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85-675: The Niger Delta is a very densely populated region sometimes called the Oil Rivers because it was once a major producer of palm oil . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893, when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate . The delta is a petroleum-rich region and has been the center of international concern over extensive pollution which is often used as an example of ecocide . The principal cause

170-538: A capacity of 800,000 tons per year and produces hydrodeoxygenated NEXBTL biodiesel from palm oil imported from Malaysia and Indonesia. Significant amounts of palm oil exports to Europe are converted to biodiesel (as of early 2018: Indonesia: 40%, Malaysia 30%). In 2014, almost half of all the palm oil in Europe was burned as car and truck fuel. As of 2018, one-half of Europe's palm oil imports were used for biodiesel. Use of palm oil as biodiesel generates three times

255-767: A carcinogen). Reports of indigenous peoples and communities in Indonesia, indicate losing farmland and traditionally significant land due to palm oil industry expansion. In 2017, there were over 650 different land disputes between palm oil plantations and indigenous land owners. Indigenous communities also expressed concern over the loss of natural resources, such as wild rubber, reed, and adat forests (communal forests). Indigenous communities have made some ground when it comes to land disputes, either through protest or legal means. Other concerns when it comes to indigenous communities being impacted include lack of government oversight on palm oil plantations, political corruption, or

340-462: A cheap substitute for butter or hydrogenated vegetable oils in uses where solid fat is desirable, such as the making of pastry dough and baked goods. Palm oil is used in West African cuisine such as egusi soup and okra soup . Palm oil is sometimes used as a minor ingredient in calf milk replacer. Palm oil is pervasively used in personal care and cleaning products, and it provides

425-572: A daily occurrence. Following the civil war, local communities increasingly demanded social and environmental justice from the federal government, with Ken Saro Wiwa and the Ogoni tribe as the lead figures for this phase of the struggle. Cohesive oil protests became most pronounced in 1990 with the publication of the Ogoni Bill of Rights. Indigenous people protested against the lack of economic development, e.g. schools, good roads, and hospitals, in

510-566: A dispute between Cameroon and Nigeria over the small territory of Bakassi . A new phase of the struggle saw the declaration of an Independent Niger Delta Republic by Isaac Adaka Boro during Nigerian president Ironsi's administration, just before the Nigerian Civil War . Also just before the Nigerian civil war, Southeastern State of Nigeria was created (also known as Southeastern Nigeria or Coastal Southeastern Nigeria), which had

595-684: A government initiative, and the Development Initiative, a community development non-governmental organization based in Port Harcourt . Uz and Uz Transnational, a company with a strong commitment to the Niger Delta, has introduced ways of developing the poor in the Niger Delta, especially in Rivers State. In September 2008, MEND released a statement proclaiming that their militants had launched an " oil war " throughout

680-513: A highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain's Industrial Revolution . Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers ' (now Unilever ) " Sunlight " soap, and the American Palmolive brand. By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, which often led to oppressive labor practices, as highlighted in

765-477: A lot of palm nut species, which may become an important contributor to the agriculture of the region. Although Ghana has multiple palm species, ranging from local palm nuts to other species locally called agric, it was only marketed locally and to neighboring countries. Production is now expanding as major investment funds are purchasing plantations, because Ghana is considered a major growth area for palm oil. Kenya 's domestic production of edible oils covers about

850-430: A part of the eastern region of Nigeria , which came into being in 1951 (one of the three regions, and later one of the four regions). The majority of the people were those from the colonial Calabar and Ogoja divisions, the present-day Ogoja , Annang , Ibibio , Oron , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoni people. The National Council of Nigeria and Cameroon (NCNC) was the ruling political party of the region. The NCNC later became

935-462: A quarter of the burned area. The widespread deforestation and other environmental destruction in Indonesia, much of which is caused by palm oil production has often been described by academics as an ecocide . Environmental groups such as Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth oppose the use of palm oil biofuels, claiming that the deforestation caused by oil palm plantations is more damaging for

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1020-499: A region accounts for 52.5 million metric tons (57.9 million short tons) of palm oil production, about 85% of the world total and more than 90% of global exports. Indonesia accounts for 52% of world exports. Malaysian exports total 38%. The biggest consumers of palm oil are India, the European Union, and China, with the three consuming nearly 50% of world exports. Thailand's Department of Internal Trade (DIT) usually sets

1105-451: A sense of displacement and identity crisis among the affected groups/communities. Additionally, when communities fight back against the oil industries as an act of protest, violence is often perpetuated. Since the 1990s there has been continuous violence in an effort to give local communities control of the oil in the delta. These acts of violence include the kidnapping of foreign oil workers and holding them for ransom, vandalization, and even

1190-478: A study from the Environmental, Science and Policy, Colombia has the potential to produce sustainable palm oil without causing deforestation . In addition, palm oil and other crops provide a productive alternative for illegal crops, like coca . Ecuador aims to help palm oil producers switch to sustainable methods and achieve RSPO certification under initiatives to develop greener industries. Ghana has

1275-627: A target to grow gross production to 50,000 barrels (7,900 m) of oil per day within four years. Oil revenue allocation has been the subject of much contention well before Nigeria gained its independence. Allocations have varied from as much as 50%, owing to the First Republic's high degree of regional autonomy, and as low as 10% during the military dictatorships. * State allocations are based on 5 criteria: equality (equal shares per state), population, social development, land mass, and revenue generation. **The derivation formula refers to

1360-539: A third of its annual demand, estimated at 380,000 metric tons (420,000 short tons). The rest is imported at a cost of around US$ 140 million a year, making edible oil the country's second most important import after petroleum. Since 1993 a new hybrid variety of cold-tolerant, high-yielding oil palm has been promoted by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations in western Kenya. As well as alleviating

1445-653: A threat to edible palm oil supplies. According to a 2009 study published in the Environmental Science and Policy journal, palm oil biodiesel might increase the demand for palm oil in the future, resulting in the expansion of palm oil production, and therefore an increased supply of food. One report indicated numerous allegations of human rights violations in the production of palm oil in Indonesia and Malaysia, including exposure to hazardous pesticides , child labor , rape and sexual abuse , and unsafe carrying loads. These incidents may receive no response by

1530-422: Is a common cooking ingredient in the tropical belt of Africa, Southeast Asia and parts of Brazil. Its use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is widespread because of its lower cost and the high oxidative stability ( saturation ) of the refined product when used for frying. One source reported that humans consumed an average 17 pounds (7.7 kg) of palm oil per person in 2015. Palm oil

1615-472: Is a mixture of water, crude palm oil, and fibers from the palm fruit. A minimum degree of processing is required to obtain the oil. The mixture is first passed through a filter to remove the solids, then separated by density to remove the water. Density treatment can also act as a basic form of degumming, provided that the fruit is steamed before milling to hydrolyze the gum, at a cost of also losing some triglycerides to hydrolysis. The result of basic processing

1700-413: Is a source of Vitamin A and Vitamin E. Crude PO can be refined to remove its non-triglyceride components. RBD PO is also known as white palm oil . It can be further fractionated using the different melting points of its components. The part with a higher melting point, which crystalizes out as a solid earlier, is called palm stearin . It consists of mostly saturated fats. The remaining liquid part

1785-477: Is applied to wounds for its supposed antimicrobial effects, research does not confirm its effectiveness. In 2023–2024, world production of palm oil was 77.3 million tonnes , led by Indonesia with 57% of the total. The annual production of palm oil is projected to reach 240 million tonnes by 2050. During the 2022 food crises instigated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine and crop failures in other parts of

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1870-495: Is called palm olein . It is also possible to fractionate at a different point of processing, even with crude palm oil. RBD PO, or "palm shortening ", is extensively used in food manufacture. It is valued for its low polyunsaturated fat content, which offers high stability against rancidity and allows it to replace hydrogenated fats in a variety of baked and fried products. The highly saturated nature of palm oil renders it solid at room temperature in temperate regions, making it

1955-460: Is called a "crude palm oil" or a " red palm oil ", referring to its intense color due to the high carotenoid content. Red palm oil is a traditional cooking oil in West Africa. The free fatty acids within provide a "bite" to the flavor. The triglyceride part is around 50% saturated fat —considerably less than palm kernel oil —and 40% monounsaturated fat and 10% polyunsaturated fat . It

2040-596: Is created through a process called transesterification . Palm oil biodiesel is often blended with other fuels to create palm oil biodiesel blends. Palm oil biodiesel meets the European EN 14214 standard for biodiesels. Hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel is produced by direct hydrogenolysis of the fat into alkanes and propane. The world's largest palm oil biodiesel plant is the €550 million Finnish-operated Neste Oil biodiesel plant in Singapore , which opened in 2011 with

2125-476: Is major oil spills by multinational corporations of the petroleum industry. The Niger Delta, as now defined officially by the Nigerian government, extends over 70,000 km (27,000 sq mi) and makes up 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass. Historically and cartographically, it consists of present-day Bayelsa , Delta , and Rivers States . In 2000, however, Obasanjo's regime included Abia , Akwa-Ibom , Cross River State , Edo , Imo and Ondo States in

2210-402: Is much more efficient than other oils in terms of land and water usage; however, deforestation causes more biodiversity loss than switching to other oils. The biggest global producers of palm oil are Indonesia, who produced 60% of it in 2022, followed by Malaysia, Thailand, and Nigeria. Indonesia produces biodiesel primarily from palm oil. Humans used oil palms as far back as 5,000 years. In

2295-683: Is multi-faceted and extends beyond health problems. Fishing and agriculture are central to the livelihoods of many Niger Delta communities. Oil spills contaminate water sources and farmlands, severely affecting fish stocks and crops. This disruption can lead to food shortages and economic hardship for those dependent on these activities. Another facet of the people's livelihoods is their culture. The Niger Delta's people have strong spiritual and cultural ties to their environment. The harm inflicted on their land and waterways caused by oil spills deeply disrupts sacred sites and interferes with their cultural practices. The loss of these cultural elements contributes to

2380-682: Is not red), and in saturated fat content: palm mesocarp oil is 49% saturated, while palm kernel oil and coconut oil are 81% and 86% saturated fats, respectively. However, crude red palm oil that has been refined, neutralized, bleached and deodorized, a common commodity called RBD (refined, bleached, and deodorized) palm oil, does not contain carotenoids. Many industrial food applications of palm oil use fractionated components of palm oil (often listed as "modified palm oil") whose saturation levels can reach 90%; these "modified" palm oils can become highly saturated, but are not necessarily hydrogenated . The oil palm produces bunches containing many fruits with

2465-430: Is produced when processing oil palm, including oil palm shells and oil palm fruit bunches, can also be used to produce energy. This waste material can be converted into pellets that can be used as a biofuel. Additionally, palm oil that has been used to fry foods can be converted into methyl esters for biodiesel. The used cooking oil is chemically treated to create a biodiesel similar to petroleum diesel. Although palm oil

2550-588: Is still produced by women for domestic use. The FAO additionally states that peasants in Benin practice agroecology . They harvest palm fruit from small farms and the palm oil is mostly used for local consumption. Cameroon had a production project underway initiated by Herakles Farms in the United States. However, the project was halted under the pressure of civil society organizations in Cameroon. Before

2635-505: Is the Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Ltd, a joint venture that is majority-owned by the Nigerian government. In Nigeria, "...despite regulations introduced 20 years ago to outlaw the practice, most associated gas is flared, causing local pollution and contributing to climate change." The environmental devastation associated with the industry and the lack of distribution of oil wealth have been

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2720-503: Is the world's second largest producer of palm oil, producing 19.7 million tonnes in 2023-24. In 1992, in response to concerns about deforestation , the Government of Malaysia pledged to limit the expansion of palm oil plantations by retaining a minimum of half the nation's land as forest cover . As of 2023-24, Nigeria was the fifth-largest producer, with 1.5 million tonnes. Both small- and large-scale producers participate in

2805-461: Is traditionally, and still industrially, produced by milling the fruits of oil palm. Besides milling, palm oil is produced by cold-pressing the fruit of the oil palm since the 1990s. This type of artisanal palm oil is usually not further refined, so they keep the natural red color. It is bottled for use as a cooking oil , in addition to other uses such as being blended into mayonnaise and vegetable oil . The result of milling or cold-pressing

2890-701: The Ijaw (including the Nembe-Brass, Ogbia, Kalabari people , Ibani of Opobo & Bonny, Abua, Okrika , Engenni and Andoni clans), the Ogoni people (Khana, Gokana, Tai and Eleme), the Etche, Egbema, Omuma, Ogba, Ikwerre, Ndoni, Ekpeye and Ndoki in Rivers State. Eastern Niger Delta consists of Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. It has the homogeneous Annang , Efik and Ibibio people. Nigeria has become West Africa 's biggest producer of petroleum. Some 2 million barrels (320,000 m) per day are extracted in

2975-562: The Ijaw people in the Kaiama Declaration in 1998, the Nigerian government sent troops to occupy the Bayelsa and Delta states. Soldiers opened fire with rifles, machine guns, and tear gas, killing at least three protesters and arresting twenty-five more. Since then, local indigenous activity against commercial oil refineries and pipelines in the region has increased in frequency and militancy. Recently foreign employees of Shell ,

3060-468: The Indochinese tiger . Forests have been cleared in parts of Indonesia and Malaysia to make space for oil-palm monoculture . This has significant impacts on the local ecosystems leading to deforestation and biodiversity loss . For example, these processes have resulted in significant acreage losses of the natural habitat of the three surviving species of orangutan . One species in particular,

3145-932: The Sumatran orangutan , has been listed as critically endangered because of habitat loss due to palm oil cultivation. In addition to environmental concerns, palm oil development in regions that produce it has also led to significant social conflict . Regions with fast growing palm oil production have experienced significant violations of indigenous land rights, influxes of illegal immigrant labor and labor practices, and other alleged related human rights violations. The palm oil industry has had both positive and negative impacts on workers, indigenous peoples and residents of palm oil producing communities. Palm oil production provides employment opportunities, and has been shown to improve infrastructure , social services and reduce poverty. However, in some cases, oil palm plantations have developed lands without consultation or compensation of

3230-470: The natural gas extracted in oil wells in the delta is immediately burned, or flared , into the air at a rate of approximately 70 million m per day. This is equivalent to 41% of African natural gas consumption and forms the largest single source of greenhouse gas emissions on the planet. In 2003, about 99% of excess gas was flared in the Niger Delta, although this value has fallen to 11% in 2010. (See also gas flaring volumes ). The biggest gas flaring company

3315-608: The National Convention of Nigerian Citizens, after western Cameroon decided to separate from Nigeria. The ruling party of eastern Nigeria did not seek to preclude the separation and even encouraged it. The then Eastern Region had the third, fourth and fifth largest indigenous ethnic groups in the country, which are the Igbo , Ibibio and Ijaw . In 1953, the Old Eastern region had a major crisis when professor Eyo Ita

3400-525: The Niger Delta against both, pipelines and oil-production facilities, and the Nigerian soldiers that protect them. Both MEND and the Nigerian Government claim to have inflicted heavy casualties on one another. In August 2009, the Nigerian government granted amnesty to the militants; many militants subsequently surrendered their weapons in exchange for a presidential pardon, rehabilitation programme, and education. Western Niger Delta consists of

3485-474: The Niger Delta, with an estimated 38 billion barrels of reserves. The first oil operations in the region began in the 1950s and were undertaken by multinational corporations, which provided Nigeria with necessary technological and financial resources to extract oil. Since 1975, the region has accounted for more than 75% of Nigeria's export earnings. Together oil and natural gas extraction comprise "97 per cent of Nigeria's foreign exchange revenues". More than 70% of

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3570-474: The Scientific Committee on Health, Environmental and Emerging Risks, more than 1300 different chemicals can be put into the environment as a result of oil and gas exploration. Then, humans come in contact with these harmful substances through eating contaminated food as well as breathing in the air pollution. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are especially concerning because of their persistence in

3655-613: The Western Niger was controlled by Kings of the four primary ethnic groups the Urhobo, Isoko, Ijaw, and, Itsekiri with whom the British government had to sign separate "Treaties of Protection" in their formation of "Protectorates" that later became southern Nigeria. Central Niger Delta consists of the central section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Bayelsa, Rivers, Abia and Imo States. The Central Niger Delta region has

3740-487: The account of Abina Mansah's life. However, this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations. Palm oil is naturally reddish in color because of a high beta-carotene content. It is not to be confused with palm kernel oil derived from the kernel of the same fruit or coconut oil derived from the kernel of the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera ). The differences are in color (raw palm kernel oil lacks carotenoids and

3825-635: The area that has been contaminated by oil/gas pollution. This population is especially vulnerable to chronic illnesses because of their pre-existing low life expectancy and large ratio of young people. Additionally, a 2006 report done by the United Nations Development Programme says “The Niger Delta is a region suffering from administrative neglect, crumbling social infrastructure and services, high unemployment, social deprivation, abject poverty, filth and squalor, and endemic conflict,". These factors make it increasingly harder for

3910-790: The blowing up of oil installations. 05°19′34″N 06°28′15″E  /  5.32611°N 6.47083°E  / 5.32611; 6.47083 Palm oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of oil palms . The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel . Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from oil crops in 2014. Palm oils are easier to stabilize and maintain quality of flavor and consistency in ultra-processed foods , so they are frequently favored by food manufacturers. Globally, humans consumed an average of 7.7 kg (17 lb) of palm oil per person in 2015. Demand has also increased for other uses, such as cosmetics and biofuels, encouraging

3995-687: The carbon emissions as using fossil fuel, and, for example, "biodiesel made from Indonesian palm oil makes the global carbon problem worse, not better." There are pressures for increased oil palm production from Indonesian palm-based biodiesel programs. The biodiesel currently contains a 30:70 palm oil to conventional diesel ratio (known as B30) at the gas pumps. The Indonesian government is aiming to produce 100% palm oil biodiesel (or B100) to transition out of using conventional diesel. The Indonesian government has estimated it would need to establish approximately 15 million hectares of oil palm plantations to meet these future demands. The organic waste matter that

4080-408: The colonial Calabar division, and colonial Ogoja division. Rivers State was also created. Southeastern State and River State became two states for the minorities of the old eastern region, and the majority Igbo of the old eastern region had a state called East Central State. Southeastern State was renamed Cross River State and was later split into Cross River State and Akwa Ibom State. Rivers State

4165-529: The company or police, or are left unreported because victims fear retaliation from their abuser. Pesticides used by palm oil plantations include paraquat , which has been banned in Europe over links to Parkinson's disease , and glyphosate , which has been involved in a US class-action lawsuit regarding cancer (the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) classified glyphosate as causing serious eye damage but did not find evidence implicating it as

4250-542: The country's deficit of edible oils while providing an important cash crop, it is claimed to have environmental benefits in the region, because it does not compete against food crops or native vegetation and it provides stabilisation for the soil. Palm oil was introduced to British Burma (now Myanmar) in the 1920s. Beginning in the 1970s, smaller-scale palm oil plantations were developed in Tanintharyi Region , and Mon , Kayin , and Rakhine States . In 1999,

4335-698: The creation of the COR state continued and was a major issue concerning the status of minorities in Nigeria during debates in Europe on Nigerian independence. As a result of this crisis, Professor Eyo Ita left the NCNC to form a new political party called the National Independence Party which was one of the five Nigerian political parties represented at the conferences on Nigerian Constitution and Independence. In 1961, another major crisis occurred when

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4420-399: The delicate balance of the region's ecosystems. They impact both the environment and the livelihoods of the communities that depend on its resources. Two spills in 2008 and 2009 have been the largest and most harmful by far, collectively lasting for almost 150 days and causing flora death over a span of 393 km2. The extensive network of tidal rivers and mangrove swamps makes it even easier for

4505-452: The ecological damage. The exact impact of spills like these is hard to know due to the fact that traditional field studies are nearly impossible in this region. However, techniques such as the normalized difference vegetation index have been successful in measuring the impact of oil spills on the river's plant health. Additionally, independently collected field samples have confirmed the presence of hydrocarbon pollutants in high concentrations in

4590-523: The economic benefits, Non-governmental organisations (NGOs), such as Nature Tropicale , claim biofuels will compete with domestic food production in some existing prime agricultural sites. Other areas comprise peat land , whose drainage would have a deleterious environmental impact . They are also concerned genetically modified plants will be introduced into the region, jeopardizing the current premium paid for their non-GM crops. According to recent article by National Geographic , most palm oil in Benin

4675-599: The environment. Even in low amounts, prolonged exposure can cause serious health issues such as cancer and other chronic illnesses. In general, the harmful pollutants emitted from oil spills and other pollution include cancer, metabolic syndrome, miscarriages, stillbirths, and infertility. Less deadly, but still serious, health problems include headache, watery eyes, sore throat, respiratory problems, itchy skin, rashes on face and neck, sneezing, coughing, nausea, dizziness, chest pain, and diarrhea are common issues caused from oil spills. Collectively, more than 1 million people live in

4760-414: The fleshy mesocarp enclosing a kernel that is covered by a very hard shell. The FAO considers palm oil (coming from the pulp) and palm kernels to be primary products. The oil extraction rate from a bunch varies from 17 to 27% for palm oil, and from 4 to 10% for palm kernels. Along with coconut oil, palm oil is one of the few highly saturated vegetable fats and is semisolid at room temperature. Palm oil

4845-420: The foaming agent in nearly every soap, shampoo, or detergent. Around 70% of personal care products including soap, shampoo, makeup, and lotion, contain ingredients derived from palm oil. However, there are more than 200 different names for these palm oil ingredients and only 10% of them include the word "palm". Palm oil is used to produce both methyl ester and hydrodeoxygenated biodiesel . Palm oil methyl ester

4930-543: The growth of palm oil plantations in tropical countries. The use of palm oil has attracted the concern of environmental and human right groups . The palm oil industry is a significant contributor to deforestation in the tropics where palms are grown and has been cited as a factor in social problems due to allegations of human rights violations among growers. In 2018, a report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature acknowledged that palm oil

5015-445: The impacted areas. Oil and gas pollution/spills greatly increase the possibility of human exposure to dangerous chemicals. Many components of crude oil are particularly concerning due to their link to the health problems caused by exposure. This includes organic contaminants such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene, as well as heavy metals such as lead, vanadium and cadmium. In fact, according to

5100-804: The indigenous people inhabiting the land, resulting in social conflict. The use of illegal immigrants in Malaysia has also raised concerns about working conditions within the palm oil industry. Some social initiatives use palm oil cultivation as part of poverty alleviation strategies. Examples include the UN Food and Agriculture Organisation's hybrid oil palm project in Western Kenya, which improves incomes and diets of local populations, and Malaysia's Federal Land Development Authority and Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authority, which both support rural development. The use of palm oil in

5185-719: The industry. In much of the Niger Delta , palm oil is commonoly referred to as "red oil" (or red gold) to distinguish it from the "black oil" ( crude oil ) which dominates production. Thailand is the world's third largest producer of crude palm oil, producing 3.6 million tonnes in 2023-24. Nearly all of Thai production is consumed locally. Almost 85% of palm plantations and extraction mills are in south Thailand. At year-end 2016, 4.7 to 5.8 million rai (750,000 to 930,000 hectares; 1,900,000 to 2,300,000 acres) were planted in oil palms, employing 300,000 farmers, mostly on small landholdings of 20 rai (3.2 hectares; 7.9 acres). ASEAN as

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5270-588: The inhabitants of the political Niger Delta, speaking about 250 different dialects. Language groups spoken in the Niger Delta include the Igbo languages , Ijaw languages , Ibibio-Efik languages , Urhobo language , Isoko language , Edoid languages . The area was the British Oil Rivers Protectorate from 1885 until 1893 when it was expanded and became the Niger Coast Protectorate. The core Niger Delta later became

5355-431: The lacking of enforcement on laws meant to protect indigenous lands. In countries such as Guatemala, palm oil plantations have significant leverage within the local justice system, leading local police to disregard land claims, going as far as using force to break up protests, and even murdering local leaders. While only 5% of the world's vegetable oil farmland is used for palm plantations, palm cultivation produces 38% of

5440-461: The late 1800s, archaeologists discovered a substance that they concluded was originally palm oil in a tomb at Abydos dating back to 3,000 BCE. Palm oil from Elaeis guineensis has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, used widely as a cooking oil . European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe. Palm oil became

5525-456: The local communities to deal with the negative effects caused by foreign oil exploration. The people affected by oil spills in the Niger Delta are diverse communities residing in the region. Their lives are intricately connected to the natural environment. These communities, often made up of indigenous groups, rely on the Niger Delta's resources for their food, water, livelihoods, and cultural practices. The impact of oil spills on these communities

5610-438: The natural environment, including deforestation , loss of natural habitats, and greenhouse gas emissions which have threatened critically endangered species , such as the orangutan and Sumatran tiger . Slash-and-burn techniques are still used to create new plantations across palm oil producing countries. From January to September 2019, 857,000 hectares of land was burned in Indonesia; peatlands accounted for more than

5695-433: The oil to spread quickly, and the delta becomes a sink, trapping the oil that is not removed. The spills came from a pipeline operated by Shell Petroleum Development Company. In addition to smaller spills that took place over the years 2006–2019, it is estimated that a total of 92,479,170 liters (or 24430412.139 gallons) of crude oil were released into the studied area. Since then, following spills have continued to exacerbate

5780-570: The percentage of the revenue oil-producing states retain from taxes on oil and other natural resources produced in the state. World Bank Report The documentary film Sweet Crude , which premiered April 2009 at the Full Frame Documentary Film Festival, tells the story of Nigeria's Niger Delta. The Niger Delta is a region of unparalleled ecological richness, characterized by its intricate network of waterways, lush mangrove forests, and diverse ecosystems. However,

5865-575: The price of crude palm oil and refined palm oil Thai farmers have a relatively low yield compared to those in Malaysia and Indonesia. Thai palm oil crops yield 4–17% oil compared to around 20% in competing countries. In addition, Indonesian and Malaysian oil palm plantations are 10 times the size of Thai plantations. Palm is native to the wetlands of western Africa, and south Benin already hosts many palm plantations. Its 'Agricultural Revival Programme' has identified many thousands of hectares of land as suitable for new oil palm export plantations. In spite of

5950-485: The primary corporation operating in the region, were taken hostage by local people. Such activities have also resulted in greater governmental intervention in the area and the mobilization of the Nigerian Army and State Security Service into the region, resulting in violence and human rights abuses. In April 2006, a bomb exploded near an oil refinery in the Niger Delta region, a warning against Chinese expansion in

6035-486: The production of biodiesel has led to concerns that the need for fuel is being placed ahead of the need for food, leading to malnutrition in developing nations. This is known as the food versus fuel debate. According to a 2008 report published in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , palm oil was determined to be a sustainable source of both food and biofuel, and the production of palm oil biodiesel does not pose

6120-614: The project was halted, Herakles left the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil early in negotiations. The project has been controversial due to opposition from villagers and the location of the project in a sensitive region for biodiversity. In 2018, total palm oil production in Colombia reached 1.6 million metric tons (1.8 million short tons), representing some 8% of national agricultural GDP and benefiting mainly smallholders (65% of Colombia's palm oil sector). According to

6205-541: The region, despite all the oil wealth created. They also complained about environmental pollution and the destruction of their land and rivers by foreign oil companies. Ken Saro Wiwa and nine other oil activists from Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) were arrested and killed under Sani Abacha in 1995. When long-held concerns about loss of control over resources to the oil companies were voiced by

6290-674: The region. The Niger Delta and the South-South geopolitical zone (which contains six of the states in the Niger Delta) are two different entities. The Niger Delta separates the Bight of Benin from the Bight of Bonny within the larger Gulf of Guinea . Some 31 million people of more than 40 ethnic groups including the Igbo , Ijaw , Ibibio , Urhobo , Annang , Oron , Efik , Ogoni , Abua , Bini , Esan , Isoko , Kalabari , Okrika , Epie-Atissa people and Obolo people , are among

6375-642: The region. The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) stated: "We wish to warn the Chinese government and its oil companies to steer well clear of the Niger Delta. The Chinese government, by investing in stolen crude, places its citizens in our line of fire." Government and private initiatives to develop the Niger Delta region have been introduced recently. These include the Niger Delta Development Commission,

6460-663: The ruling military junta, the State Peace and Development Council , initiated the large-scale development of such plantations, especially in Tanintharyi, the southernmost region of Myanmar. As of 2019, over 401,814 ha of palm oil concessions have been awarded to 44 companies. 60% of the awarded concessions consist of forests and native vegetation, and some concessions overlap with national parks, including Tanintharyi and Lenya National Parks , which have seen deforestation and threaten conservation efforts for endemic species like

6545-455: The serene beauty of this landscape has been damaged by a persistent environmental menace, oil spills. Over the years, the Niger Delta has experienced a series of devastating oil spills, primarily caused by industrial activities related to the extraction and transportation of oil and gas. Due to this high amount of spills, the Niger Delta is considered one of the most polluted areas on Earth. These spills have inflicted severe and continuous damage on

6630-608: The source and/or key aggravating factors of numerous environmental movements and inter-ethnic conflicts in the region, including recent guerrilla activity by MEND. In September 2012 Eland Oil & Gas purchased a 45% interest in OML 40, with its partner Starcrest Energy Nigeria Limited, from the Shell Group. They intend to recommission the existing infrastructure and restart existing wells to re-commence production at an initial gross rate of 2,500 barrels (400 m) of oil per day with

6715-464: The then-eastern region of Nigeria allowed present-day southwestern Cameroon to separate from Nigeria (from the region of what is now Akwa Ibom and Cross River states) through a plebiscite while the leadership of the Northern Region took the necessary steps to keep northwestern Cameroon in Nigeria, in present-day Adamawa and Taraba states. The aftermath of the 1961 plebiscite has led to

6800-757: The western section of coastal South-South Nigeria which includes Delta, and the southernmost parts of Edo, and Ondo States. The western (or Northern) Niger Delta is a heterogeneous society with several ethnic groups including the Urhobo , Isoko , Ijaw (or Izon) and Ukwuani , Itsekiri the Bini , Esan , Auchi, Esako, oral, and Afenmai in Edo State; and the Ilaje Yoruba in Ondo State. Their livelihoods are primarily based on fishing and farming. History has it that

6885-534: The world due to extreme weather caused by climate change , the Indonesian government banned exports of palm oil. This combined with a reduced harvest in Malaysia greatly increased global prices, while reducing availability causing ripple effects in the global supply chain. On 23 May 2022, the Indonesian government reopened trading hoping to balance supplies. Indonesia is the world's largest producer of palm oil, producing 44 million tonnes in 2023-24. Malaysia

6970-438: The world's total vegetable oil supply. In terms of oil yield, a palm plantation is 10 times more productive than soybean , sunflower or rapeseed cultivation because the palm fruit and kernel both provide usable oil. Palm oil has garnered criticism from environmentalists due to the environmental importance of where it is grown. However, it is indisputably more efficient in comparison to other oil-producing plants. In 2016, it

7055-539: Was expelled from office by the majority Igbo tribe of the Old Eastern region. Ita, an Efik man from Calabar , was one of the pioneer nationalists for Nigerian independence. The minorities in the region, the Ibibio , Annang , Efik , Ijaw and Ogoja , were situated along the southeastern coast and in the delta region and demanded a state of their own, the Calabar-Ogoja-Rivers (COR) state. The struggle for

7140-526: Was found that palm oil farms produce around 4.17 metric tons of oil per hectare. By contrast other oils, such as sunflower, soybean, or peanut only produce 0.56, 0.39, and 0.16 metric tons respectively per hectare. Palm oil is the most sustainable vegetable oil in terms of yield, requiring one-ninth of land used by other vegetable oil crops. In the future, laboratory-grown microbes might achieve higher yields per unit of land at comparable prices. However, palm oil cultivation has been criticized for its impact on

7225-491: Was later divided into Rivers State and Bayelsa State. Niger Delta people suffered heavily with the great loss of lives and properties, hunger and starvation, and sustained many deaths during 1967–1970 Nigerian Civil War , also known as the Biafran War, in which the eastern region declared an independent state named Biafra that was eventually defeated. During this period, schools were shut down completely, and gunfire became

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