100-533: The Hawker Siddeley Nimrod R1 is a signals intelligence (reconnaissance) aircraft formerly operated by the Royal Air Force . The aircraft was a conversion of the existing Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft , with all of the previous avionics and armament (optimised for anti-submarine warfare , anti-ship warfare , and search and rescue ) replaced by equipment for gathering communications and electronic intelligence. In 1958, 192 Squadron took delivery of
200-426: A central point, or perhaps to a distributed system in which all participate, such that the information can be correlated and a location computed. Modern SIGINT systems, therefore, have substantial communications among intercept platforms. Even if some platforms are clandestine, there is still a broadcast of information telling them where and how to look for signals. A United States targeting system under development in
300-555: A certain sense more a prison-house of nations than the old Empire had ever been." Another view sees the Soviet empire as constituting an "informal empire" over nominally sovereign states in the Warsaw Pact due to Soviet pressure and military presence. The Soviet informal empire depended on subsidies from Moscow. The informal empire in the wider Warsaw Pact also included linkages between Communist Parties. Some historians consider
400-472: A confirmation, followed by observation of artillery fire, may identify an automated counterbattery fire system. A radio signal that triggers navigational beacons could be a radio landing aid for an airstrip or helicopter pad that is intended to be low-profile. Patterns do emerge. A radio signal with certain characteristics, originating from a fixed headquarters, may strongly suggest that a particular unit will soon move out of its regular base. The contents of
500-623: A consequence of this, in 1967, Burke Trend , the Cabinet Secretary , recommended that the aircraft be declared part of the United Kingdom's nuclear weapons programme , using the rationale that the intelligence gathered by the aircraft would be used to providing data for targeting. This allowed the cost to become part of the overall budget for RAF Strike Command , tying SIGINT in with the RAF's operations of nuclear weapons. In 1969,
600-458: A different ECCM way to identify frequencies not being jammed or not in use. The earliest, and still common, means of direction finding is to use directional antennas as goniometers , so that a line can be drawn from the receiver through the position of the signal of interest. (See HF/DF .) Knowing the compass bearing, from a single point, to the transmitter does not locate it. Where the bearings from multiple points, using goniometry, are plotted on
700-724: A group of countries which would rally to its cause in the event of an attack from Western countries, and support it in the context of the Cold War. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Russian Federation was recognized as its successor state, inheriting $ 103 billion of Soviet foreign debt and $ 140 billion of Soviet assets abroad. Economic expansion did, however, play a significant role in Soviet motivation to spread influence in its satellite territories. These new territories would ensure an increase in
800-471: A hardline communist viewpoint, reformist socialist critics of Soviet imperialism, such as Josip Broz Tito and Milovan Djilas , have referred the Stalinist USSR 's foreign policies, such as the occupation and economic exploitations of Eastern Europe and its aggressive and hostile policy towards Yugoslavia as Soviet imperialism. Another dimension of Soviet imperialism is cultural imperialism ,
900-435: A hegemonic role. Wendt argued that a "hegemonic ideology" could continue to motivate actions after the original incentives were removed, and argued this explains the "zeal of East German Politburo members who chose not to defend themselves against trumped-up charges during the 1950s purges." Analyzing the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Koslowski and Kratochwil argued that a postwar Soviet "formal empire" represented by
1000-545: A hierarchy of political and economic dependence between neighboring states and the USSR. During the Brezhnev era, the policy of " Developed Socialism " declared the Soviet Union to be the most complete socialist country—other countries were "socialist", but the USSR was " developed socialist"—explaining its dominant role and hegemony over the other socialist countries. This and the interventionist Brezhnev Doctrine , permitting
1100-640: A lower level, German cryptanalysis, direction finding, and traffic analysis were vital to Rommel's early successes in the Western Desert Campaign until British forces tightened their communications discipline and Australian raiders destroyed his principle SIGINT Company. The United States Department of Defense has defined the term "signals intelligence" as: Being a broad field, SIGINT has many sub-disciplines. The two main ones are communications intelligence (COMINT) and electronic intelligence (ELINT). A collection system has to know to look for
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#17327796297341200-407: A map, the transmitter will be located at the point where the bearings intersect. This is the simplest case; a target may try to confuse listeners by having multiple transmitters, giving the same signal from different locations, switching on and off in a pattern known to their user but apparently random to the listener. Individual directional antennas have to be manually or automatically turned to find
1300-724: A more multinational-oriented Soviet Union emphasizing its socialist initiatives, such as Ian Bremmer , who describes a "matryoshka-nationalism" where a pan-Soviet nationalism included other nationalisms. Eric Hobsbawn argued that the Soviet Union had effectively designed nations by drawing borders. Dmitri Trenin wrote that by 1980, the Soviet Union had formed both a formal and informal empire. The informal empire would have included Soviet economic investments, military occupation , and covert action in Soviet-aligned countries. The studies of informal empire have included Soviet influence on East Germany and 1930s Xinjiang . From
1400-469: A pair of Comet R2 aircraft, converted for use in the signals intelligence (SIGINT) gathering role, to replace the Avro Lincoln and Boeing Washington aircraft being used in the role. At the same time, the squadron was renumbered as 51 Squadron . Almost as soon as the aircraft entered service, attention was placed on working on the specifications for a replacement aircraft, as it was envisaged that
1500-648: A particular signal. "System", in this context, has several nuances. Targeting is the process of developing collection requirements : First, atmospheric conditions, sunspots , the target's transmission schedule and antenna characteristics, and other factors create uncertainty that a given signal intercept sensor will be able to "hear" the signal of interest, even with a geographically fixed target and an opponent making no attempt to evade interception. Basic countermeasures against interception include frequent changing of radio frequency , polarization , and other transmission characteristics. An intercept aircraft could not get off
1600-515: A peace-time codebreaking agency should be created. The Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS) was the first peace-time codebreaking agency, with a public function "to advise as to the security of codes and cyphers used by all Government departments and to assist in their provision", but also with a secret directive to "study the methods of cypher communications used by foreign powers". GC&CS officially formed on 1 November 1919, and produced its first decrypt on 19 October. By 1940, GC&CS
1700-523: A precise picture of the normal operation of the High Seas Fleet , to infer from the routes they chose where defensive minefields had been placed and where it was safe for ships to operate. Whenever a change to the normal pattern was seen, it immediately signalled that some operation was about to take place, and a warning could be given. Detailed information about submarine movements was also available. The use of radio-receiving equipment to pinpoint
1800-401: A radar is operating. Once the radar is known to be in the area, the next step is to find its location. If operators know the probable frequencies of transmissions of interest, they may use a set of receivers, preset to the frequencies of interest. These are the frequency (horizontal axis) versus power (vertical axis) produced at the transmitter, before any filtering of signals that do not add to
1900-701: A revolutionary state. Academically the idea is seen as emerging with Richard Pipes ' 1957 book The Formation of the Soviet Union: Communism and Nationalism, 1917–1923 ; it has been reinforced, along with several other views, in continuing scholarship. Several scholars hold that the Soviet Union was a hybrid entity containing elements common to both multinational empires and nation states . The Soviet Union practiced colonialism similar to conventional imperial powers. The Soviets pursued internal colonialism in Central Asia . For example,
2000-401: A safe distance from the user of the transmitter. When locations are known, usage patterns may emerge, from which inferences may be drawn. Traffic analysis is the discipline of drawing patterns from information flow among a set of senders and receivers, whether those senders and receivers are designated by location determined through direction finding , by addressee and sender identifications in
2100-404: A sensor is unique. MASINT then becomes more informative, as individual transmitters and antennas may have unique side lobes, unintentional radiation, pulse timing, etc. Network build-up , or analysis of emitters (communication transmitters) in a target region over a sufficient period of time, enables creation of the communications flows of a battlefield. COMINT ( com munications int elligence)
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#17327796297342200-426: A tactical SIGINT requirement, whereas the larger aircraft tend to be assigned strategic/national missions. Before the detailed process of targeting begins, someone has to decide there is a value in collecting information about something. While it would be possible to direct signals intelligence collection at a major sports event, the systems would capture a great deal of noise, news signals, and perhaps announcements in
2300-478: A tank battalion or tank-heavy task force. Another set of transmitters might identify the logistic net for that same unit. An inventory of ELINT sources might identify the medium - and long-range counter-artillery radars in a given area. Signals intelligence units will identify changes in the EOB, which might indicate enemy unit movement, changes in command relationships, and increases or decreases in capability. Using
2400-497: A total of three Nimrods were ordered for conversion to SIGINT aircraft, which were designated as R1 to differentiate them from the MR1 maritime reconnaissance version. Three airframes were constructed as part of the overall Nimrod production line before being delivered to the RAF with no equipment fitted. This was owing to the highly secret nature of the equipment intended for use on the aircraft - instead, they were fitted out at RAF Wyton ,
2500-699: A variant of the Boeing 707 (which the USAF had at the time ordered as the RC-135 ), the cheapest option was decided to be a variant of the Nimrod maritime patrol aircraft then in development for the Royal Air Force. Although the Nimrod option was identified as the cheapest, the cost of procuring and modifying three aircraft was still estimated at £14m, a significant proportion of the budget for SIGINT operations. As
2600-411: A vehicle. If these are regular reports over a period of time, they might reveal a patrol pattern. Direction-finding and radio frequency MASINT could help confirm that the traffic is not deception. The EOB buildup process is divided as following: Separation of the intercepted spectrum and the signals intercepted from each sensor must take place in an extremely small period of time, in order to separate
2700-548: A wideband, digital direction-finder; a cluster of digital intercept receivers; and in-flight analysis equipment, including a recording and playback suite, multi-channel digital data demodulator, and pulsed signal processing. Of the four Nimrod R1s constructed in total, two have survived and are on public display: Of the remaining two, the nose of XW665 was transported for display to the Auto & Technik Museum in Sinsheim , while
2800-472: A wider sense, the term refers to Soviet foreign policy during the Cold War, which has been characterized as imperialist : the countries that comprised the Soviet empire were nominally independent with native governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet government . These limits were enforced by the threat of forceful regime change and/or by
2900-578: Is Amplitude comparison . An alternative to tunable directional antennas or large omnidirectional arrays such as the Wullenweber is to measure the time of arrival of the signal at multiple points, using GPS or a similar method to have precise time synchronization. Receivers can be on ground stations, ships, aircraft, or satellites, giving great flexibility. A more accurate approach is Interferometer. Modern anti-radiation missiles can home in on and attack transmitters; military antennas are rarely
3000-417: Is a sub-category of signals intelligence that engages in dealing with messages or voice information derived from the interception of foreign communications. COMINT is commonly referred to as SIGINT, which can cause confusion when talking about the broader intelligence disciplines. The US Joint Chiefs of Staff defines it as "Technical information and intelligence derived from foreign communications by other than
3100-415: Is acquired by a given country. Knowledge of physics and electronic engineering further narrows the problem of what types of equipment might be in use. An intelligence aircraft flying well outside the borders of another country will listen for long-range search radars, not short-range fire control radars that would be used by a mobile air defense. Soldiers scouting the front lines of another army know that
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3200-543: Is in the general area of the signal. The owner of the transmitter can assume someone is listening, so might set up tank radios in an area where he wants the other side to believe he has actual tanks. As part of Operation Quicksilver , part of the deception plan for the invasion of Europe at the Battle of Normandy , radio transmissions simulated the headquarters and subordinate units of the fictitious First United States Army Group (FUSAG), commanded by George S. Patton , to make
3300-511: Is usually encrypted , signals intelligence may necessarily involve cryptanalysis (to decipher the messages). Traffic analysis —the study of who is signaling to whom and in what quantity—is also used to integrate information, and it may complement cryptanalysis. Electronic interceptions appeared as early as 1900, during the Boer War of 1899–1902. The British Royal Navy had installed wireless sets produced by Marconi on board their ships in
3400-510: The Admiralty ; Room 40 . An interception service known as 'Y' service , together with the post office and Marconi stations, grew rapidly to the point where the British could intercept almost all official German messages. The German fleet was in the habit each day of wirelessing the exact position of each ship and giving regular position reports when at sea. It was possible to build up
3500-527: The Battle of Jutland as the British fleet was sent out to intercept them. The direction-finding capability allowed for the tracking and location of German ships, submarines, and Zeppelins . The system was so successful that by the end of the war, over 80 million words, comprising the totality of German wireless transmission over the course of the war, had been intercepted by the operators of the Y-stations and decrypted. However, its most astonishing success
3600-707: The Moscow Peace Treaty was signed on 12 March 1940, with hostilities ending the following day. Finland would re-enter the Second World War when they invaded the Soviet Union alongside Germany in late June 1941. Finland reclaimed all territory lost in the Winter War, and would proceed to occupy additional territory in East Karelia . The Soviet Vyborg–Petrozavodsk offensive of 1944 pushed Finland out of this territory, but Finland halted
3700-640: The Red Army . Later, the territories occupied by the Russian SFSR and the USSR were Sovietized. Mongolia was invaded by the Soviet Union and Sovietized in the 1920s after it became a Soviet satellite state, and after the end of the Second World War , Sovietization took place in the countries of the Soviet Bloc ( Eastern and Central Europe : Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland,
3800-716: The Russian Army ’s advance early in World War I and led to their disastrous defeat by the Germans under Ludendorff and Hindenburg at the Battle of Tannenberg . In 1918, French intercept personnel captured a message written in the new ADFGVX cipher , which was cryptanalyzed by Georges Painvin . This gave the Allies advance warning of the German 1918 Spring Offensive . The British in particular, built up great expertise in
3900-536: The Sovietization of culture and education at the expense of local traditions. Leonid Brezhnev continued a policy of cultural Russification as part of Developed Socialism , which sought to assert more central control. Seweryn Bialer argued that the Soviet state had an imperial nationalism. A notable wave of Sovietization occurred during the Russian Civil War in the territories captured by
4000-688: The Supreme Soviet of Russia declared the Stalinist mass deportations to be a "policy of defamation and genocide". The historical relationship between Russia (the dominant republic in the Soviet Union) and these Eastern European countries helps explain their longing to eradicate the remnants of Soviet culture. Poland and the Baltic states epitomize the Soviet attempt to build uniform cultures and political systems. According to Dag Noren, Russia
4100-778: The 1919 Karakhan Manifesto to 1927, diplomats of the Soviet Union would promise to revoke concessions in China, but the Soviets secretly kept tsarist concessions such as the Chinese Eastern Railway , as well as consulates, barracks, and churches. After the Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) , the Soviet Union regained the Russian Empire 's concession of the Chinese Eastern Railway and held it until its return to China in 1952 . Alexander Wendt suggested that by
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4200-578: The Baltic states etc.). In a broad sense, it included the involuntary creation of Soviet-style authorities, imitation of elections held under the control of the Bolsheviks with the removal of opposition candidates, nationalization of land and property, repression against representatives of " class enemies " ( kulaks , or osadniks , for instance). Mass executions and imprisoning in Gulag labor camps and exile settlements often accompany that process. This
4300-548: The COMINT gathering method enables the intelligence officer to produce an electronic order of battle by traffic analysis and content analysis among several enemy units. For example, if the following messages were intercepted: This sequence shows that there are two units in the battlefield, unit 1 is mobile, while unit 2 is in a higher hierarchical level, perhaps a command post. One can also understand that unit 1 moved from one point to another which are distant from each 20 minutes with
4400-559: The Comet would reach the end of its useful life by the early 1970s. The decision to proceed with a new SIGINT aircraft was taken in 1964 by the London Signals Intelligence Committee, which determined that the usefulness of retaining an airborne intelligence gathering capability justified the significant cost of replacing the Comet. In comparing the cost of potential aircraft to undertake this role, including
4500-438: The German defense think that the main invasion was to come at another location. In like manner, fake radio transmissions from Japanese aircraft carriers, before the Battle of Pearl Harbor , were made from Japanese local waters, while the attacking ships moved under strict radio silence. Traffic analysis need not focus on human communications. For example, a sequence of a radar signal, followed by an exchange of targeting data and
4600-663: The MR2 began just over a month after the crash, with work completed and the aircraft accepted by the RAF in April 1997. The Nimrod R1 fleet, owing to its significantly reduced level of usage compared to the MR2, was originally intended to remain in service for an extended period into the 2010s, with a major systems upgrade codenamed Project HELIX . This would have seen the aircraft's own systems, ground stations and training facilities improved, with work starting in 2007. However, in October 2008,
4700-564: The Nimrod in a war situation, as provided by GCHQ , the UK's main SIGINT organisation, and the major consumer of the intelligence gathered by the Nimrod, was to assume the duties of the ground-based SIGINT units based in Berlin , which, it was expected, would be overrun. The intention was for the Nimrod to fly approximately 50 miles from the forward edge of battle area , collecting intelligence and, with
4800-515: The Nimrod intended to be withdrawn immediately. This was postponed due to the requirement for SIGINT during Operation Ellamy . The Nimrod was finally withdrawn from service in June 2011. The Nimrod R1 was primarily based around the standard Nimrod MR1 airframe, with the only significant visual differences being the absence of the MAD boom projection from the aircraft's tail, and the presence of radomes on
4900-599: The Russian fleet prepared for conflict with Japan in 1904, the British ship HMS Diana stationed in the Suez Canal intercepted Russian naval wireless signals being sent out for the mobilization of the fleet, for the first time in history. Over the course of the First World War , a new method of signals intelligence reached maturity. Russia’s failure to properly protect its communications fatally compromised
5000-493: The Soviet Union , deporting people (often entire nationalities) to underpopulated remote areas, with their place being taken mostly by ethnic Russians and Ukrainians . The policy officially ended in the Khrushchev era , with some of the nationalities allowed to return in 1957. However, Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev refused the right of return for Crimean Tatars , Russian Germans and Meskhetian Turks . In 1991,
5100-494: The Soviet Union eventually stopped for various reasons and in some cases the pro-Soviet government lost power while in other cases the same government remained in power, but ultimately ended its alliance with the Soviet Union. Some communist states were opposed to the Soviet Union and criticized many of its policies. Although they may have had many similarities to the USSR on domestic issues, they were not considered Soviet allies in international politics. Relations between them and
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#17327796297345200-550: The Soviet Union from attacks through its territory, which in practice prevented Finland from joining NATO , and effectively gave the Soviet Union a veto in Finnish foreign policy. Thus, the Soviet Union could exercise "imperial" hegemonic power even towards a neutral state. Under the Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine , Finland sought to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union, and extensive bilateral trade developed. In
5300-492: The Soviet Union were often tense, sometimes even to the point of armed conflict. The position of Finland was complex. The Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, launching the Winter War . The Soviets intended to install their Finnish Democratic Republic puppet government into Helsinki and annex Finland into the Soviet Union. Fierce Finnish resistance prevented the Soviets from achieving this objective, and
5400-404: The Soviet Union. Although the Soviet Union was not ruled by an emperor, and declared itself anti-imperialist and a people's democracy , it exhibited tendencies common to historic empires. The notion of "Soviet empire" often refers to a form of "classic" or "colonial" empire with communism only replacing conventional imperial ideologies such as Christianity or monarchy , rather than creating
5500-402: The Soviet fall in 1991. By contrast "Austrianization" would have been a realist model of great power politics by which the Soviets would have hypothetically relied on Western guarantees to keep an artificial Soviet sphere of influence. The speed of reform in the 1989 to 1991 period made both a repeat of Finlandization and Austrianization impossible for the Soviet Union. These countries were
5600-675: The UK Government made a request into the possibility of procuring new aircraft for the SIGINT mission, specifically the RC-135 Rivet Joint , under a new project codenamed Airseeker . In 2009, with the plan for the Rivet Joint making progress, one of 51 Squadron's three Nimrods was withdrawn from service to be used as a spares source for the remaining two. The purchase of three RC-135 aircraft was confirmed in March 2010, with
5700-550: The Warsaw Pact, with Soviet military role and control over of member states' foreign relations, had evolved into an informal suzerainty or "Ottomanization" from the late 1970s to 1989. With Gorbachev 's relinquishing of the Brezhnev Doctrine in 1989, the informal empire reduced in pressure to a more conventional sphere of influence, resembling Finlandization but applied to the erstwhile East Bloc states, until
5800-453: The actual information is at 800 kHz and 1.2 MHz. Real-world transmitters and receivers usually are directional. In the figure to the left, assume that each display is connected to a spectrum analyzer connected to a directional antenna aimed in the indicated direction. Spread-spectrum communications is an electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) technique to defeat looking for particular frequencies. Spectrum analysis can be used in
5900-506: The broader organizational order of battle . EOB covers both COMINT and ELINT. The Defense Intelligence Agency maintains an EOB by location. The Joint Spectrum Center (JSC) of the Defense Information Systems Agency supplements this location database with five more technical databases: For example, several voice transmitters might be identified as the command net (i.e., top commander and direct reports) in
6000-608: The closest allies of the Soviet Union and were also members of the Comecon , a Soviet-led economic community founded in 1949. The members of the Warsaw Pact , sometimes called the Eastern Bloc , were widely viewed as Soviet satellite states . These countries were occupied (or formerly occupied) by the Red Army, and their politics, military, foreign and domestic policies were dominated by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact included
6100-446: The decision to target is made, the various interception points need to cooperate, since resources are limited. Knowing what interception equipment to use becomes easier when a target country buys its radars and radios from known manufacturers, or is given them as military aid . National intelligence services keep libraries of devices manufactured by their own country and others, and then use a variety of techniques to learn what equipment
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#17327796297346200-469: The different signals to different transmitters in the battlefield. The complexity of the separation process depends on the complexity of the transmission methods (e.g., hopping or time-division multiple access (TDMA)). By gathering and clustering data from each sensor, the measurements of the direction of signals can be optimized and get much more accurate than the basic measurements of a standard direction finding sensor. By calculating larger samples of
6300-599: The end of the Cold War , the RAF became more open about the role of 51 Squadron and the Nimrod R1, particularly when the unit moved from RAF Wyton to RAF Waddington , co-locating the bulk of its ISTAR assets. The aircraft undertook its mission in various post-Cold War operations, including the Former Yugoslavia, Iraq and Afghanistan. On 16 May 1995, on a test following a major service at RAF Kinloss , one of
6400-643: The following states: In addition to having a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council , the Soviet Union had two of its union republics in the United Nations General Assembly : These countries were Marxist-Leninist states who were allied with the Soviet Union, but were not part of the Warsaw Pact. Some countries in the Third World had pro-Soviet governments during the Cold War. In
6500-400: The front of the external wing fuel tanks and on the tailcone. The bulk of the aircraft's detection equipment was installed in the weapons bay, with a total crew of 25, plus five flight crew. The exact nature of the aircraft's intelligence gathering equipment was highly classified, with very little detail released. The first time that the interior of the aircraft was permitted to be photographed
6600-512: The fronts, that we won the war!" Supreme Allied Commander, Dwight D. Eisenhower , at the end of the war, described Ultra as having been "decisive" to Allied victory. Official historian of British Intelligence in World War II Sir Harry Hinsley argued that Ultra shortened the war "by not less than two years and probably by four years"; and that, in the absence of Ultra, it is uncertain how the war would have ended. At
6700-510: The global wealth which the Soviet Union would have a grasp on. Soviet officials from the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic intertwined this economic opportunity with a potential for migration. They saw in these Eastern European countries the potential of a great workforce. They offered a welcome to them upon the only condition that they work hard and achieve social success. This ideology
6800-420: The ground if it had to carry antennas and receivers for every possible frequency and signal type to deal with such countermeasures. Second, locating the transmitter's position is usually part of SIGINT. Triangulation and more sophisticated radio location techniques, such as time of arrival methods, require multiple receiving points at different locations. These receivers send location-relevant information to
6900-685: The home base of 51 Squadron. The first aircraft was delivered in July 1971, and was eventually completed more than two years later, making its first training flight in 21 October 1973, before being formally accepted into service in May 1974. The acceptance of the two remaining aircraft in late 1974 allowed for the withdrawal of the Comets and supporting Canberras . The secrecy of the Nimrod's intended missions led to them being described as "radar calibration" aircraft from their entry into service. The major rationale for
7000-448: The information being transmitted. Received energy on a particular frequency may start a recorder, and alert a human to listen to the signals if they are intelligible (i.e., COMINT). If the frequency is not known, the operators may look for power on primary or sideband frequencies using a spectrum analyzer . Information from the spectrum analyzer is then used to tune receivers to signals of interest. For example, in this simplified spectrum,
7100-529: The intended recipients". Soviet Empire The term " Soviet empire " collectively refers to the world's territories that the Soviet Union dominated politically, economically, and militarily. This phenomenon, particularly in the context of the Cold War , is also called Soviet imperialism by Sovietologists to describe the extent of the Soviet Union's hegemony over the Second World . In
7200-411: The invasion of other socialist countries, led to characterisation of the USSR as an empire. Soviet influence in the " socialist-leaning countries " was mainly political and ideological rather than economically exploitative: the Soviet Union pumped enormous amounts of "international assistance" into them in order to secure influence, ultimately to the detriment of its own economy. The Soviet Union sought
7300-541: The late 1890s, and the British Army used some limited wireless signalling. The Boers captured some wireless sets and used them to make vital transmissions. Since the British were the only people transmitting at the time, the British did not need special interpretation of the signals that they were. The birth of signals intelligence in a modern sense dates from the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. As
7400-541: The late 1990s, PSTS, constantly sends out information that helps the interceptors properly aim their antennas and tune their receivers. Larger intercept aircraft, such as the EP-3 or RC-135 , have the on-board capability to do some target analysis and planning, but others, such as the RC-12 GUARDRAIL , are completely under ground direction. GUARDRAIL aircraft are fairly small and usually work in units of three to cover
7500-574: The location of any single transmitter was also developed during the war. Captain H.J. Round , working for Marconi , began carrying out experiments with direction-finding radio equipment for the army in France in 1915. By May 1915, the Admiralty was able to track German submarines crossing the North Sea. Some of these stations also acted as 'Y' stations to collect German messages, but a new section
7600-564: The message need not be known to infer the movement. There is an art as well as science of traffic analysis. Expert analysts develop a sense for what is real and what is deceptive. Harry Kidder , for example, was one of the star cryptanalysts of World War II, a star hidden behind the secret curtain of SIGINT. Generating an electronic order of battle (EOB) requires identifying SIGINT emitters in an area of interest, determining their geographic location or range of mobility, characterizing their signals, and, where possible, determining their role in
7700-410: The message, or even MASINT techniques for "fingerprinting" transmitters or operators. Message content other than the sender and receiver is not necessary to do traffic analysis, although more information can be helpful. For example, if a certain type of radio is known to be used only by tank units, even if the position is not precisely determined by direction finding, it may be assumed that a tank unit
7800-492: The newly emerging field of signals intelligence and codebreaking (synonymous with cryptanalysis). On the declaration of war, Britain cut all German undersea cables. This forced the Germans to communicate exclusively via either (A) a telegraph line that connected through the British network and thus could be tapped; or (B) through radio which the British could then intercept. Rear Admiral Henry Oliver appointed Sir Alfred Ewing to establish an interception and decryption service at
7900-641: The offensive at the Battle of Tali-Ihantala . The Moscow Armistice brought the Continuation War to an end. Finland retained most of its territory and its market economy, trading on the Western markets and ultimately joining the Western currency system . Nevertheless, although Finland was considered neutral, the Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 significantly limited Finnish freedom of operation in foreign policy. It required Finland to defend
8000-461: The other side will be using radios that must be portable and not have huge antennas. Even if a signal is human communications (e.g., a radio), the intelligence collection specialists have to know it exists. If the targeting function described above learns that a country has a radar that operates in a certain frequency range, the first step is to use a sensitive receiver, with one or more antennas that listen in every direction, to find an area where such
8100-491: The political terminology of the Soviet Union, these were " countries moving along the socialist road of development " as opposed to the more advanced "countries of developed socialism " which were mostly located in Eastern Europe, but that also included Cuba and Vietnam. They received some aid, either military or economic , from the Soviet Union and were influenced by it to varying degrees. Sometimes, their support for
8200-711: The salvaged nose of XW666 is at the South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum in Doncaster . Data from General characteristics Performance Avionics Signals intelligence Signals intelligence ( SIGINT ) is the act and field of intelligence-gathering by interception of signals , whether communications between people ( communications intelligence —abbreviated to COMINT ) or from electronic signals not directly used in communication ( electronic intelligence —abbreviated to ELINT ). As classified and sensitive information
8300-417: The sensor's output data in near real-time, together with historical information of signals, better results are achieved. Data fusion correlates data samples from different frequencies from the same sensor, "same" being confirmed by direction finding or radiofrequency MASINT. If an emitter is mobile, direction finding, other than discovering a repetitive pattern of movement, is of limited value in determining if
8400-509: The signal direction, which may be too slow when the signal is of short duration. One alternative is the Wullenweber array technique. In this method, several concentric rings of antenna elements simultaneously receive the signal, so that the best bearing will ideally be clearly on a single antenna or a small set. Wullenweber arrays for high-frequency signals are enormous, referred to as "elephant cages" by their users. A more advance approach
8500-451: The stadium. If, however, an anti-terrorist organization believed that a small group would be trying to coordinate their efforts using short-range unlicensed radios at the event, SIGINT targeting of radios of that type would be reasonable. Targeting would not know where in the stadium the radios might be located or the exact frequency they are using; those are the functions of subsequent steps such as signal detection and direction finding. Once
8600-516: The state's prioritized grain production over livestock in Kyrgyzstan , which favored Slavic settlers over the Kyrgyz natives, thus perpetuating the inequalities of the tsarist colonial era . The Maoists argued that the Soviet Union had itself become an imperialist power while maintaining a socialist façade, or social imperialism . While Maoists criticized post-Stalin USSR's imperialism from
8700-458: The story of Operation SALAM , László Almásy 's mission across the desert behind Allied lines in 1942. Prior to the Normandy landings on D-Day in June 1944, the Allies knew the locations of all but two of Germany's fifty-eight Western Front divisions. Winston Churchill was reported to have told King George VI : "It is thanks to the secret weapon of General Menzies , put into use on all
8800-870: The threat of direct action by the Soviet Armed Forces (and later by the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact ). Major Soviet military interventions of this nature took place in East Germany in 1953 , in Hungary in 1956 , in Czechoslovakia in 1968 , in Poland from 1980 until 1983 , and in Afghanistan from 1979 until 1989 . Countries in the Eastern Bloc were widely regarded as Soviet satellite states rather than as independent allies of
8900-581: The three Nimrod R1s suffered a double engine fire and was forced to ditch in the Moray Firth . Following this, a decision was taken to replace the aircraft. In 1992, four Nimrod MR2 aircraft had been stored as part of the Options for Change defence review. One of these was selected for conversion to an R1, under a project code-named Project Anneka , after the BBC series Challenge Anneka . Conversion work of
9000-552: The time of Stalin's Socialism in one country alignment, socialist internationalism "evolved into an ideology of control rather than revolution under the rubric of socialist internationalism" internally within the Soviet Union. By the start of the Cold War it evolved into a "coded power language" that was once again international, but applied to the Soviet informal empire. At times the USSR signaled toleration of policies of satellite states indirectly, by declaring them consistent or inconsistent with socialist ideology, essentially recreating
9100-522: The use of on-board operators with ground experience and knowledge of the enemy order of battle , transmit the information directly to ground commanders. The main peacetime use of the Nimrod was largely similar; the ability of the Nimrod to make a high speed transit to its operational area, and then loiter for an extended period, meant that missions would usually involve sitting off the edge of the Soviet sphere of influence receiving and recording signals, which would subsequently be analysed by GCHQ. Following
9200-562: The whole of the British forces in World War II came under the code name " Ultra ", managed from Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park . Properly used, the German Enigma and Lorenz ciphers should have been virtually unbreakable, but flaws in German cryptographic procedures, and poor discipline among the personnel carrying them out, created vulnerabilities which made Bletchley's attacks feasible. Bletchley's work
9300-595: Was created within Room 40 to plot the positions of ships from the directional reports. Room 40 played an important role in several naval engagements during the war, notably in detecting major German sorties into the North Sea . The battle of Dogger Bank was won in no small part due to the intercepts that allowed the Navy to position its ships in the right place. It played a vital role in subsequent naval clashes, including at
9400-686: Was essential to defeating the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic , and to the British naval victories in the Battle of Cape Matapan and the Battle of North Cape . In 1941, Ultra exerted a powerful effect on the North African desert campaign against German forces under General Erwin Rommel . General Sir Claude Auchinleck wrote that were it not for Ultra, "Rommel would have certainly got through to Cairo". Ultra decrypts featured prominently in
9500-712: Was in decrypting the Zimmermann Telegram , a telegram from the German Foreign Office sent via Washington to its ambassador Heinrich von Eckardt in Mexico. With the importance of interception and decryption firmly established by the wartime experience, countries established permanent agencies dedicated to this task in the interwar period. In 1919, the British Cabinet's Secret Service Committee, chaired by Lord Curzon , recommended that
9600-453: Was seeking to constitute and reinforce a buffer zone between itself and Western Europe so as to protect itself from potential future attacks from hostile Western European countries. The Soviet Union had lost approximately 20 million people over the course of the Second World War, although Russian sources are keen on further inflating that figure. To prevent a recurrence of such costly warfare, Soviet leaders believed that they needed to establish
9700-485: Was shaped on the model of the meritocratic, 19th-century American foreign policy. Scholars discussing Soviet empire have discussed it as a formal empire or informal empire . In a more formal interpretation of "Soviet empire", this meant absolutism, resembling Lenin's description of the tsarist empire as a " prison of the peoples " except that this "prison of the peoples" had been actualized during Stalin's regime after Lenin's death. Thomas Winderl wrote "The USSR became in
9800-400: Was upon its withdrawal from service in 2011. At this point, it was revealed that the aircraft had a total of 13 side-facing consoles along the length of the main cabin, with three forward facing consoles. In the 1990s, the Nimrod R1 fleet began to be fitted with a major systems package upgrade called Starwindow . Details of this were not confirmed, but believed to feature new search receivers;
9900-425: Was usually promoted and sped up by propaganda aimed at creating a common way of life in all states within the Soviet sphere of influence. In modern history, Sovietization refers to the copying of models of Soviet life (the cult of the leader's personality, collectivist ideology, mandatory participation in propaganda activities, etc.). From the 1930s through the 1950s, Joseph Stalin ordered population transfers in
10000-680: Was working on the diplomatic codes and ciphers of 26 countries, tackling over 150 diplomatic cryptosystems. The US Cipher Bureau was established in 1919 and achieved some success at the Washington Naval Conference in 1921, through cryptanalysis by Herbert Yardley . Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson closed the US Cipher Bureau in 1929 with the words "Gentlemen do not read each other's mail." The use of SIGINT had even greater implications during World War II . The combined effort of intercepts and cryptanalysis for
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