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125-582: In precontact and early post-contact times, the number of tribes was much greater, but the smallpox epidemics and other consequences of contact with Europeans resulted in the disappearance of some groups and the absorption of others into neighbouring groups. The Nuu-chah-nulth are related to the Kwakwaka'wakw , the Haisla , and the Ditidaht First Nation . The Nuu-chah-nulth language belongs to

250-570: A first language since 2002, when its last fluent native speaker died. However, it survives as a second language. The Makah Tribe is also working to revive the language, and has established preschool classes to teach its children. The Makah Tribe owns the Makah Indian Reservation on the northwest tip of the Olympic Peninsula ; it includes Tatoosh Island . They live in and around the town of Neah Bay, Washington ,

375-589: A gray whale on May 17, 1999. According to federal law, the Makah are entitled to hunt and kill one baleen whale, typically a gray whale, each year. Archaeological records and oral history indicate a significant number of humpback whales were historically hunted as well. The Makah had gone over 70 years without catching a whale. The Makah whaling technique is difficult and labor-intensive. The men hunt from cedar canoes , each seating six to nine people and more recently, from small fishing vessels. They take these into

500-477: A White Man takes place in the late 1950s, describing Neah Bay High School through the eyes of a white home economics teacher. French writer Frédéric Roux's novel L'hiver indien (2007) ( Indian Winter , éditions Grasset & Fasquelle) explores the struggle between tradition and modernity for the Makah in northwestern Washington. In the realm of non-fiction, Voices of a Thousand People (2002) by Patricia Pierce Erikson with Helma Ward & Kirk Wachendorf recounts

625-758: A classic captivity narrative about his nearly 3 years with the Nuu-chah-nulth and his reluctant assimilation to their society. This 1815 book is titled Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt;, Only Survivor of the Crew of the Ship Boston, during a Captivity of Nearly Three Years among the Savages of Nootka Sound: With an Account of the Manners, Mode of Living, and Religious Opinions of

750-487: A collapsed state until the 1970s, when they were excavated by the Makah and archaeologists from Washington State University . Over 55,000 artifacts were recovered, representing many activities of the Makah, from whale and seal hunting to salmon and halibut fishing. Artifacts included toys, games, and bows and arrows. Archaeological test pits were excavated at the Ozette site in 1966 and 1967 by Richard Daugherty. However, it

875-690: A collective term of identification. This was the culmination of the 1958 alliance forged among these tribes in order to present a unified political voice to the levels of government and European-Canadian society. In 1985, the Government of British Columbia signed an agreement to delegate authority for the delivery of Child Welfare Services to the Nuu-Chah-Nulth, making the Nuu-Chah-Nulth the first delegated aboriginal agency in British Columbia. The Makah of northwest Washington , located on

1000-408: A disease marked by pustules and boils, saying "the pustules are red, yellow, and white and they are accompanied by burning pain … the skin seems studded with grains of rice." The Indian epidemic was thought to be punishment from a god, and the survivors created a goddess, Sitala , as the anthropomorphic personification of the disease. Smallpox was thus regarded as possession by Sitala. In Hinduism

1125-492: A few examples. Some of the Nuu-chah-nulth nations also tended the growth of camas root and Crabapple trees in order to maintain them as a source of food. Within Nuu-chah-nulth nations individuals passed down their extensive knowledge of when and where to find these marine and land based foods through the generations from elders to youth. This is done both through comprehensive oral histories and through actively teaching children these important skills and having them participate in

1250-461: A grand parade and street fair as well as canoe races, traditional games, singing, dancing, feasting, and fireworks. Many Makah tribal members derive most of their income from fishing. Makah fish for salmon , halibut , Pacific whiting , and other marine fish. This makes them particularly vulnerable to effects of global warming : ocean acidification disrupts the development of the shells of molluscs (the fishes' main food source) and warming waters

1375-494: A gray whale using a .460 caliber rifle, similar to that used in hunting elephants , despite court-imposed regulations governing the Makah hunt. The whale died within 12 hours, sinking while heading out to sea after being confiscated and cut loose by the United States Coast Guard . The tribal council denounced the killing and announced their intention to try the individuals in tribal court. Makah women chew

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1500-471: A great deal of it is consumed during a potlatch . The Makah assert that their right to whaling is guaranteed in the 1855 Treaty of Neah Bay, which states in part: "The right of taking fish and of whaling or sealing at usual and accustomed grounds and stations is further secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the United States." In September 2007, five members of the Makah tribe shot

1625-498: A hiding crew member set fire to the ship's magazine and the resulting explosion killed many First Nation peoples. Only one crew member, a pilot / interpreter hired from the nearby Quinault nation , escaped to tell the tale. From earliest contact with European and American explorers up until 1830, more than 90% of the Nuu-chah-nulth died as a result of infectious disease epidemics , particularly malaria and smallpox . Europeans and Americans were immune to these endemic diseases but

1750-516: A hundred dying from it among Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes area through 1763 and 1764. The effectiveness of the biological warfare itself remains unknown, and the method used is inefficient compared to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are difficult to differentiate from epidemics occurring from previous contacts with colonists, as smallpox outbreaks happened every dozen or so years. In

1875-526: A line is thrown from the canoe with seal skin floats attached, to provide drag to weaken the whale. In the past, a series of smaller lances were used to repeatedly strike the whale, gradually weakening and killing it, often over a period of hours, and in some cases, days. Recently, hunters have adopted use of a big-game rifle after the harpoon strike, to ensure a more efficient kill. The International Whaling Commission permits four cartridges in whaling: .458 Winchester Magnum , .460 Weatherby Magnum , .50 BMG , and

2000-906: A magical attempt by Francisco de Villagra to exterminate them because he could not defeat them in the Arauco War . In 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts , the Native Americans were struck by the virus. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Mohawks in 1634, the Lake Ontario area in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679. A particularly virulent sequence of smallpox outbreaks took place in Boston, Massachusetts . From 1636 to 1698, Boston endured six epidemics. In 1721,

2125-563: A mortality of 42.3%. One of the oldest records of what may have been an encounter with smallpox in Africa is associated with the elephant war circa AD 568 CE, when after fighting a siege in Mecca, Ethiopian troops contracted the disease which they carried with them back to Africa. Arab ports in Coastal towns in Africa likely contributed to the importation of smallpox into Africa, as early as

2250-464: A mortar with two grains of Uvularia grandiflora in a mortar. The powder was administered nasally through a silver tube that was curved at its point, through the right nostril for boys and the left nostril for girls. A week after the procedure, those variolated would start to produce symptoms of smallpox, and recovery was guaranteed. In India, where the European colonizers came across variolation in

2375-653: A previous smallpox vaccine had made him sick as a child. Rather than pay the five dollar fine, he challenged the state's authority on forcing people to receive vaccination. His case was lost at the state level, but Jacobson appealed the ruling, and so, the case was taken up by the Supreme Court. In 1905 the Supreme Court upheld the Massachusetts law: it was ruled Jacobson could not refuse the mandatory vaccination. In Canada, between 1702 and 1703, nearly

2500-487: A quarter of the population of Quebec city died due to a smallpox epidemic. There is evidence that smallpox reached the Philippines from the 4th century onwards – linked possibly to contact between Southeast Asians and Indian traders . During the 18th century, there were many major outbreaks of smallpox, driven possibly by increasing contact with European colonists and traders. There were epidemics, for instance, in

2625-616: A series of memorial posts depicting spirit figures and the bones of whaling ancestors, it is stored at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City , having been taken there by European Americans. It was the subject of the film The Washing of Tears , directed by Hugh Brody . It recounts the rediscovery of the bones and other artifacts at the museum and the efforts by the Mowachaht First Nation ,

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2750-597: A ship with smallpox on it was successfully quarantined, preventing an epidemic amongst Māori of New Zealand . The only major outbreak in New Zealand was a 1913 epidemic, which affected Māori in northern New Zealand and nearly wiped out the Rapa Nui of Easter Island ( Rapa Nui ), was reported by Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr Peter Buck) to a medical congress in Melbourne in 1914. The whaler ship Delta brought smallpox to

2875-470: A small fishing village. Tribal census data from 1999 show that the Makah Tribe has 1,214 enrolled members; some 1,079 live on the reservation. The unemployment rate on the reservation is approximately 51% . Several books have explored Makah history, usually from the arrival of white settlers onward. The historical-adventure novel When Wolf Comes (2009) by John Pappas gives a glimpse into the lives of

3000-885: A smallpox pandemic of 1870–1875 that claimed 500,000 lives; while vaccination was mandatory in the Prussian army, many French soldiers were not vaccinated. Smallpox outbreaks among French prisoners of war spread to the German civilian population and other parts of Europe. Ultimately, this public health disaster inspired stricter legislation in Germany and England, though not in France. In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox. Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from smallpox in India . Between 1926 and 1930, there were 979,738 cases of smallpox with

3125-718: A smallpox vaccination using a serum acquired from Edward Jenner , the British physician who invented the vaccine from fluid taken from cowpox lesions. Though vaccines were misunderstood and mistrusted at the time, Seaman advocated their use and, in 1802, coordinated a free vaccination program for the poor in New York City. By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans. In 1900 starting in New York City, smallpox reared its head once again and started

3250-402: A sociopolitical battle with lines drawn between the rich and poor, white and black. In populations of railroad and migrant workers who traveled from city to city the disease had reached an endemic low boil. This fact did not bother the government at the time, nor did it spur them to action. Despite the general acceptance of the germ theory of disease , pioneered by John Snow in 1849, smallpox

3375-489: A whole, the epidemic had a 17% fatality rate. Those who were infected with the disease were detained in quarantine facilities in the hopes of protecting others from getting sick. These quarantine facilities, or pesthouses, were mostly located on Southampton Street. As the outbreak worsened, men were also moved to hospitals on Gallop's Island . Women and children were primarily sent to Southampton Street. Smallpox patients were not allowed in regular hospital facilities throughout

3500-429: Is 16–18 feet long, composed of two pieces of yew wood spliced together. Historically, hunters used a mussel shell tip, in conjunction with barbs from elk horns. Since the late 20th century, hunters have used a steel "yankee style" head, but they have retained the yew wood shaft because of its flexibility, water resistance, and strength. Held fast to the whale, the harpoon shaft comes loose, to be recovered later, and

3625-472: Is an exonym derived from the S'Klallam language name for the Makah, màq̓áʔa . It means "generous with food". Archaeological research suggests that Makah people have inhabited the area now known as Neah Bay for more than 3,800 years. Traditionally, the Makah lived in villages consisting of large longhouses made from western red cedar . These longhouses had cedar-plank walls which could be tilted or removed to provide ventilation or light. The cedar tree

3750-678: Is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest , which was declared eradicated in 2011. It has been suggested that smallpox was a major component of the Plague of Athens that occurred in 430 BCE, during the Peloponnesian Wars , and was described by Thucydides . Galen 's description of the Antonine Plague , which swept through the Roman Empire in 165–180 CE, indicates that it

3875-602: Is strong evidence that it was smallpox. Another major outbreak was observed in 1828–30, near Bathurst, New South Wales . A third epidemic occurred in the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia from the mid-1860s, until at least 1870. Elsewhere in the Pacific, smallpox killed many indigenous Polynesians. Nevertheless, Alfred Crosby , in his major work, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900 (1986) showed that in 1840

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4000-422: The .577 Tyrannosaur , which the Makah fired in the 1999 hunt. Once the whale has been killed, a crew member called the "diver" jumps into the water and cuts a hole through the bottom and top of the whale's jaw, to which a tow line and float are attached. This holds the whale's mouth shut and prevents the carcass from filling with water and sinking. Hunters tow the whale to shore, where it is received by members of

4125-480: The First Nations had no immunity to them (see Native American disease and epidemics ). The high rate of deaths added to the social disruption and cultural turmoil resulting from contact with Westerners. In the early 20th century, the population was estimated at 3,500. In 1979, the tribes of western Vancouver Island chose the term Nuu-chah-nulth ( nuučaan̓uł , meaning "all along the mountains and sea"), as

4250-626: The Indian population, it did so in an unforgiving way. William Walker described the epidemic stating that "the Indians [are] all Dying by this Distemper … lying Dead about the Barren Ground like a rotten sheep, their Tents left standing & the Wild beast Devouring them." In 1799, the physician Valentine Seaman administered the first smallpox vaccine in the United States. He gave his children

4375-480: The Makah Cultural and Research Center . Opened in 1979, the museum displays replicas of cedar long houses as well as whaling, fishing, and sealing canoes. Much of what is known about the traditional way of life of the Makah is derived from their oral traditions . Abundant archeological evidence excavated at the Ozette village site has also provided great insight into traditional Makah life. Historically,

4500-459: The Olympic Peninsula in their own reservation, are also Nuu-chah-nulth. In the 1980s scientists from outside the community recruited Nuu-chah-nulth people as research participants in genetic studies. Those studies used participant blood and other material for purposes which the community did not approve. In 2013 the community had those materials destroyed. In the 20th century, recognised Nuu-chah-nulth band governments are: Total population for

4625-481: The Pacific Ocean adjacent to their reservation territory. Various traditional criteria are used to determine the best whale to harvest. By counting the whale's exhalations, the hunters determine when the whale is about to dive, and determine from this the best time to strike. Approaching the whale's left side, the hunter strikes when the whale is 3–4 feet deep, to avoid the force of the whale's tail. The harpoon

4750-574: The Persian physician , Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, known in the West as "Rhazes" , who was the first to differentiate smallpox from measles and chickenpox in his Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah ( The Book of Smallpox and Measles ). Smallpox was a leading cause of death in the 18th century. Every seventh child born in Russia died from smallpox. It killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year in

4875-815: The Plains Indians . This epidemic is a classic instance of European immunity and non-European vulnerability. It is probable that the Indians contracted the disease from the 'Snake Indians' on the Mississippi . From there it spread eastward and northward to the Saskatchewan River . According to David Thompson's account, the first to hear of the disease were fur traders from the Hudson's House on October 15, 1781. A week later, reports were made to William Walker and William Tomison , who were in charge of

5000-566: The Strait of Juan de Fuca in British Columbia , Canada. The Makah people refer to themselves as the qʷidiččaʔa·tx̌ , which translates to somewhere near to "the people who live by the rocks and seagulls". Other thought translations include "the people who live on the cape by the seagulls", and "people of the point", as well as several others. This has sometimes been anglicized as Kwih-dich-chuh-ahtx . The English name, "Makah,"

5125-685: The Sultanate of Banjar (South Kalimantan), in 1734, 1750–51, 1764–65 and 1778–79; in the Sultanate of Tidore (Moluccas ) during the 1720s, and in southern Sumatra during the 1750s, the 1770s and in 1786. Smallpox was brought to Australia in the 18th century. The first recorded outbreak, in April 1789, about 16 months after the arrival of the First Fleet , devastated the Aboriginal population. Governor Arthur Phillip said that about half of

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5250-617: The Wakashan family . The governing body is the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council . When James Cook first encountered the villagers at Yuquot in 1778, they directed him to "come around" (Nuu-chah-nulth nuutkaa is "to circle around") with his ship to the harbour. Cook interpreted this as the First Nation's name for the inlet, now called Nootka Sound. The term was also applied to the indigenous inhabitants of

5375-503: The redistribution of wealth within their communities. This redistribution of wealth was a key societal factor for the Nuu-chah-nulth nations. A chief's status is realized and maintained by their ability to provide for the members of their nation. By dictating the use of resources, chiefs could maintain social structure, and ensure the continued viability and strength of those resources. The Nuu-chah-nulth and other Pacific Northwest cultures are famous for their potlatch ceremonies, in which

5500-630: The salmon run . In response, the Makah tribe is drawing on traditional knowledge to create action plans for climate resilience that center tribal socioeconomic priorities. With the Hoh , Quileute , and Quinault Indian Nation , as well as the scientific community, the Makah conduct climate research at and monitor the Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary . The Makah language is the Indigenous language spoken by

5625-600: The white population and the Khoisan. The disease spread further, completely eradicating several Khosian clans, all the way to the Kalahari desert. A third outbreak in 1767 similarly affected the Khoisan and Bantu peoples. But the European colonial settlers were not affected nearly to the extent that they were in the first two outbreaks, it has been speculated this is because of variolation . Continued enslavement operations brought smallpox to Cape Town again in 1840, taking

5750-747: The 13 tribes in the Nuuchahnulth nation is 8,147, according to the Nuuchahnulth Tribal Council Indian Registry of February 2006. The Ditidaht First Nation (population 690), while politically and culturally affiliated with the Nuu-chah-nulth, are independently referred to. In addition, the Pacheedaht First Nation are not politically affiliated with the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council. The Nuu-chah-nulth were one of

5875-536: The 13th century, though no records exist until the 16th century. Upon invasion of these towns by tribes in the interior of Africa, a severe epidemic affected all African inhabitants while sparing the Portuguese. Densely populated areas of Africa connected to the Mediterranean, Nubia and Ethiopia by caravan route likely were affected by smallpox since the 11th century, though written records do not appear until

6000-536: The 17th century, a large, sharp needle was dipped into the pus collected from mature smallpox sores. Several punctures with this needle were made either below the deltoid muscle or in the forehead, and then were covered with a paste made from boiled rice. Variolation spread farther from India to other countries in south west Asia, and then to the Balkans. Makah The Makah ( / m ə ˈ k ɑː / ; Makah : qʷidiččaʔa·tx̌ ) are an Indigenous people of

6125-485: The 18th century, including five reigning European monarchs. Most people became infected during their lifetimes, and about 30% of people infected with smallpox died from the disease, presenting a severe selection pressure on the resistant survivors. In northern Japan, Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases like smallpox brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido . The Franco-Prussian War triggered

6250-655: The 2nd millennium AD, especially starting in the 16th century, reliable written reports become more common. The earliest physical evidence of smallpox is found in the Egyptian mummies of people who died some 3,000 years ago. Smallpox has had a major impact on world history, not least because indigenous populations of regions where smallpox was non-native, such as the Americas and Australia, were rapidly and greatly reduced by smallpox (along with other introduced diseases) during periods of initial foreign contact, which helped pave

6375-489: The Aboriginal people living around Sydney Cove died during the outbreak. Some later estimates have been higher, though precise figures are hard to determine, and Professors Carmody and Hunter argued in 2014 that the figure was more like 30%. There is an ongoing debate, with links to the "History wars" , concerning two main rival theories about how smallpox first entered the continent. (Another hypothesis suggested that

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6500-548: The French brought it in 1788, but the timeline does not fit.) The central hypotheses of these theories suggest that smallpox was transmitted to Indigenous Australians by either: In 1914, Dr J. H. L. Cumpston , director of the Australian Quarantine Service tentatively put forward the hypothesis that smallpox arrived with British settlers. Cumpston's theory was most forcefully reiterated by

6625-564: The History of Medicine , argued that imported "variolous matter" may have been the source of the 1789 epidemic in Australia. In 2011, Macknight re-entered the debate, declaring: "The overwhelming probability must be that it [smallpox] was introduced, like the later epidemics, by [Makassan] trepangers on the north coast and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of

6750-476: The Hudson and Cumberland Hudson's Bay Company posts. By February, the disease spread as far as the Basquia Tribe. Smallpox attacked whole tribes and left few survivors. E. E. Rich described the epidemic by saying that "Families lay unburied in their tents while the few survivors fled, to spread the disease." After reading Tomison's journals, Houston and Houston calculated that, of the Indians who traded at

6875-686: The Hudson and Cumberland houses, 95% died of smallpox. Paul Hackett adds to the mortality numbers suggesting that perhaps up to one half to three quarters of the Ojibway situated west of the Grand Portage died from the disease. The Cree also suffered a casualty rate of approximately 75% with similar effects found in the Lowland Cree. By 1785 the Sioux Indians of the great plains had also been affected. Not only did smallpox devastate

7000-498: The Makah people of 1801. Young adult book Ghost Canoe (1998) by Will Hobbs takes place on and near the reservation, while Indian Days at Neah Bay by James G. McCurdy details life in Neah Bay in the early days of mandatory schooling from the perspective of the schoolteacher's son. The children's book Written in Stone (2014) by Rosanne Parry takes place in the 1920s, featuring an orphaned Makah girl who works to preserve her people's culture. Meanwhile, Arlyn Conly's memoir Never Trust

7125-490: The Makah people. The endonym for the language is qʷi·qʷi·diččaq . Makah linguistically belongs to the Southern Nootkan branch of the Wakashan family of languages. It is also the only Wakashan language in the United States. Other tribes speaking Wakashan are located in British Columbia , Canada, immediately across the Strait of Juan de Fuca on the west coast of Vancouver Island , and northwards as far as that province's Central Coast region. Makah has been extinct as

7250-430: The Micronesian island of Pohnpei on 28 February 1854. The Pohnpeians reacted by first feasting their offended spirits and then resorted hiding. The disease eventually wiped out more than half the island's population. The deaths of chiefs threw Pohnpeian society into disarray, and the people started blaming the God of the Christian missionaries. The Christian missionaries themselves saw the epidemic as God's punishment for

7375-415: The Natives. In the end, Jewitt escaped with the help of Wickaninnish , a chief from an opposing group. In 1811 the trading ship Tonquin was blown up in Clayoquot Sound . Tla-o-qui-aht warriors had attacked the ship in revenge for an insult by the ship's captain. The captain and almost all the crew were killed and the ship abandoned. The next day warriors reboarded the empty ship to salvage it. However,

7500-409: The North Pacific coast. Negotiations to settle the dispute were handled under the aegis and hospitality of Maquinna , a powerful chief of the Mowachaht Nuu-chah-nulth. A few years later, Maquinna and his warriors captured the American trading ship Boston in March 1803. He and his men killed the captain and all the crew but two, whom they kept as slaves. After gaining release, John R. Jewitt wrote

7625-419: The Pacific Northwest Coast living in Washington , in the northwestern part of the continental United States . They are enrolled in the federally recognized Makah Indian Tribe of the Makah Indian Reservation , commonly known as the Makah Tribe. Linguistically and ethnographically, they are closely related to the Nuu-chah-nulth and Ditidaht peoples of the West Coast of Vancouver Island , who live across

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7750-427: The Treaty of Neah Bay with the U.S. federal government , ceding much of their traditional lands. The treaty required the Makah to be restricted to the Makah Reservation (at 48°19′20″N 124°37′57″W  /  48.32222°N 124.63250°W  / 48.32222; -124.63250 in Clallam County), banned slavery, and preserved the Makah people's rights to hunt whales and seals in the region. The Makah language

7875-513: The World Health Organization. The word variolation is synonymous with inoculation, insertion, en-grafting, or transplantation. The term is used to define insertion of smallpox matter, and distinguishes this procedure from vaccination, where cowpox matter was used to obtain a much milder reaction among patients. The practice of variolation (also known as inoculation ) first came out of East Asia. First writings documenting variolation in China appear around 1500. Scabs from smallpox victims who had

8000-462: The area. The Nuu-chah-nulth were among the first Pacific peoples north of California to encounter Europeans, who sailed into their area for trade, particularly the Maritime fur trade . Tensions flared up between Spain and Great Britain over control of Nootka Sound , which led to a bitter international dispute around 1790 known as the Nootka Crisis . It was settled under the Nootka Convention , in which Spain agreed to abandon its exclusive claims to

8125-447: The art of how to butterfly a salmon and how to can fish, also providing recipes for marinated seaweed, steam pit cooking, and Nuu-chah-nulth upskwee . Čamus illuminates a traditional way of eating while promoting a healthy lifestyle. The First Nations of Vancouver Island's west coast and northern Washington link family and community in their respectful treatment of their territories' freshest ingredients. Nuu-chah-nulth nations also used

8250-412: The ceramics of the Moche people of ancient Peru . Even after the two largest empires of the Americas were defeated by the virus and disease, smallpox continued its march of death. In 1561, smallpox reached Chile by sea, when a ship carrying the new governor Francisco de Villagra landed at La Serena . Chile had previously been isolated by the Atacama Desert and Andes Mountains from Peru, but at

8375-411: The characteristic symptoms of smallpox. Waves of epidemics wiped out large rural populations. In 710 CE, smallpox was re-introduced into Europe via Iberia by the Umayyad conquest of Hispania . The Japanese smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population. The clearest description of smallpox from pre-modern times was given in the 9th century by

8500-527: The city, for fear the sickness would spread among the already sick. A reflection of the previous outbreak that occurred in New York, the poor and homeless were blamed for the sickness's spread. In response to this belief, the city instructed teams of physicians to vaccinate anyone living in inexpensive housing. In an effort to control the outbreak, the Boston Board of Health began voluntary vaccination programs. Individuals could receive free vaccines at their workplaces or at different stations set up throughout

8625-435: The city. By the end of 1901, some 40,000 of the city's residents had received a smallpox vaccine. However, despite the city's efforts, the epidemic continued to grow. In January 1902, a door-to-door vaccination program was initiated. Health officials were instructed to compel individuals to receive vaccination, pay a $ 5 fine, or face 15 days in prison. This door-to-door program was met by some resistance as some individuals feared

8750-539: The collection of resources at a young age. In an effort to revive traditional diets, the Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council and sixteen tribes have contributed to recipes in a traditional wild food cookbook. The 90-page cookbook focuses on traditional recipes and seasonal ingredients from the west coast of Vancouver Island and Northern Washington. It explores First Nations cuisine and adds cooking tips, cultural observations, and oral history anecdotes. Čamus (chum-us) features traditional and wild ingredients. Čamus explores

8875-407: The community. The traditional whaling practices of the fourteen different Nuu-chah-nulth nations vary as each community has their own distinct traditions, ceremonies, and rituals. Some simplified examples of Nuu-chah-nulth whaling traditions include ceremonial bathing, abstinence, prayer, and ceremony which were to be performed before and after the hunt. These rituals were performed by the chief leading

9000-570: The deadly disease was not smallpox but the far more infectious chickenpox, to which the Eora Aboriginal peoples had no resistance. John Carmody, then at the University of Sydney School of Medical Sciences, suggested in 2010 that the epidemic was far more likely to have been chickenpox , as none of the European colonists were threatened by it, as he would have expected to happen. However Wenitong and Maynard continue to believe that there

9125-438: The disease in its mild form would be selected, and the powder was kept close to body temperature by means of keeping it close to the chest, killing the majority of the virus and resulting in a more mild case of smallpox. Scabs were generally used when a month old, but could be used more quickly in hot weather (15–20 days), and slower in winter (50 days). The process was carried out by taking eight smallpox scabs and crushing them in

9250-621: The disease. Cortés then easily defeated the Aztecs and entered Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards said that they could not walk through the streets without stepping on the bodies of smallpox victims. The effects of smallpox on Tahuantinsuyu (or the Inca empire) were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia , smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread

9375-473: The disease. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan , he brought the disease with him. Soon, the Aztecs rose up in rebellion against Cortés and his men. Outnumbered, the Spanish were forced to flee. In the fighting, the Spanish soldier carrying smallpox died. Cortés would not return to the capital until August 1521. In the meantime smallpox devastated the Aztec population. It killed most of the Aztec army and 25% of

9500-588: The early 16th century until possibly as late as the French and Indian Wars (1754–1767). In 1519 Hernán Cortés landed on the shores of what is now Mexico and what was then the Aztec Empire . In 1520 another group of Spanish arrived in Mexico from Hispaniola , bringing with them the smallpox which had already been ravaging that island for two years. When Cortés heard about the other group, he went and defeated them. In this contact, one of Cortés's men contracted

9625-576: The early 1950s an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year. As recently as 1967, the World Health Organization estimated that 15 million people contracted the disease and that two million died in that year. After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the global eradication of smallpox in May 1980. Smallpox

9750-479: The economic historian Noel Butlin , in his book Our Original Aggression (1983). Likewise David Day, in Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia (2001), suggested that members of Sydney's garrison of Royal Marines may have attempted to use smallpox as a biological weapon in 1789. However, in 2002, historian John Connor stated that Day's theory was "unsustainable". That same year, theories that smallpox

9875-517: The end of 1561 and in early 1562, it ravaged the Chilean native population. Chronicles and records of the time left no accurate data on mortality but more recent estimates are that the natives lost 20 to 25 percent of their population. The Spanish historian Marmolejo said that gold mines had to shut down when all their Indian labor died. Mapuche fighting Spain in Araucanía regarded the epidemic as

10000-493: The few Indigenous peoples on the Pacific Coast who hunted whales . Whaling is essential to Nuu-chah-nulth culture and spirituality . It is reflected in stories, songs, names, family lines, and numerous place names throughout their territories. Carbon dating shows that the Nuu-chah-nulth peoples hunted whales over 4000 years ago for both blubber and meat. The Nuu-chah-nulth peoples hunted whales of different species due to

10125-411: The fort while there was still time. The commander of the fort refused to abandon the fort. Instead, the British gave as gifts two blankets, one silk handkerchief and one linen from the smallpox hospital, to two Delaware Indian delegates. The dignitaries were met again later and they seemingly hadn't contracted smallpox. A relatively small outbreak of smallpox had begun spreading earlier that spring, with

10250-409: The founding of The Makah Cultural and Research Center and the work to preserve their heritage. Beyond books, the final scene of Jim Jarmusch 's 1995 film Dead Man takes place in a reconstructed Makah village. Many of the actors featured in the scene are Makah tribal members; dialogue is in the Makah language. Additionally, the song "The Renegade" by Ian and Sylvia recounts conflict in the life of

10375-560: The goddess Sitala both causes and cures high fever, rashes, hot flashes and pustules. All of these are symptoms of smallpox. Most of the details about the epidemics are lost, probably due to the scarcity of surviving written records from the Early Middle Ages . The first incontrovertible description of smallpox in Western Europe occurred in 581 CE, when Bishop Gregory of Tours provided an eyewitness account describing

10500-537: The host honours guests with generous gifts. The term 'potlatch' is ultimately a word of Nuu-chah-nulth origin. The purpose of the potlatch is manifold: redistribution of wealth, maintenance and recognition of social status, cementing alliances, the celebration and solemnization of marriage, and commemoration of important events. History of smallpox#Epidemics in the Americas The history of smallpox extends into pre-history. Genetic evidence suggests that

10625-512: The hunt as well as his wife; the ceremonies were seen as a key factor in determining the outcome of the hunt. Social status didn't just affect who was allowed to join the whaling hunt, it also affected the distribution of the whales’ meat and the blubber. Perhaps the most famous Nuu-chah-nulth artifact in modern years is the Yuquot Whalers' Shrine , a ritual house-like structure used in the spiritual preparations for whale hunts. Composed of

10750-459: The importation of variolous matter on the First Fleet. Warren (2007) suggested that Campbell had erred in assuming that high temperatures would have sterilised the British supply of smallpox. H. A. Willis (2010), in a survey of the literature discussed above, endorsed Campbell's argument. In response, Warren (2011) suggested that Willis had not taken into account research on how heat affects

10875-505: The introduction of the slave trade in the 16th century. The enslavement of Africans continued to spread smallpox to the entire continent, with raiders pushing farther inland along caravan routes in search of people to enslave. The effects of smallpox could be seen along caravan routes, and those who were not affected along the routes were still likely to become infected either waiting to be put onboard or on board ships. Smallpox in Angola

11000-717: The late 1770s , during the American Revolutionary War , smallpox returned once more and killed thousands. Peter Kalm in his Travels in North America , described how in that period, the dying Indian villages became overrun with wolves feasting on the corpses and weakened survivors. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Northwestern Native Americans, killing tens of thousands. The smallpox epidemic of 1780–1782 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among

11125-797: The lives of 2500 people, and then to Uganda in the 1840s. It is estimated that up to eighty percent of the Griqua tribe was exterminated by smallpox in 1831, and whole tribes were being wiped out in Kenya up until 1899. Along the Zaire river basin were areas where no one survived the epidemics, leaving the land devoid of human life. In Ethiopia and the Sudan, six epidemics are recorded for the 19th century: 1811–1813, 1838–1839, 1865–1866, 1878–1879, 1885–1887, and 1889–1890. 3164 dead in Montréal (municipality), 5864 for

11250-558: The most severe epidemic occurred. The entire population fled the city, bringing the virus to the rest of the Thirteen Colonies . During the siege of Fort Pitt , as recorded in his journal by sundries trader and militia Captain, William Trent , on June 24, 1763, dignitaries from the Delaware tribe met with Fort Pitt officials, warned them of "great numbers of Indians" coming to attack the fort, and pleaded with them to leave

11375-470: The new settlement there". Warren (2013) disputed this, on the grounds that: there was no suitable smallpox in Makassar before 1789; there were no trade routes suitable for transmission to Port Jackson ; the theory of a Makassan source for smallpox in 1789 was contradicted by Aboriginal oral tradition ; and, the earliest point at which there was evidence of smallpox entering Australia with Makassan visitors

11500-459: The opinion of C. C. Macknight (1986), an authority on the interaction between indigenous Australians and Makassans. Citing the scientific opinion of Fenner (who wrote the foreword to her book) and historical documents, Campbell argued that the 1789 outbreak was introduced to Australia by Makassans, from where it spread overland. Nevertheless, Michael Bennett in a 2009 article in Bulletin of

11625-485: The overall population. The Spanish Franciscan Motolinia left this description: "As the Indians did not know the remedy of the disease…they died in heaps, like bedbugs. In many places it happened that everyone in a house died and, as it was impossible to bury the great number of dead, they pulled down the houses over them so that their homes become their tombs." On Cortés's return, he found the Aztec army's chain of command in ruins. The soldiers who still lived were weak from

11750-465: The people and offered the natives inoculations, though often withheld such treatment from the priests. The epidemic abated in October 1854. Early in history, it was observed that those who had contracted smallpox once were never struck by the disease again. Thought to have been discovered by accident, it became known that those who contracted smallpox through a break in the skin in which smallpox matter

11875-580: The practice was suspended in the 1920s because the commercial whaling industry had depleted the stocks of humpback and gray whales ; all hunting was called off. After the gray whale was removed from the Endangered Species List , the Makah re-asserted their whaling rights. With the support and guidance of the United States government and the International Whaling Commission , the Makah successfully hunted

12000-399: The range of territory that they reside in and the migration pattern of the whales. Those most often caught would be either grey or humpback whales due to their more docile nature and how close they would come to the shore. There is evidence that occasionally members of the Nuu-chah-nulth nations would hunt an orca despite the danger and difficulty as a way of showing bravery. Although it

12125-707: The roots and leaves of Viola adunca while giving birth. In 1936, the Makah Tribe signed the Makah Constitution, accepting the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and establishing an elected tribal government. The constitution provided for a five-member Tribal Council. Each year the council elects a Tribal Chairperson. The Council develops and passes laws for the Makah Reservation. The Makah Tribe hosts its annual major public gathering, Makah Days , in late August. It features

12250-519: The shoreline other sea inhabitant like clams, sea urchins, and mussels were harvested at low tide. Salmon streams were tended to ensure their continued strength and the fish were either cooked in large wooden vessels using water and hot stones or dried to be consumed during the winter. Nuu-chah-nulth nations also gathered resources from the land as food sources. Some of these edible plants include camas root, rhizomes from ferns and many different variety of berries such as blueberry and huckleberry to name

12375-419: The shrine's original owners, who have been seeking to regain these sacred artifacts. While the Nuu-chah-nulth nations did rely on whaling as an important food and oil resource, the territories they lived had many other food sources. The Nuu-chah-nulth peoples gathered food from marine environments including fish species such as halibut, herring, rockfish, and salmon which were caught along the coast while along

12500-406: The smallpox virus emerged 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. Prior to that, similar ancestral viruses circulated, but possibly only in other mammals, and possibly with different symptoms. Only a few written reports dating from about 500 AD to 1000 AD are considered reliable historical descriptions of smallpox, so understanding of the disease prior to that has relied on genetics and archaeology. However, during

12625-462: The smallpox virus, cited by the WHO . Willis (2011) replied that his position was supported by a closer reading of Frank Fenner's report to the WHO (1988) and invited readers to consult that report online. The rival hypothesis, that the 1789 outbreak was introduced to Australia by visitors from Makassar , came to prominence in 2002, with Judy Campbell's book Invisible Invaders . Campbell expanded upon

12750-407: The structure of Makah society is a class system; people in the middle or lower classes could gain better social status by marrying into the upper levels. The community was in mostly a cognatic descent structure. The Makah traditional family consisted of parents and children living in a particular area. Members of Makah families were ranked in society according to their relationship to the chief of

12875-540: The surrounding forests. Women also gathered a wide variety of nuts, berries and edible plants and roots for their foods. In 1834, a dismasted, rudderless ship from Japan ran aground near Cape Flattery . The Makah took the three survivors of the broken ship and held them as slaves for several months before taking them to Fort Vancouver . From there, the United States transported them by ship to London and eventually China, but they never reached Japan again. On January 31, 1855, government-selected Makah representatives signed

13000-469: The territories of the Nuu-chah-nulth nations, social life became more structured and a visible hierarchy formed within the communities. These consisted of the commoner class, and the chiefs that controlled the region. While members of the commoner class had autonomy they still required the consent of the chief to fish, hunt, and forage within the communities’ territory. While being in control of ceremonial and territorial rights, chiefs were also responsible for

13125-400: The tribe. There were no stratifications in gender roles; all genders were equal, participating in the hunting of whales and other livestock. Although men were more fishermen and hunters, women's activities centered on gathering resources for the family. Makah oral history relates that their tradition of aboriginal whaling has been suspended and re-established several times. Most recently,

13250-443: The vaccines to be unsafe and ineffective. Others felt compulsory vaccination in itself was a problem that violated an individual's civil liberties. This program of compulsory vaccination eventually led to the famous Jacobson v. Massachusetts case. The case was the result of a Cambridge resident's refusal to be vaccinated. Henning Jacobson, a Swedish immigrant, refused vaccination out of fear it would cause him illness. He claimed

13375-434: The viability of variolous matter (used for inoculation) did not support the possibility of the disease being brought to Australia on the long voyage from Europe. Campbell also noted that there was no evidence of Aboriginal people ever having been exposed to the variolous matter, merely speculation that they may have been. Later authors, such as Christopher Warren, and Craig Mear continued to argue that smallpox emanated from

13500-460: The village. Traditional ceremonies and songs are performed to welcome the whale's spirit. Following this, the whale is divided in a precise and traditional fashion, with certain families having ownership of particular cuts. The "saddle piece" located midway between the center of the back and the tail is the property of the harpooner. It is taken to his home where a special ceremony is performed. The meat and oil are distributed to community members, and

13625-416: The way for conquest and colonization. During the 18th century the disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year, including five reigning monarchs , and was responsible for a third of all blindness. Between 20 and 60% of all those infected—and over 80% of infected children—died from the disease. During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths. In

13750-570: The whole province of Québec. (fr) Smallpox in Montréal in 1885 After first contacts with Europeans and Africans , some believe that the death of 90–95% of the native population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. It is suspected that smallpox was the chief culprit and responsible for killing nearly all of the native inhabitants of the Americas. For more than 200 years, this disease affected all new world populations, mostly without intentional European transmission, from contact in

13875-413: The wood and bark of red and yellow cedar trees as both a building material and to produce many different objects. Artists and wood workers within a nation would carve full logs into totem poles and ocean going canoes, and the bark would be torn into strips and softened in water until malleable enough to be woven into baskets, clothing, and ceremonial regalia. Due to the abundance of resources throughout

14000-452: The young leader and his best general. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 90% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. A handful of historians argue that a disease called Bartonellosis might have been responsible for some outbreaks of illness, but this opinion is in the scholarly minority. The effects of Bartonellosis were depicted in

14125-430: Was a hazardous undertaking, those that ate “killer whale” regarded both its meat and blubber to be of higher quality than that of the larger whales. While whaling provided the Nuu-chah-nulth nations with an important source of food and blubber - which could be rendered into oil - it also played an important role in social life as well. The chief would lead a whale hunting party that was made up of other prominent members of

14250-402: Was also either smallpox or measles . The Roman empire stopped growing as a consequence on these two plagues, according to historians like Theodore Mommsen . Although some historians believe that many historical epidemics and pandemics were early outbreaks of smallpox, contemporary records are not detailed enough to make a definite diagnosis. Around 400 CE, an Indian medical book recorded

14375-444: Was around 1824. Public health expert Mark Wenitong, a Kabi Kabi man, and John Maynard, Emeritus professor of Aboriginal History at the University of Newcastle agree that this is highly unlikely, with the added obstacle of very low population density between the north coast and Sydney Cove. A quite separate third theory, endorsed by the pathologist Dr G.E. Ford, with support from the academics Curson, Wright and Hunter, holds that

14500-473: Was inserted received a less severe reaction than those who contracted it naturally. This realization led to the practice of purposely infecting people with matter from smallpox scabs in order to protect them later from a more severe reaction. This practice, known today as variolation , was first practiced in China in the 10th century. Methods of carrying out the procedure varied depending upon location. Variolation

14625-532: Was introduced with settlers, deliberately or otherwise, were contested in a full-length book by historian Judy Campbell : Invisible Invaders: Smallpox and Other Diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780–1880 (2002). Campbell consulted, during the writing of her book, Frank Fenner , who had overseen the final stages of a successful campaign by the World Health Organization (WHO) to eradicate smallpox. Campbell argued that scientific evidence concerning

14750-581: Was likely introduced shortly after Portuguese settlement of the area in 1484. The 1864 epidemic killed 25,000 inhabitants, one third of the total population in that same area. In 1713, an outbreak occurred in South Africa after a ship from India docked at Cape Town, bringing infected laundry ashore. Many of the settler European population suffered, and whole clans of the Khoisan people were wiped out. A second outbreak occurred in 1755, again affecting both

14875-533: Was not until 1970 that it became apparent what was buried there. After a storm in February 1970, tidal erosion exposed hundreds of well-preserved wooden artifacts. The excavation of the Ozette site began shortly after. University students worked with the Makah under the direction of archaeologists using pressurized water to remove mud from six buried long houses. The excavation went on for 11 years. It produced more than 55,000 artifacts, many of which are on display in

15000-484: Was not used during the negotiation of the treaty, and the government used the S'Klallam-language name to refer to the tribe, rather than the Makah-language endoynm. In the early 17th century, a mudslide engulfed part of a Makah village near Lake Ozette . The oral history of the Makah mentions a "great slide" which engulfed a portion of Ozette long ago. The mudslide preserved several houses and their contents in

15125-407: Was of great value to Makah, who also used its bark to make water-resistant clothing and hats. Cedar roots were used in basket making. Whole trees were carved out to make canoes to hunt seals , gray whales and humpback whales . Makah acquired much of their food from the ocean. Their diet consisted of whale, seal, fish, and a wide variety of shellfish . They would also hunt deer, elk, and bear from

15250-489: Was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system . Within months, the disease had killed the Incan Emperor Huayna Capac , his successor, and most of the other leaders. Two of his surviving sons warred for power and, after a bloody and costly war, Atahualpa become the new emperor. As Atahualpa was returning to the capital Cuzco , Francisco Pizarro arrived and through a series of deceits captured

15375-601: Was probably caused by smallpox. Returning soldiers picked up the disease in Seleucia (in modern Iraq), and brought it home with them to Syria and Italy. It raged for fifteen years and greatly weakened the Roman empire, killing up to one-third of the population in some areas. Total deaths have been estimated at 5 million. A second major outbreak of disease in the Roman Empire, known as the Plague of Cyprian (251–266 CE),

15500-437: Was still thought to be mostly a malady that followed the less-distinct guidelines of a "filth" disease, and therefore would only affect the "lower classes". The last major smallpox epidemic in the United States occurred in Boston , Massachusetts throughout a three-year period, between 1901 and 1903. During this three-year period, 1596 cases of the disease occurred throughout the city. Of those cases, nearly 300 people died. As

15625-403: Was the sole method of protection against smallpox other than quarantine until Edward Jenner's discovery of the inoculating abilities of cowpox against the smallpox virus in 1796. Efforts to protect populations against smallpox by way of vaccination followed for centuries after Jenner's discovery. Smallpox has since been completely eradicated since 1979, because of the mass vaccination efforts of

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