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35-433: They are mentioned as Nemeturicae by Columella (1st c. AD), and as Nemoturica and Nematuri ( var. nemet -) by Pliny (1st c. AD). The ethnic name Nemeturii is a latinized form of Gaulish * Nemeturioi . It derives from the stem nemeto -, meaning 'sacred place, sanctuary', and can be translated as 'the inhabitants of sacred places'. The Nemeturii dwelled in the upper Verdon or Var valley. Their territory

70-477: A Christian school in Rome . James O'Donnell notes: [I]t is almost indisputable that he accepted advancement in 523 as the immediate successor of Boethius , who was then falling from grace after less than a year as magister officiorum , and who was sent to prison and later executed. In addition, Boethius' father-in-law (and step-father) Symmachus , by this time a distinguished elder statesman, followed Boethius to

105-601: A genus of Peruvian asterid Columellia in his honour. Little is known of Columella's life. He was probably born in Gades , Hispania Baetica (modern Cádiz), possibly to Roman parents. After a career in the army (he was tribune in Syria in 35 AD), he turned to farming his estates at Ardea , Carseoli , and Alba in Latium . In ancient times, Columella's work "appears to have been but little read", cited only by Pliny

140-470: A specific order of texts to be read, Cassiodorus hoped to create the discipline necessary within the reader to become a successful monk. The first work in this succession of texts would be the Psalms , with which the untrained reader would need to begin because of its appeal to emotion and temporal goods. By examining the rate at which copies of his Psalmic commentaries were issued, it is fair to assess that, as

175-625: A strict monastic rule, such as that of the Benedictine Order . Rather Cassiodorus's work Institutiones was written to guide the monks' studies. To this end, the Institutiones focus largely on texts assumed to have been available in Vivarium's library. The Institutiones seem to have been composed over a lengthy period of time, from the 530s into the 550s, with redactions up to the time of Cassiodorus's death. Cassiodorus composed

210-567: Is in manuscripts and early editions of Columella considered as book 3 of De re rustica . However, it is clear from the opening sentences that it is part of a separate and possibly earlier work. As the anonymous translator of the Millar edition notes, in De arboribus there is no mention of the Publius Silvinus to whom the De re rustica is addressed. A recent critical edition of

245-550: The Benedictine monks to study the medical texts of that era, the known herbals and texts of Hippocrates , Dioscorides and Galen . Cassiodorus is rivalled only by Boethius in his drive to preserve and explore classical literature during the 6th century AD. He found the writings of the Greeks and Romans valuable for their expression of higher truths where other arts failed. Though he saw these texts as vastly inferior to

280-723: The Carthaginian writer Mago , Tremellius Scrofa , and many Greek sources. His uncle Marcus Columella, "a clever man and an exceptional farmer" (VII.2.30), had conducted experiments in sheep breeding , crossing colourful wild rams, introduced from Africa for gladiatorial games, with domestic sheep, and may have influenced his nephew's interests. Columella owned farms in Italy ; he refers specifically to estates at Ardea, Carseoli, and Alba, and speaks repeatedly of his own practical experience in agriculture. The earliest editions of Columella group his works with those on agriculture of Cato

315-950: The Codex Grandior of the Bible being purchased by the Anglo-Saxon Ceolfrith when he was in Italy in 679–80, and taken by him to Wearmouth Jarrow , where it served as the source for the copying of the Codex Amiatinus , which was then brought back to Italy by the now aged Ceolfrith. Despite the demise of the Vivarium, Cassiodorus's work in compiling classical sources and presenting a sort of bibliography of resources would prove extremely influential in Late Antique Western Europe. Cassiodorus devoted much of his life to supporting education within

350-605: The Council of Constance , between 1414 and 1418. Structure of De re rustica ("On Agriculture"): Book 10 is written entirely in dactylic hexameter verse, in imitation of, or homage to, Virgil . It may initially have been intended to be the concluding volume, books 11 and 12 being perhaps an addition to the original scheme. A complete, but anonymous, translation into English was published by Andrew Millar in 1745. Excerpts had previously been translated by Richard Bradley . The short work De arboribus , "On Trees",

385-505: The Institutiones as a guide for introductory learning of both "divine" and "secular" writings, in place of his formerly planned Christian school in Rome: I was moved by divine love to devise for you, with God's help, these introductory books to take the place of a teacher. Through them I believe that both the textual sequence of Holy Scripture and also a compact account of secular letters may, with God's grace, be revealed. The first section of

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420-585: The Institutiones deals with Christian texts, and was intended to be used in combination with the Expositio Psalmorum . The order of subjects in the second book of the Institutiones reflected what would become the Trivium and Quadrivium of medieval liberal arts : grammar, rhetoric, dialectic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. While he encouraged study of secular subjects, Cassiodorus clearly considered them useful primarily as aids to

455-582: The Christian community at large. When his proposed theological university in Rome was denied, he was forced to re-examine his entire approach to how material was learned and interpreted. His Variae shows that, like Augustine of Hippo , Cassiodorus viewed reading as a transformative act for the reader. It is with this in mind that he designed and mandated the course of studies at the Vivarium, which demanded an intense regimen of reading and meditation. By assigning

490-541: The Elder , Servius , Cassiodorus , and Isidorus , and having fallen "into almost complete neglect" after Palladius published an abridgement of it. This book is presented as advice to a certain Publius Silvinus. Previously known only in fragments, the complete book was among those discovered in monastery libraries in Switzerland and France by Poggio Bracciolini and his assistant Bartolomeo di Montepulciano during

525-414: The Elder , Varro and Palladius . Some modern library catalogues follow Brunet in listing these under " Rei rusticae scriptores " or " Scriptores rei rusticae ". Cassiodorus Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator (c. 485 – c. 585), commonly known as Cassiodorus ( / ˌ k æ s i oʊ ˈ d ɔːr ə s / ), was a Christian Roman statesman, a renowned scholar and writer who served in

560-559: The Good . This inspired him to adjust his educational program to support the aesthetic enhancement of manuscripts within the monastery, something which had been practiced before, but not in the universality that he suggests. Classical learning would by no means replace the role of Scripture within the monastery; it was intended to augment the education already under way. It is also worth noting that all Greek and Roman works were heavily screened to ensure only proper exposure to text, fitting with

595-619: The Great . Cassiodorus began his career under the auspices of his father, about in his twentieth year, when the latter made him his consiliarius upon his own appointment to the Praetorian Prefecture. In the judicial capacity of the prefect, he held absolute right of appeal over any magistrate in the empire (or Gothic kingdom, later) and the consiliarius served as a sort of legal advisor in cases of greater complexity. Evidently, therefore, Cassiodorus had received some education in

630-501: The Latin text of the De re rustica includes it, but as incerti auctoris , by an unknown hand. Cassiodorus mentions sixteen books of Columella, which has led to the suggestion that De arboribus formed part of a work in four volumes. In addition to Cato the Elder and Varro, Columella used many sources that are no longer extant and for which he is one of the few references. These include works by Aulus Cornelius Celsus ,

665-530: The administration of Theodoric the Great , king of the Ostrogoths . Senator was part of his surname, not his rank. He also founded a monastery , Vivarium (or "Castellum"), where he worked extensively the last three decades of his life. Cassiodorus was born at Scylletium , near present-day Catanzaro in the Calabria region of Italy , into a family of Syrian origin. His ancestry included some of

700-535: The age, including Bede , as an obscure supporter of the Church. In their descriptions of Cassiodorus, medieval scholars have been documented to change his name, profession, place of residence, and even his religion. Some chapters from his works have been copied into other texts, suggesting that he may have been read, but not generally known. The works not assigned as a part of Cassiodorus's educational program must be examined critically. Because he had been working under

735-488: The block within a year. All this was a result of the worsening split between the ancient senatorial aristocracy centered in Rome and the adherents of Gothic rule at Ravenna. But to read Cassiodorus' Variae one would never suspect such goings-on. There is no mention in Cassiodorus's selection of official correspondence of the death of Boethius. Athalaric died in early 534, and the remainder of Cassiodorus's public career

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770-633: The first work in his series, Cassiodorus's educational agenda had been implemented to some degree of success. Beyond demanding the pursuit of discipline among his students, Cassiodorus encouraged the study of the liberal arts. He believed these arts were part of the content of the Bible, and some mastery of them—especially grammar and rhetoric—was necessary for a complete understanding of it. These arts were divided into trivium (which included rhetoric, idioms, vocabulary and etymology) and quadrivium : arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. He also encouraged

805-500: The improvement of his religious knowledge. Cassiodorus spent his career trying to bridge the 6th-century cultural divides: between East and West, Greek culture and Latin, Roman and Goth, and between an orthodox people and their Arian rulers. He speaks fondly in his Institutiones of Dionysius Exiguus , the calculator of the Anno Domini era. In his retirement, he founded the monastery of Vivarium on his family estates on

840-454: The law. During his working life he worked as quaestor sacri palatii c. 507–511, as a consul in 514, then as magister officiorum under Theoderic, and later under the regency for Theoderic's young successor, Athalaric . Cassiodorus kept copious records and letterbooks concerning public affairs. At the Gothic court his literary skill, which seems mannered and rhetorical to modern readers,

875-440: The monastery. This approach to the development of the monastic lifestyle was perpetuated especially through German religious institutions. This change in daily life also became associated with a higher purpose: the process was not merely associated with disciplinary habit, but also with the preservation of history. During Cassiodorus's lifetime, theological study was on the decline and classical writings were disappearing. Even as

910-506: The most prominent ministers of the state extending back several generations. His great-grandfather held a command in the defense of the coasts of southern Italy from Vandal sea-raiders in the middle of the fifth century; his grandfather appears in a Roman embassy to Attila the Hun , and his father (who bore the same name) served as comes sacrarum largitionum and comes rerum privatarum to Odovacer and as Praetorian Prefect to Theoderic

945-430: The perfect word of Scripture, the truths presented in them played to Cassiodorus's educational principles. Thus he is unafraid to cite Cicero alongside sacred text, and acknowledge the classical ideal of good being part of the practice of rhetoric. His love for classical thought also influenced his administration of Vivarium. Cassiodorus connected deeply with Christian neoplatonism , which saw beauty as concomitant with

980-419: The rest of the structured learning. Cassiodorus's legacy is quietly profound. Before the founding of Vivarium, the copying of manuscripts had been a task reserved for either inexperienced or physically infirm devotees, and was performed at the whim of literate monks. Through the influence of Cassiodorus, the monastic system adopted a more vigorous, widespread, and regular approach to reproducing documents within

1015-527: The shores of the Ionian Sea , and his writings turned to religion. Cassiodorus's Vivarium "monastery school" was composed of two main buildings: a coenobitic monastery and a retreat, for those who desired a more solitary life. Both were located on the site of the modern Santa Maria de Vetere near Squillace . The twin structure of Vivarium was to permit coenobitic (communal) monks and hermits to coexist. The Vivarium appears not to have been governed by

1050-486: The study of divinity, much in the same manner as St. Augustine . Cassiodorus's Institutiones thus attempted to provide what Cassiodorus saw as a well-rounded education necessary for a learned Christian, all in uno corpore , as Cassiodorus put it. The library at Vivarium was still active c. 630, when the monks brought the relics of Saint Agathius from Constantinople, dedicating to him a spring-fed fountain shrine that still exists. However, its books were later dispersed,

1085-500: The victorious Ostrogoth armies remained in the countryside, they continued to pillage and destroy Christian relics in Italy. Cassiodorus's programme helped ensure that both classical and Christian literature were preserved through the Middle Ages. Despite his contributions to monastic order, literature, and education, Cassiodorus's labors were not well acknowledged. After his death he was only partially recognized by historians of

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1120-585: Was a prominent Roman writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire . His De re rustica in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture , together with the works of Cato the Elder and Marcus Terentius Varro , both of which he occasionally cites. A smaller book on trees, De arboribus , is usually attributed to him. In 1794 the Spanish botanists José Antonio Pavón Jiménez and Hipólito Ruiz López named

1155-567: Was dominated by the Byzantine reconquest and dynastic intrigue among the Ostrogoths. His last letters were drafted in the name of Vitiges . Around 537–38, he left Italy for Constantinople , from where his successor was appointed; Cassiodorus remained in the eastern capital for almost two decades, concentrating on religious questions. He notably met Junillus , the quaestor of Justinian I there. His Constantinopolitan journey contributed to

1190-768: Was located east of the Eguiturii , west of the Ecdinii , north of the Vergunni and Nerusii , and south of the Savincates and Caturiges . They are mentioned by Pliny the Elder as one of the Alpine tribes conquered by Rome in 16–15 BC, and whose name was engraved on the Tropaeum Alpium . Columella Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella ( / ˌ k ɒ l j ə ˈ m ɛ l ə / , Arabic : Yunius )

1225-530: Was so esteemed that when in Ravenna he was often entrusted with drafting significant public documents. His culminating appointment was as praetorian prefect for Italy, effectively the prime ministership of the Ostrogothic civil government and a high honor to finish any career. Cassiodorus also collaborated with Pope Agapetus I to establish a library of Greek and Latin texts that were intended to support

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