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97-649: Nianfo focused on the Buddha Amitābha is also the most important practice in Pure Land Buddhism . In the context of East Asian Pure Land practice, the term nianfo typically refers to the oral repetition of the name of Amitābha through the phrase "Homage to Amitabha Buddha" ( Ch : 南無阿彌陀佛, Mandarin : Nāmó Āmítuófó, Jp : Namu Amida Butsu; from the Sanskrit : Namo'mitābhāya Buddhāya). It can also refer to that phrase itself, in which case it may also be called

194-703: A sutra is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra , translated into Chinese by Lokakṣema in 179 CE, with the discovery of a Gandhari language fragment of that sutra announced in 2018. Jeff Wilson writes that over a fifth of the sutras in the Taishō Tripiṭaka reference Amitābha, but three sutras in particular have become seen as canonical in East Asian Buddhism: Amitābha is understood as the Buddha of comprehensive love. Amitābha's pure land

291-505: A Buddha and to create a buddhakṣetra (literally "buddha-field", often called a "Pureland" or "Buddha Land": a realm existing in the primordial universe outside of ordinary reality, produced by a buddha's merit) possessed of many perfections. These resolutions were expressed in his forty-eight vows , which set out the type of Pureland Dharmākara aspired to create, the conditions under which beings might be born into that world, and what kind of beings they would be when reborn there. In

388-555: A Buddha's pure buddha-field ( Sanskrit : viśuddhabuddhakṣetra ) became a widespread practice as early as second century CE, with the Buddha Amitābha rising in prominence as a Buddha who had created a perfectly pure and easily accessible buddha-field. The earliest dated sutra translated into Chinese which describes Amitabha focused nianfo ( buddhānusmṛti ) is the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (first century BCE), which

485-621: A Buddha-land" in the Dà zhìdù lùn (Great Prajñāpāramitā Commentary) and the "easy path" chapter in Nagarjuna's * Dasabhumikavibhāsā (Chinese: Shí zhù pípóshā lùn 十住毘婆沙論, T.1521). These various Mahayana sources were particularly important for the East Asian Pure Land Buddhist tradition , which is the set of beliefs and practices centered around the idea that all beings, even the most ordinary people, can attain birth in

582-599: A compound of amita ("infinite") and āyus ("life"), and so means "he whose life is boundless". In Chinese, 阿彌陀佛 , pronounced "Ēmítuófó", is the Chinese pronunciation for the Sanskrit name of the Amitābha Buddha (Amida Buddha). The "e mi tuo" is the transliteration of the Sanskrit word "amita" which means "boundless" ( 無量 , "wuliang"). "Fo" is the Chinese word for "Buddha". In Vietnamese , Korean , and Japanese,

679-579: A genuine intention and do not harbor doubts. This sutra extensively describes the Pure Land as a place of unimaginable beauty, with crystal-clear waters, jeweled trees, and golden ground. It is a world where suffering, old age, and death do not exist, and it is inhabited by bodhisattvas and beings on the path to enlightenment. The text emphasizes the ease of achieving rebirth in Sukhavati compared to striving for enlightenment in this world of samsara. In

776-536: A mental "holding of the name", it was Shandao (7th century) who would go on to interpret the term nianfo to refer to the oral recitation of Amitabha's name. For Shandao, the nianfo of “orally holding Amitāyus's name” (kǒuchēng Mítuó mínghào 口稱彌陀名號), was the main practice of Pure Land Buddhism. All other practices were merely auxiliary practices. These auxiliaries which were secondary to oral recitation include visualization of Amitabha and his Pure Land, worshiping Amitabha, praising him, and making offerings to him. Over time,

873-672: A new Pure Land movement. Some modern figures like Venerable Jìngkōng (1927–2022) have focused on promoting an exclusive focus on nianfo practice, but others teach it as general part of Chinese Buddhism. In contemporary Chinese Buddhism, nianfo retreats are a common part of the regular repertoire offered by Buddhist temples, alongside Chan meditation retreats and sutra classes. Other important modern Chinese teachers of nianfo practice include Venerable Guangqin (1892-1986), Master Xuānhuà (1918–1995), Dharma Master Huijing (1950-) and Dharma Master Jingzong (1966-, Abbot of Hongyuan Monastery). Modern Chan figures like Nan Huai-Chin also made use of

970-647: A pure land called Sukhāvatī ( Sanskrit : "possessing happiness"). Sukhāvatī is situated in the uttermost west, beyond the bounds of our own world. By the power of his vows, Amitābha has made it possible for all who call upon him to be reborn into this land, there to undergo instruction by him in the dharma and ultimately become bodhisattvas and buddhas in their turn (the ultimate goal of Mahāyāna Buddhism). From there, these same bodhisattvas and buddhas return to our world to help yet more people while still residing in his land of Sukhāvatī , whose many virtues and joys are described. The earliest known reference to Amitābha in

1067-602: A saṅgha of śrāvakas and headed by a chain of bodhisattvas will stand before them and they will die with an undisturbed mind. Having died, they will arise in the world system Sukvāvatī, the buddha-land of just that Amitāyus Tathāgata. Lastly, one passage from the Sutra on the Contemplation of Amitāyus (Taishō 365) was also particularly influential on East Asian Pure Land authors (Amitāyus is an alternative name for Amitābha). This passage says that even sentient beings who commit

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1164-520: A serene thought about the Tathagata" ( hīnādhimuktikā bhaviṣyanti ye 'ntaśaekacittaprasādamapi tasmiṃstathāgate ). There are a few other influential sources on East Asian nianfo practice, including the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra ( Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā ), Vasubandhu's Discourse on the Pure Land ( Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論), the "Chapter on Purifying

1261-532: A set sequence of events...For the duration of these rites, the consciousness of the dead is coaxed into increasing levels of clarity until the time for the ritual transference to Sukhavati." Raigō ( 来迎 , "welcoming approach" ) in Japanese Buddhism is the appearance of the Amida on a "purple" cloud (紫雲) at the time of one's death. The most popular belief is that the soul would then depart to

1358-518: A thought directed toward a vision of Amitabha" (cittam utpādayanty amitābhasya...darśanāya ) and "hearing the name" ( buddhanāmaṣravaṇena ). The shorter sutra speaks of hearing the name and "keeping it in mind" ( manasikara ). The Sanskrit edition of the Longer sutra also speaks of "remembering [the Buddha] with a faithful mind" ( prasannacittā māmanusmareyuḥ ) and "obtaining even as little as one moment of

1455-541: A tripod. The practice of yeombul (nianfo) was adopted from Chinese Buddhist sources during the Unified Silla (668–935). Wŏnhyo (617–686) was the most influential figure in promoting this practice among the wider populace. Wŏnhyo's nianfo method draws on numerous sources including Zhiyi and Tanluan . Later Pure Land authors who write on nianfo practice all rely on Wŏnhyo's teachings. According to Wŏnhyo's Muryangsu-gyŏng chongyo (無量壽經宗要 , Doctrinal Essentials of

1552-441: A vision of Buddha Amitābha. Nianfo was also taught by the founder of Tiantai Buddhism, patriarch Zhìyǐ (538–597). In his Móhē zhǐguān . Zhìyǐ taught a practice he named Constantly Walking Samadhi (cháng xíng sānmèi 常行三昧), in which one would walk in a ritualized manner while visualizing Amitabha and reciting his name for up to ninety days. Early Chinese Pure Land figures like Tanluan (476–542) and Daochuo (562–645) promoted

1649-621: Is a place of peace and refuge. Once there one can hear the Dharma directly from the Buddha and attain Buddhahood without being distracted by the sufferings of samsara . In some contexts, the term nianfo can also refer to other meditative practices, such as various visualizations or the recitations of other phrases, dharanis , or mantras associated with Pure Land Buddhism, the Buddha Amitābha and his attendant bodhisattvas . Mindfulness of

1746-536: Is a work of Kushan art , made during the Kushan Empire (30–375 CE), and was dedicated to "Amitābha Buddha" by a family of merchants. Gregory Schopen translates the inscription as follows: The 26th year of the Great King Huveṣka, the 2nd month, the 26th day. On this day by Nāgarakṣita, the (father) of the trader (Sax-caka), the grandson of the merchant Balakatta, the (son of Buddhapila), an image of

1843-512: Is also called Amida Nyorai ( Japanese : 阿弥陀如来 , "the Tathāgata Amitābha") . In Tibetan, Amitābha is called འོད་དཔག་མེད་ Wylie : ' od dpag med , THL : Öpakmé and in its reflex form as Amitāyus, ཚེ་དཔག་མེད་ Wylie : tshe dpag med , THL : Tsépakmé . They are iconographically distinct. When in the descending standing position, Amitābha is often shown with left arm bare and extended downward with thumb and forefinger touching, with

1940-741: Is also called the Land of Bliss or Western Pure Land and is the most well-known of the Mahayana Buddhist pure lands due to the popularity of Pure Land Buddhism in East Asia . Sukhavati is also an important postmortem goal for Tibetan Buddhists , and is a common buddhafield used in the practice of phowa ("transference of consciousness at the time of death"). Sukhavati was widely depicted in Mahayana Buddhist art and remains an important theme in Buddhist art . Different traditions understand

2037-519: Is also mentioned in the early Chan monastic code titled The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery . Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chan figures like Yongming Yanshou , Zhongfen Mingben , and Hanshan Deqing . A later development in the dual Pure Land-Chan nianfo cultivation was the so called "nianfo kōan " which consisted of orally reciting nianfo as normal while pausing from time to time to ask oneself "Who

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2134-471: Is an important feature of Chinese Buddhism, which often combines nianfo with Chan Buddhist meditation. Figures who are considered Pure Land patriarchs who also combined nianfo with Chan include Yongming Yanshou (904–975) and Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615). Zhuhong was a learned figure who argued that the goal of Pure Land nianfo practice was the “nianfo samādhi ” (Ch.: nianfo sanmei), a “single, unperturbed mind” focused on Amitabha Buddha in which one realizes that

2231-542: Is associated with the Womb Realm ( garbhakoṣadhātu ). According to the Larger Sūtra of Immeasurable Life , Amitābha was, in very ancient times and possibly in another system of worlds, a monk named Dharmākara. In some versions of the sūtra , Dharmākara is described as a former king who, having come into contact with Buddhist teachings through the buddha Lokeśvararāja , renounced his throne. He then resolved to become

2328-594: Is considered one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas known also as the Five Tathagatas together with Akshobhya , Amoghasiddhi , Ratnasambhava , and Vairocana . Amitābha is associated with the western direction and the skandha of saṃjñā , the aggregate of perception, or distinguishing, and the deep awareness of individuality. His co-equal is the female Buddha Pāṇḍaravāsinī . His two main disciples (the same number as Gautama Buddha ) are

2425-543: Is described as being in the West, and he works for the enlightenment of all beings (represented iconographically as a blessing Buddha). The Amitayurdhyana Sutra recommends and describes at length the practice of visualising Amitābha and the Pure Land. The other two sutras do not detail visualisation practices, and have been interpreted in different ways, such as the nianfo practice of repeatedly saying Amitābha's name. Other practices developed from these sutras include practices at

2522-546: Is focused around Amitābha Buddha. In East Asian Pure Land traditions, the main religious practice is the recitation or chanting of the phrase 南無阿彌陀佛 ( Mandarin : Nāmó Ēmítuófó, Japanese: Namu Amida Butsu) which means "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Amitābha is also known in Tibet , Mongolia , Nepal , India and other regions where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced. In the Highest Yogatantra of Tibetan Buddhism, Amitābha

2619-442: Is found in the Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life where Amitabha's vows are enumerated. The 18th, 19th and 20th vows state: 18. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit

2716-460: Is infinite". The name Amitāyus (nominative form Amitāyuḥ ) is also used for the Sambhogakāya aspect of Amitābha, particularly associated with longevity. He is mostly depicted sitting and holding in his hands a vessel containing the nectar of immortality. In Tibetan Buddhism, Amitāyus is also one of the three deities of long life (Amitāyus, White Tara and Uṣṇīṣavijayā ). Amitāyus being

2813-497: Is one of the primary texts that describe the Pure Land of Sukhavati. It details the story of Dharmakara, a bodhisattva who later becomes Amitabha Buddha. Dharmakara, made 48 vows, each describing the characteristics and conditions of his future Pure Land. His 18th vow, the Primal Vow, promises that anyone who sincerely wishes to be reborn in his Pure Land and calls upon his name even ten times will be reborn there, provided they have

2910-468: Is performing nianfo?". This practice first appears during the time of Zhiche (?-1310) who is said to have attained an awakening by this method. The Eminent monks of the Ming, such as Zhibo Zhenke and Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–1615), also taught on the unity of Chan and Pure land nianfo, as well as drawing on Huayan and Tiantai thought. Nianfo and related practices for rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha

3007-465: Is the easiest way to distinguish them. Amitāyus is an emanation of Amitābha. Amitābha is the head of the Lotus family. In Vajrayana, Amitābha is the most ancient of the Five Tathagatas . He is of red color originating from the red seed syllable hrīḥ . He represents the cosmic element of "Sanjana" (name). His vehicle is the peacock. He exhibits Samadhi Mudra his two palms folded face up, one on top of

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3104-479: Is the principal Buddha of Pure Land Buddhism . He is also known as Amitāyus , which is understood to be his enjoyment body ( Saṃbhogakāya ). In Vajrayana Buddhism , Amitābha is known for his longevity, discernment , pure perception , and the purification of aggregates with deep awareness of the emptiness of all phenomena. Amitābha is associated with the Diamond Realm ( vajradhātu ), whereas Amitāyus

3201-486: Is thought to have originated in ancient kingdom of Gandhāra . This sutra does not enumerate any vows of Amitābha or the qualities of his pure land , Sukhāvatī , but rather briefly describes the repetition of the name of Amitābha as a means to enter his realm through meditation. Bodhisattvas hear about the Buddha Amitabha and call him to mind again and again in this land. Because of this calling to mind, they see

3298-522: The Ajitasena Sutra , Samādhirāja Sūtra and Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra . The appearance of such literature and sculptural remains at the end of the second century suggests that the teachings on Amitābha we becoming popular in the first and second centuries CE. Furthermore, there are sculptures of Amitabha in dhyani mudras as well as bronzes of Amitābha in abhaya mudra from the Gandhara era of

3395-540: The Smaller Sūtra , commonly known as the Amitabha Sutra , Buddha Shakyamuni describes the Pure Land of Amitabha to his disciple Śāriputra. The Buddha speaks of the physical and spiritual splendor of Sukhavati, highlighting features such as the seven rows of balustrades, nets, and trees made of the seven precious jewels. He explains that those reborn in this Pure Land will experience perpetual joy and have access to

3492-640: The Shamarpas are considered to be emanations of Amitābha. In Shingon Buddhism , Amitābha is seen as one of the thirteen Buddhas to whom practitioners can pay homage. Shingon, like Tibetan Buddhism, also uses special devotional mantras for Amitābha, though the mantras used differ. Amitābha is also one of the Buddhas featured in the Womb Realm Mandala used in Shingon practices , and sits to

3589-687: The Sūtra on the Visualization of Immeasurable Life ), the most important element of the practice of nianfo is to recite the name with bodhicitta and with a sincere repentant mind (K: chisim 至心). Another important Korean exponent of nianfo practice is Uisang (625–702), who wrote a commentary on the Amitabha sutra, the Amit’a-gyŏng ŭigi (阿彌陀經義記 The meaning of the Amituo jing ). Chinese teachings on

3686-593: The bodhisattvas Vajrapani and Avalokiteśvara , the former to his left and the latter to his right. In Tibetan Buddhism , there exist a number of famous prayers for taking rebirth in Sukhāvatī ( Dewachen ). One of these was written by Je Tsongkhapa , on the request of Manjushri . Amitābha is primarily invoked in Tibet during the phowa practices, or invoked as Amitāyus – especially in practices relating to longevity and preventing an untimely death. The Panchen Lamas and

3783-482: The nianfo, or "The Name" (Japanese: myōgō 名号). In most extant Pure Land traditions, faithfully reciting the name of Amitābha is mainly seen as a way to obtain birth in Amitābha's pure land of Sukhāvatī ("Blissful") through the Buddha's "other power". It is felt that reciting the nianfo can negate vast stores of negative karma as well as channel the power of the Buddha's compassionate vow to save all beings. Sukhāvatī

3880-502: The spread of Buddhism out of India, the practice of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti rapidly spread to Central Asia , Southeast Asia , and East Asia as well. Hajime Nakamura writes that in the Indian Pure Land sūtras, Mindfulness of the Buddha ( buddhānusmṛti ) is the essential practice and consists of meditating upon Amitābha Buddha. Further, the practice of dedicating one's merit attained through such practices toward rebirth in

3977-459: The "five grave offenses" (which include even killing one's parents) and other very evil acts can still be reborn in the Pure Land (though in the lowest stage of birth). It also explains how one's assurance of birth in the Pure Land may be attained prior to death: When he is about to die, he may meet a good teacher, who consoles him in various ways…but he is too tormented by pain to do so. The good teacher then advises him, “If you cannot concentrate on

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4074-614: The Blessed One, the Buddha Amitābha was set up for the worship of all buddhas. Through this root of merit (may) all living things (obtain) the unexcelled knowledge of a buddha. Another early epigraphic mention of Amitabha (c. 610 CE) is found in Patan (Lalitpur) . It is a verse which states: I praise Amitabha, the best, dispeller of illusion by the light of great prajña . The light, victor who lives in Sukhavati with Lokesvara ,

4171-542: The Buddha then you should say instead, ‘Homage to Amitāyus Buddha.’ ” In this way, he sincerely and continuously says, “Homage to Amitāyus Buddha” ten times…. When he comes to die, he sees before him a golden lotus flower like the disk of the sun, and in an instant he is born within a lotus bud in the Land of Utmost Bliss. In the Sanskrit editions, the phrases related to nianfo found in the Sukhāvatīvyūha include "producing

4268-543: The Buddha ( buddhānusmṛti ) is a practice which can be found in the Early Buddhist Texts as part of the ten recollections . The practice appears in Pali Canon suttas like Anguttara Nikaya (AN) 11.11, AN 11.12 and AN 1.296 as a method that can lead to samādhi and ultimately nirvana . Likewise, Agamas like EA III, 1 ( Taisho Vol. II, p. 554a7-b9) also discuss the practice as a method of focusing

4365-549: The Buddha Amitabha. Having seen him they ask him what dharmas it takes to be born in the realm of the Buddha Amitabha. Then the Buddha Amitabha says to these bodhisattvas: 'If you wish to come and be born in my realm, you must always call me to mind again and again, you must always keep this thought in mind without letting up, and thus you will succeed in coming to be born in my realm. Among the most frequently cited examples in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism

4462-449: The Buddha Amitābha" ( Chinese : 阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門 ; pinyin : Ēmítuófó xiāng hǎi sānmèi gōngdé fǎmén ), Shandao prescribes a specific set of rituals and practices (including visualization techniques) which can help dying Buddhist devotees avoid bad rebirths and attain rebirth in the Pure Land. Shandao also taught on the many dangers that could hinder a dying aspirant's rebirth in the Pure Land in his " Correct Mindfulness for Rebirth at

4559-496: The Buddha is one's own pure and empty mind. According to Zhuhong: To contemplate the Buddha (nianfo) is to contemplate the mind (nianxin). Birth there (in the Pure Land) does not entail birth away from here. Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are all of one substance; the middle stream ( nonduality ) does not abide on the two banks (this world and the Pure Land). Zhuhong taught that one could attain these realizations even through

4656-559: The Dhāraṇī of the King of the Sound of Amitābha’s Drum , and Mother of Avalokiteśvara Noble Dhāraṇī. The word is the feminine form of the Sanskrit word sukhāvat ("full of joy; blissful"), from sukha ("delight, joy") and -vat ("full of"). Sukhavati is known by different names in other languages. East Asian names are based on Chinese translations, and longer names may consist of

4753-608: The Great Buddha of Kamakura ( 鎌倉大仏 ) at Kōtoku-in or the exposition mudrā, while the earth-touching mudrā (right hand pointed downward over the right leg, palm inward) is reserved for a seated Gautama Buddha alone. He can also be seen holding a lotus in his hands while displaying the meditation mudrā. There is a difference between Amitāyus and Amitābha. Amitāyus—the Buddha of Infinite Life—and Amitābha—the Buddha of Infinite Light—are essentially identical, being reflective images of one another. Sutras in which Gautama Buddha expounds

4850-553: The Land of Bliss , T.1969A). The earliest sources of the Chinese Chan school discuss nianfo practice as a Chan meditation method. The works of the Chan patriarchs like Daoxin (580-651) and Shenxiu teach nianfo meditation. The Ch’uan fa-pao chi (Taisho no. 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, shows the practice of nianfo was widespread in the early Chan generation of Hung-jen , Fa-ju and Ta-tung. The practice

4947-520: The Moment of Death" (Chinese: 臨終往生正念文 ; pinyin: Línzhōng wǎngshēng zhèngniàn wén ). These sources reflect a traditional Chinese concern regarding various more complicated requirements for rebirth in the Pure Land, which include but are not limited to the recitation of Amitābha's name on one's deathbed. The well known form of the nianfo ( na-mo a-mi-tuo fo ) was standardized by a later Pure Land patriarch, Fazhao (died c. 820). Fazhao also promoted

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5044-813: The Pure Land itself, and ultimately Amitabha Buddha and his attendant bodhisattvas, Avalokiteshvara and Mahasthamaprapta . Through these visualizations, practitioners are guided to focus their minds on the Pure Land and develop a connection with Amitabha, cultivating the aspiration for rebirth there. Beyond the three primary Pure Land sutras, Sukhavati is also referenced in other Mahayana texts , though less extensively. Some key examples include: Furthermore various Indian Dhāraṇī sutras (sutras focused on specific magical chants, incantations, recitations) state that reciting them will lead to birth in Sukhavati. These include: Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī , Uṣṇīṣavijayā Dhāraṇī Sutra, Dhāraṇī of Avalokiteśvara Ekadaśamukha Sūtra , Great Compassion Dhāraṇī Sutra, Sūtra of

5141-531: The Pure Land through the power of Amitābha Buddha. This tradition centered its practices on the nianfo. These sources were also influential on other Chinese traditions who also practiced nianfo, including Chan and Tiantai. In Chinese translations of Buddhist Mahayana sources, the most common character for smṛti ("mindfulness", "recollection") became 念 ( niàn ), and thus recollection of the Buddha became niànfó . The character 念 generally means to think, recall, contemplate, mentally focus, or even "long for". However

5238-565: The Pure Land). They include figures like Zhi Qian (c. 222–252, translated Taisho Tripitaka no. 1011, and T. 1356), Dharmakṣema (397–439, translated T. 157), Kālayaśas (c. 420–479, translated T. 1161), Śrīmitra (T. 1331), Vajrabodhi (671–741, T. 932), and Amoghavajra (705–774). Amoghavajra translated various related texts including The Method of Contemplating and Making Offerings to Amitāyus Tathāgata Vidhi (T. 930), among others (T. 930, 933, 950, 1056, 1064, 1069, 1155). Qing era Huayan school authors like Baiting Xufa (1641–1728) and

5335-529: The buddha-land of Amitāyus Tathāgata by insignificant wholesome roots. O Śāriputra, whichever son of good family or daughter of good family, will hear the name of that bhagavān, Amitāyus Tathāgata, and having heard it will think of it, or will think of it with a mind that is undistracted for one night, or two nights, or three nights, or four nights, or five nights, or six nights, or seven nights, when that son of good family or daughter of good family will die, at their time of death, that Amitāyus Tathāgata, surrounded by

5432-549: The curled tuft of white hair between his eyes. Genshin also taught that one could not practice this, oral recitation was just as effective in leading to birth in the Pure Land. Furthermore, during the Later Heian (950–1185), various itinerant ascetics and preachers traveled the country promoting the simple recitation of the nembutsu. These holy people (hiriji) who were also called shōnin, were mostly independent of major Buddhist institutions. The most well known of these figures

5529-428: The deceased. Such rituals are often accompanied with the tantric technique of phowa ("transference of consciousness") to the pure land of Amitābha , performed by a lama on the behalf of the departed. Halkias (2013:148) explains that "Sukhavati features in funeral rites and scriptures dedicated to the ritual care of the dead (' das-mchod ). The structure and performance of Tibetan death ceremonies varies according to

5626-560: The destroyer of the fear arising in the world, bearer of the lotus, and Mahasthamaprapta , the affectionate-hearted one. Regarding textual evidence, the earliest Buddhist sutra mentioning Amitābha is the translation into Chinese of the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra (般舟三昧經; Bozhōu Sānmèi Jīng ) by the Kushan monk Lokakṣema around 180. This text has been dated to between the 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE by modern buddhologists. Other early Mahayana texts mentioning Amitabha include

5723-452: The exclusive practice of nembutsu banned by the government for a period of time (c. 1207). The ban was lifted in 1211. In spite of these setbacks, Hōnen's new Jōdo (Pure Land) school thrived. Hōnen was widely criticized for teaching that only nembutsu was an efficacious Buddhist practice, an idea that became known as the senju nembutsu (専修念仏, "exclusive nembutsu"). However, his view is more nuanced than simple exclusivity. Even though Hōnen saw

5820-529: The first century, suggesting the popularity of Amitābha during that time. One of the last prayer busts of Amitābha can be found in the trademark black stone of the Pala Empire (c. 750–1161 CE), which was the last Buddhist empire of India. Sukhavati Sukhavati ( IAST : Sukhāvatī ; "Blissful") is the pure land (or buddhafield) of the Buddha Amitābha in Mahayana Buddhism . Sukhavati

5917-500: The five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma. 19. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who awaken aspiration for enlightenment, do various meritorious deeds, and sincerely desire to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them surrounded by a multitude of sages, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. 20. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in

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6014-685: The form of Amitabha, including imagining all his physical marks one by one, or one could merely contemplate the wisdom and compassion of Amitabha. The vocal nembutsu was considered an easier practice for those who lacked concentration. Both practices were considered to be able to lead to absorption (samādhi). The nembutsu was also important in the Tendai school, the Japanese branch of Tiantai which relied on meditation practices taught in Zhiyi 's Mohe Zhiguan . The Tendai monk Genshin (942–1017) popularized

6111-477: The glories of Sukhavati, the Pure Lands, speak of the presiding Buddha sometimes as Amitābha and sometimes as Amitāyus. When depicted as Amitāyus he is depicted in fine clothes and jewels and as Amitābha in simple monk's clothing. They are also simply known as Amida in the Chinese and Japanese tradition. The image of the gold colored statue in the article is of Amitāyus as he is wearing a five-pointed crown, which

6208-412: The interconnectness of all phenomena. He held that the chanting of the nembutsu influenced all people and all things. He began a register where people would sign up and commit to a certain number of nembutsu recitations per day, the idea being that all people in the register would receive the collective benefit of these combined recitations. This practice became popular, and even the Japanese emperor entered

6305-481: The lands of the ten directions who, having heard my Name , concentrate their thoughts on my land, plant roots of virtue, and sincerely transfer their merits toward my land with a desire to be born there should not eventually fulfill their aspiration, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. And this passage in the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra ( Taisho no. 366): O Śāriputra, beings do not arise in

6402-521: The lay literatus Peng Shaosheng (1740–1796) wrote on nianfo from a Huayan perspective, seeing Amitabha and Vairocana as the same Buddha, and as identical with the “one true mind” taught in Huayan. This teaching became known as the "Huayan-nianfo". Nianfo remains a central practice of Chinese Buddhism. Master Yinguang (1861-1941) was particularly influential in the modern revival of Pure Land nianfo practice, drawing tens of thousands of students and leading

6499-710: The lower level). Shandao also practiced visualizations taught in the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra and taught this method of Buddha recollection to his disciples. The recitation of the nianfo was particularly critical for the dying and it quickly became a major deathbed practice in Chinese Buddhism . For example, in " The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of

6596-475: The melodic "five stage nianfo" (五會念佛) method, and he taught nianfo at the imperial court . This method involves five different ways of chanting the nianfo phrase: in a slow sonorous way, slow but rising in pitch, moderate tempo, gradually accelerating in tempo, and lastly to chant only Amituofo very rapidly. Later Chinese Pure Land patriarchs were known for their syncretism of nianfo recitation with Chan meditation. The "dual path of Chan and Pure Land cultivation"

6693-627: The mind on the Buddha and his qualities. Indian Mahāyāna teachings developed the early Buddhist practices of buddhānusmṛti in more visionary directions. Some scholars like Andrew Skilton argue that Kashmiri Sarvāstivādin meditation masters influenced the development of more complex Mahayana meditations on the Buddhas. A key feature of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti is that it was not restricted to Shakyamuni Buddha but could also be directed as other Buddhas, like Akṣobhya , Maitreya , and Amitābha Buddha. Groups of Mahāyāna sutras were composed based on these figures. With translations of these sūtras as well as

6790-566: The moment of death, call upon him. This openness and acceptance of all kinds of people has made belief in pure lands one of the major influences in Mahāyāna Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism seems to have first become popular in Gandhara , from where it spread to China infused with Taoists and Confucian philosophy before spreading to Central and East Asia . The sutra goes on to explain that Amitābha, after accumulating great merit over countless lives, finally achieved buddhahood and created

6887-519: The name of Amitabha in one's mind as an image of the sound. He argued that the name of Amitabha contained the full reality of that Buddha and as such, one could contemplate the Buddha by just contemplating the name. The main innovation of Tanluan's student Daochuo was that he argued that the world was entering the " last days of the Dharma ". In this degenerate era, practices which relied solely on "self-power" ( zìlì 自力), were no longer effective. As such,

6984-514: The nature of Sukhavati differently. The Pure Land Buddhist traditions often sees it as a Samboghakaya pure land (this was the view of Shandao ), while other traditions, like some Tibetan Buddhists, see it as a nirmanakaya Pure Land. Furthermore, in Chinese Buddhism, there are two views on Sukhavati (which are most often combined together): the view which sees Sukhavati as being a realm far away from ours ("other-direction Pure Land") and

7081-552: The nembutsu as the supreme practice, he did not actually teach that only the oral recitation of the nembutsu was useful. He merely taught that this was the simplest, most accessible and effective practice taught by the Buddha. It was the only one that always works. As Jones writes, for Hōnen "to become a buddha, one first needed to be reborn in the Pure Land, and for this the oral nenbutsu was the only reliable expedient. One thus had to begin with it. After one had established oneself in this practice with firm faith, one could then reintroduce

7178-420: The nembutsu in his Ōjōyōshū ( Essential Anthology on Attaining Rebirth ), which argues that the nembutsu is the most efficacious practice in this time of Dharma decline ( mappō ). For Genshin, meditative nembutsu as a visualization was most important. This meant contemplating the physical form of Amitābha, though if that is too difficult for someone, they could just visualize one of his physical features, like

7275-520: The nianfo as a meditation tool and as a way to attain samādhi . Modern Chan masters like Xūyún (1840?–1959) also taught nianfo it as a kind of Chan huàtóu practice. Korean Buddhism traditionally sees the practice of nianfo as part of “Three Gates” (K.: sammun) doctrine. This teaching places nianfo alongside Seon (Zen) meditation and doctrinal study as necessary parts of a holistic Buddhist practice. The three are considered to be mutually reinforcing elements of Buddhist cultivation, like three legs on

7372-443: The only truly effective method to achieve Buddhahood was to practice nianfo and rely on the "other power" ( tālì 他力) of Amitabha. Like Tanluan, Daochuo recommended a simple practice of meditating on the name of Amitabha (rather than focusing on complex visualizations). He also introduced the practice of counting one's nianfo contemplations with the beads of a mala . While these early Chinese Pure Land authors taught nianfo as mostly

7469-657: The other [auxiliary] practices that aimed at rebirth there as a way of enriching the practice of oral recitation." Dr. Mark Blum similarly explains that Honen's view is not "exclusive nembutsu" but "prioritized nembutsu" in which the nembutsu becomes a "chosen practice" with a specially sacred status. As such, while Hōnen emphasized the oral nembutsu, he did still promote the practice of other forms of nembutsu (like visualization) as well as Shandao's auxiliary Pure land practices (including precepts, dedicating merit to birth, recitation of sutras, etc). Amit%C4%81bha Amitābha ( Sanskrit pronunciation: [ɐmɪˈtaːbʱɐ] )

7566-480: The other, lying on his lap. The lotus is his sign. When represented on the stupa, he always faces toward west. He is worshiped thinking that one can have salvation. The first known epigraphic evidence for Amitābha is the bottom part of a statue found in Govindnagar, Pakistan and now located at Government Museum, Mathura . The statue is dated to "the 26th year of the reign of Huviṣka " i.e., 104 CE. It

7663-532: The practice of nianfo (in Japanese: nembutsu ) were adopted into Japanese Buddhism . One of the earliest accounts of Japanese nembutsu practice is found in the works of Chikō (709–770 or 781), a monk of the Sanron ( East Asian Madhyamaka ) school. Chikō's commentary on Vasubandhu's Pure Land Treatise divides nembutsu into two main categories: meditative and vocal. The meditative nembutsu involved either visualizing

7760-408: The practice of nianfo as a way to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha. Tanluan taught that through the practice of nianfo, which included visualizing Amitabha and reciting Amitabha's name with faith, one could tune into the "other power" of this Buddha, which could purify one's mind and take one to the Pure Land of Sukhavati . Tanluan also taught that one could practice nianfo by simply holding

7857-493: The register. Hōnen (1133–1212) is perhaps the most important figure in the history of Japanese nembutsu practice. His study of Pure land literature, especially Shandao, convinced him that Pure Land practice was the only effective practice for the degenerate age. This view led to various reactions among other Buddhist schools at the time and Hōnen's sect was fiercely attacked at times. The Tendai school argued that this teaching disparaged other Buddhist practices and managed to have

7954-499: The right and Mahāsthāmaprāpta on the left. This iconography is known as an Amitabha triad , and is especially common in Chinese , Japanese , and Korean art . Amitābha is said to display 84,000 auspicious and distinguishing marks reflecting his many virtues. Amitābha can often be distinguished by his mudrā : Amitābha is often depicted, when shown seated, displaying the meditation mudrā (thumbs touching and fingers together as in

8051-425: The right hand facing outward also with thumb and forefinger touching. The meaning of this mudra is that wisdom (symbolized by the raised hand) is accessible to even the lowest beings, while the outstretched hand shows that Amitābha's compassion is directed at the lowest beings, who cannot save themselves. When not depicted alone, Amitābha is often portrayed with two assistant bodhisattvas, usually Avalokiteśvara on

8148-499: The same Chinese characters used for Amitābha are used to represent his name, though they are pronounced slightly differently: In addition to transliteration, the name Amitābha has also been translated into Chinese using characters which, taken together, convey the meaning "Infinite Light": 無量光 (Wúliàngguāng). In the same fashion, the name Amitāyus ("Infinite Life") has been translated as 無量壽 (Wúliàngshòu). These translated names are not, however, very commonly used. In Japanese, Amitābha

8245-790: The simple nianfo methods, though he taught simple and complex methods according to his student's needs. The practice of nianfo was also widely practiced in other schools of East Asian Buddhism, including in the Chan / Zen traditions and in the Tiantai (Lotus) and Huayan ( Avatamsaka ) schools. Tiantai nianfo practices were part of the tradition since its founding by Zhiyi . Later figures like Shěngcháng (959–1020), Sìmíng Zhīlǐ , (960–1028), and Ciyun Zunshi (964–1032) popularized nianfo practice by founding lay "lotus societies" ( lianshe ). Tiantai authors also wrote works on Pure land nianfo practice like Zōngxiǎo's (1151–1214) Lèbāng wénlèi 樂邦文類 ( Anthology of

8342-414: The teachings of the Dharma at all times. This sutra emphasizes the practice of mindfulness of the Buddha ( Buddhānusmṛti ) as the means of attaining rebirth in Sukhavati. The Amitayus Contemplation Sutra places greater emphasis on meditation and visualization practice. In this sutra, the Buddha teaches a queen called Vaidehi a series of 16 contemplations, beginning with visualizations of the setting sun,

8439-483: The term niànfó also came to refer to Amitabha's name itself. While Shandao taught these auxiliary practices, he also held that reciting Amitabha's name ten times was sufficient for rebirth in Sukhavati. In spite of this, constant lifelong practice was still considered useful by the Pure Land tradition, since one could improve one's stage of rebirth in the Pure Land and thus achieve Buddhahood faster once there (while those who did no practice at all would likely be born in

8536-428: The term is ambiguous and can also mean to recite texts aloud so as to memorize them as well as meaning "a moment in time". In China, nianfo became an important "dharma-gate" (fǎmén 法門), taught by numerous traditions and Buddhist masters. Perhaps one of the earliest well known Chinese practitioners of nianfo was Huiyuan , who practiced mindfulness of the Buddha as taught in the Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra so as to have

8633-424: The time of death, such as visualising Amitābha in the heaven (sun) over their head (Western horizon), think his name as a mantra, and leaving the body as a soul through the acupuncture point Bai Hui (百會). East Asian Buddhist traditions commonly invoke Amitābha's name in a practice known as nianfo ( 念佛 ) in Chinese and nembutsu in Japanese. This is the central practice of East Asian Pure Land Buddhism which

8730-403: The underlying Indic form: oṃ amṛta-teje hara hūṃ . The proper form of Amitābha's name in Sanskrit is Amitābha , masculine, and the nominative singular is Amitābhaḥ . This is a compound of the Sanskrit words amita ("without bound, infinite") and ābhā ("light, splendor"). Consequently, the name is to be interpreted as "he who possesses light without bound, he whose splendor

8827-666: The versions of the sutra widely known in China, Vietnam, Korea and Japan, Dharmākara's eighteenth vow was that any being in any universe desiring to be reborn into Amitābha's pure land ( Chinese : 淨土 ; pinyin : jìngtǔ ; Japanese pronunciation : jōdo ; Korean : 정토 ; romaja : jeongto ; Vietnamese : tịnh độ ) and calling upon his name with sincerity, even as few as ten times will be guaranteed rebirth there. His nineteenth vow promises that he, together with his bodhisattvas and other blessed Buddhists, will appear before those who, at

8924-580: The view which sees Sukhavati as non-dual with our world which only appears impure due to our minds (known as "mind-only Pure Land"). Sukhāvatī ("Land of Bliss") is a major setting discussed in the "Three Pure Land Sutras": Sutra of Amitayus , the Contemplation Sutra and the Amitabha Sutra . The Pratyutpanna-samādhi-sūtra is also an important source, particularly for early Chinese Pure Land. The Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra

9021-566: The west, which is where the Pure Land of Amitābha is said to dwell. Amitābha is the center of a number of mantras in Vajrayana practices. The Sanskrit form of the mantra of Amitābha is oṃ amitābha hrīḥ ). An alternative Tibetan mantra is Om ami dewa hri (Sanskrit: oṃ amideva hrīḥ ). Amitabha's main mantra in Shingon Buddhism is Om amirita teizei kara um (Japanese: オン・アミリタ・テイゼイ・カラ・ウン ), which represents

9118-405: The words "Western", "Blissful" and "Pure Land" in various combinations. Some names and combinations are more popular in certain countries. Due to its importance, Sukhavati is often simply called "The Pure Land" without distinguishing it from other pure lands . * Only common in Chinese. In Tibetan Buddhism , the world of Sukhavati is invoked during Buddhist funerals as a favorable destination for

9215-515: The world had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma ( mappō ) and that only the Pure land practice of reciting the nembutsu was useful for attaining liberation (after rebirth in the Pure Land). Ryōnin's Yūzū Nembutsu sect was the first Japanese Pure Land sect which focused on nembutsu practice. Ryōnin's understanding of the nembutsu was influenced by the Huayan concept of perfect interfusion and

9312-636: Was Kūya (903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces preaching on nembutsu practice. By the end of the 12th century, distinctive sects focused exclusively on the practice of nembutsu as a verbal recitation for the purposes of being reborn in the Pure Land arose. These new Pure Land ( jodo ) schools were part of the New Kamakura Buddhism. They include Honen's (1133–1212) Jōdo-shū , Shinran's (1173–1263) Jodo Shinshu and smaller sects like Ryōnin's (1072–1132) Yūzū Nembutsu and Ippen's Ji-shu . The new Pure Land schools often held that

9409-428: Was also practiced in Chinese esoteric Buddhism , though this tradition focused on the use of mantras and dharanis associated with Amitabha instead of the classic non-esoteric nianfo phrase "Namo Amitabha". Chinese translators of esoteric materials translated and composed various texts on Amitabha practice which made use of mantras and dharanis to achieve similar results as Mahayana nianfo practice (such as rebirth in

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