monotonous and cramped conditions of ordinary living during the period. Abbot Suger of the Abbey of St. Denis is considered an influential early patron of Gothic architecture and believed that love of beauty brought people closer to God: "The dull mind rises to truth through that which is material". Clarke calls this "the intellectual background of all the sublime works of art of the next century and in fact has remained

8667-583: The most common subjects, and scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which figurative representations are forbidden, such as Islam and Judaism . However, there

8774-584: The most influential book in the world, in what is now its most influential language", "the most important book in English religion and culture", and "the most celebrated book in the English-speaking world ". David Crystal has estimated that it is responsible for 257 idioms in English, examples include feet of clay and reap the whirlwind . Furthermore, prominent atheist figures such as the late Christopher Hitchens and Richard Dawkins have praised

8881-594: The name of the deceased. Occurring outside and inside tombs, some are engraved near or in votive niches. However, many nepheshes can be found unconnected from tombs, and many line the paths to Petra or along other protruding rock faces such as those of the Siq . An example of this type of funerary marker can be found in the Obelisk Tomb and Bab el-Siq Triclinium, Petra , Jordan . Some examples of monumental funerary sculpture near Jerusalem bear inscriptions that include

8988-402: The population of the Western hemisphere could broadly be described as cultural Christians . The notion of Europe and the Western world has been intimately connected with the concept of Christianity and Christendom , many even consider Christianity to be the link that created a unified European identity , although some progress originated elsewhere: Renaissance and Romanticism began with

9095-542: The public and archaeologists. A saying by Diogenes of Sinope as quoted by Diogenes Laërtius , indicates the high level of votive offering in Ancient Greece: When some one expressed astonishment at the votive offerings in Samothrace , his ( Diogenes ) comment was, 'There would have been far more, if those who were not saved had set up offerings.' The Treasuries at Olympia and Delphi (including

9202-530: The religion of Christianity . There are variations in the application of Christian beliefs in different cultures and traditions. Christian culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Middle Eastern , Zoroastrianism , Greco-Roman , Byzantine , Western culture , Slavic and Caucasian culture. During the early Roman Empire , Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West . Consequently, different versions of

9309-466: The respective arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy , Christian art , Christian music , Christian literature , etc. Art and literature, law, education, and politics were preserved in the teachings of the Church, in an environment that, otherwise, would have probably seen their loss. The Church founded many cathedrals , universities , monasteries and seminaries , some of which continue to exist today. Medieval Christianity created

9416-669: The same study, Christians have a significant amount of gender equality in educational attainment, and the study suggests that one of the reasons is the encouragement of the Protestant Reformers in promoting the education of women , which led to the eradication of illiteracy among females in Protestant communities. According to the same study "there is a large and pervasive gap in educational attainment between Muslims and Christians in sub-Saharan Africa" as Muslim adults in this region are far less educated than their Christian counterparts, with scholars suggesting that this gap

9523-483: The second highest number of graduate and post-graduate degrees per capita while in absolute numbers ranked in the first place (220 million). Between the various Christian communities , Singapore outranks other nations in terms of Christians who obtain a university degree in institutions of higher education (67%), followed by the Christians of Israel (63%), and the Christians of Georgia (57%). According to

9630-672: The southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance . In turn, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Catholic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious art produced in Protestant countries

9737-491: The spread of Christianity from the Levant to Asia Minor , Mesopotamia , Europe , North Africa and Horn of Africa during the early Roman Empire , Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West . Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centered around the cities such as Rome ( Western Christianity ) and Carthage , whose communities

9844-554: The standards for those parts of the West still in touch with Constantinople. This achievement was checked by the controversy over the use of graven images , and the proper interpretation of the Second Commandment, which led to the crisis of Iconoclasm or destruction of religious images, which racked the Empire between 726 and 843. The restoration of Orthodoxy resulted in a strict standardization of religious imagery within

9951-476: The study, Christians in North America, Europe, Middle East, North Africa and Asia-Pacific regions are highly educated since many of the world universities were built by the historic Christian Churches , in addition to the historical evidence that "Christian monks built libraries and, in the days before printing presses, preserved important earlier writings produced in Latin, Greek and Arabic". According to

10058-488: The subject of their prayers . Other offerings include candles , prosphora , wine, oil, or incense . In addition, many will leave something of personal value, such as jewelry, a pectoral cross or military decoration as a sign of devotion. In the Roman Catholic Church , offerings were made either to fulfill a vow made to God for deliverance, or a thing left to a Church in gratitude for some favor that

10165-402: The teachings of the Catholic Church . This includes sculpture, painting, mosaics, metalwork, embroidery and even architecture. Catholic art has played a leading role in the history and development of Western art since at least the 4th century. The principal subject matter of Catholic art has been the life and times of Jesus Christ , along with those of his disciples, the saints, and the events of

10272-636: The term nephesh , and the word is generally accepted as a reference to the pyramid structure above or beside the tomb. Standing among a group of tombs in Jerusalem , the tomb of Absalom is an important example of Late Second Temple funerary architecture. To the lower left of the entrance to the tomb, the word nephesh is inscribed in Greek. In this context, the Greek nephesh is translated as two Hebrew-Aramaic words as nephesh and qubr , now interpreted as an amalgam of "tomb" and "stele." The carved rock

10379-562: The world. As the Reformers wanted all members of the church to be able to read the Bible, education on all levels got a strong boost. Compulsory education for both boys and girls was introduced. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later. About a dozen other colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale University (1701). Pennsylvania also became

10486-599: Was able to switch between Italian and Greek styles. Even the traditionalist Theophanes the Cretan , working mainly on Mount Athos , nevertheless shows unmistakable Western influence. Many Eastern Orthodox states in Eastern Europe, as well as to some degree the Muslim states of the eastern Mediterranean , preserved many aspects of the empire's culture and art for centuries afterward. A number of states contemporary with

10593-647: Was better understood. The architecture of cathedrals, basilicas and abbey churches is characterised by the buildings' large scale and follows one of several branching traditions of form, function and style that all ultimately derive from the Early Christian architectural traditions established in the Constantinian period. Cathedrals in particular, as well as many abbey churches and basilicas , have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches . They also tend to display

10700-534: Was called Western or Latin Christendom , and Constantinople ( Eastern Christianity ), Antioch ( Syriac Christianity ), Kerala ( Indian Christianity ) and Alexandria , among others, whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom. The Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization . From the 11th to 13th centuries, Latin Christendom rose to

10807-406: Was done by indigenous folk communities before Jainism originated, suggesting that both have commonalities in rituals. A scholar on Jain art wrote about an Ayagapata discovered around Kankali Tila: "The technical name of such a tablet was Ayagapata meaning homage panel." Catholic culture Christian culture generally includes all the cultural practices which have developed around

10914-468: Was founded in Spain in 1243. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey , the universities benefitted from the use of Latin, the common language of the Church, and its internationalist reach, and their role was to "teach, argue and reason within a Christian framework". The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of enquiry and produced

11021-402: Was granted. Today, votives can be lit votive candles , offered flowers, statues, vestments and monetary donations. Traditional special forms of votive offering ex votos include small silver models of the afflicted part of the body, inscribed stone tablets, folk art paintings of an incident of danger such as the votive paintings of Mexico and model ships donated by sailors who have survived

11128-977: Was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting , landscape painting , portrait painting and still life . Prominent painters with Protestant background were, for example, Albrecht Dürer , Hans Holbein the Younger , Lucas Cranach , Rembrandt , and Vincent van Gogh . World literature was enriched by the works of Edmund Spenser , John Milton , John Bunyan , John Donne , John Dryden , Daniel Defoe , William Wordsworth , Jonathan Swift , Johann Wolfgang Goethe , Friedrich Schiller , Samuel Taylor Coleridge , Edgar Allan Poe , Matthew Arnold , Conrad Ferdinand Meyer , Theodor Fontane , Washington Irving , Robert Browning , Emily Dickinson , Emily Brontë , Charles Dickens , Nathaniel Hawthorne , Thomas Stearns Eliot , John Galsworthy , Thomas Mann , William Faulkner , John Updike , and many others. The university

11235-806: Was in Alexandria that Graeco-Oriental Christianity had its birth. There the Septuagint translation had been made; there that that fusion of Greek philosophy and Jewish religion took place which culminated in Philo ; there flourished the mystic speculative Neoplatonism associated with Plotinus and Porphyry . At Alexandria the great Greek ecclesiastical writers worked alongside pagan rhetoricians and philosophers; several were born here, e.g. Origen , Athanasius , and his opponent Arius , also Cyril and Synesius . On Egyptian soil monasticism began and thrived. After Alexandria, Antioch held great prestige, where

11342-470: Was more typical to wait until the wish had been fulfilled before making the offering, for which the more specific term ex-voto may be used. Other offerings were very likely regarded just as gifts to the deity, not linked to any particular need. In Buddhism, votive offering such as construction of stupas was a prevalent practice in Ancient India, an example of which can be observed in the ruins of

11449-599: Was not based on fear of the Inquisition, but on the perfectly simple belief that the faith which had inspired the great saints of the preceding generation was something by which a man should regulate his life. The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe almost entirely rejected the existing tradition of Catholic art, and very often destroyed as much of it as it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from

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