100-498: The Federation of American Scientists ( FAS ) is an American nonprofit global policy think tank with the stated intent of using science and scientific analysis to attempt to make the world more secure. FAS was founded in 1946 by a group of scientists, some of whom had previously contributed to the development of nuclear weapons in the Manhattan Project . The Federation of American Scientists states that it aims to reduce
200-620: A Democrat from Connecticut , who chaired the United States Senate Special Committee on Atomic Energy, and whose hearings in late 1945 and early 1946 led to the fine tuning and passing of the Act. The Senate passed the Act unanimously through voice vote , and it passed the House of Representatives 265–79. Signed into law by President Harry S. Truman on August 1, 1946, it went into effect on January 1, 1947, and
300-457: A nonbusiness entity , nonprofit institution , or simply a nonprofit , is a legal entity organized and operated for a collective, public or social benefit, as opposed to an entity that operates as a business aiming to generate a profit for its owners. A nonprofit organization is subject to the non-distribution constraint: any revenues that exceed expenses must be committed to the organization's purpose, not taken by private parties. Depending on
400-583: A $ 2.5 million grant for Creative and Effective Institutions. In a 2002 survey conducted within the FAS, it was found that nearly thirty percent of members were physicists. While the next largest fields represented were medicine, biology, engineering, and chemistry. With the latter four fields making up another sixty one percent of the total member population. Members also received complementary copies of "Secrecy News", an electronic newsletter regarding government secrecy and intelligence. Federation of American Scientists
500-783: A comprehensive, government-supported nuclear energy program, with military, scientific, and industrial aspects. In July 1944, Vannevar Bush , James B. Conant and Irvin Stewart produced a proposal for domestic legislation to control nuclear energy. Conant submitted this to the Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson in September 1944, and then to the Interim Committee , a body created by President Harry S. Truman in May 1945 to supervise, regulate and control nuclear energy until such
600-424: A delegate structure to allow for the representation of groups or corporations as members. Alternatively, it may be a non-membership organization and the board of directors may elect its own successors. The two major types of nonprofit organization are membership and board-only. A membership organization elects the board and has regular meetings and the power to amend the bylaws. A board-only organization typically has
700-554: A fiscally viable entity. Nonprofits have the responsibility of focusing on being professional and financially responsible, replacing self-interest and profit motive with mission motive. Though nonprofits are managed differently from for-profit businesses, they have felt pressure to be more businesslike. To combat private and public business growth in the public service industry, nonprofits have modeled their business management and mission, shifting their reason of existing to establish sustainability and growth. Setting effective missions
800-593: A former senior scientist in the Office of Technology Assessment and science policy adviser in the Clinton administration, became the new president. He further pursued the goals of the program of bolstering science in policy and focusing on using that science to further benefit the public. During his eight-year tenure as president, FAS received significant funding from the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation , including
900-471: A low-stress work environment that the employee can associate him or herself positively with. Other incentives that should be implemented are generous vacation allowances or flexible work hours. When selecting a domain name , NPOs often use one of the following: .org , the country code top-level domain of their respective country, or the .edu top-level domain (TLD), to differentiate themselves from more commercial entities, which typically use .com . In
1000-462: A minimum of political interference. The commissioners would be appointed for indefinite terms, and the President's power to remove them would be limited. They would be supported by four advisory boards, for military applications, industrial uses, research and medicine, the membership of which would be restricted to those with technical qualifications. Day-to-day running of the organization would be in
1100-457: A nonprofit entity without having tax-exempt status. Key aspects of nonprofits are accountability, integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, and openness to every person who has invested time, money, and faith into the organisation. Nonprofit organizations are accountable to the donors, founders, volunteers, program recipients, and the public community. Theoretically, for a nonprofit that seeks to finance its operations through donations, public confidence
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#17327726083971200-510: A safer and more secure world by developing and advancing solutions to important science and technology security policy problems by educating the public and policy makers, and promoting transparency through research and analysis to maximize impact on policy. FAS projects are organized in three main programs: nuclear security , government secrecy, and biosecurity . FAS has played a role in the control of atomic energy and weapons, as well as better international monitoring of atomic activities. FAS
1300-697: A self-selected board and a membership whose powers are limited to those delegated to it by the board. A board-only organization's bylaws may even state that the organization does not have any membership, although the organization's literature may refer to its donors or service recipients as 'members'; examples of such organizations are FairVote and the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws . The Model Nonprofit Corporation Act imposes many complexities and requirements on membership decision-making. Accordingly, many organizations, such as
1400-415: A staff of about a dozen people and expand membership of the organization. In the mid-1980s, the FAS began relying more heavily on professional staff and analysts, and journalists rather than famous scientists as it did previously in its history. The organization shifted toward public information and transparency in the government and away from secrecy in covert projects and finances. In 2000 Henry C. Kelly ,
1500-471: A strong vision of how to operate the project, try to retain control of the organization, even as new employees or volunteers want to expand the project's scope or change policy. Resource mismanagement is a particular problem with NPOs because the employees are not accountable to anyone who has a direct stake in the organization. For example, an employee may start a new program without disclosing its complete liabilities. The employee may be rewarded for improving
1600-491: A time as Congress created a permanent body to do so. In June 1945, the Interim Committee asked George L. Harrison , an assistant to Stimson and a member of the committee, to prepare legislation. Harrison brought in two experienced Harvard Law School -educated War Department lawyers, Brigadier General Kenneth Royall and William L. Marbury Jr. , to take up the job of drafting the legislation. The legislation
1700-581: A wide diversity of structures and purposes. For legal classification, there are, nevertheless, some elements of importance: Some of the above must be (in most jurisdictions in the US at least) expressed in the organization's charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the supervising authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose. Most countries have laws that regulate
1800-399: Is a factor in the amount of money that a nonprofit organization is able to raise. Supposedly, the more a nonprofit focuses on their mission, the more public confidence they will gain. This will result in more money for the organization. The activities a nonprofit is partaking in can help build the public's confidence in nonprofits, as well as how ethical the standards and practices are. There
1900-461: Is a key for the successful management of nonprofit organizations. There are three important conditions for effective mission: opportunity, competence, and commitment. One way of managing the sustainability of nonprofit organizations is to establish strong relations with donor groups. This requires a donor marketing strategy, something many nonprofits lack. Nonprofit organizations provide public goods that are undersupplied by government. NPOs have
2000-439: Is an important distinction in the US between non-profit and not-for-profit organizations (NFPOs); while an NFPO does not profit its owners, and money goes into running the organization, it is not required to operate for the public good. An example is a club, whose purpose is its members' enjoyment. Other examples of NFPOs include: credit unions, sports clubs, and advocacy groups. Nonprofit organizations provide services to
2100-414: Is an important distinction in the US between non-profit and not-for-profit organizations (NFPOs); while an NFPO does not profit its owners, and money goes into running the organization, it is not required to operate for the public good. An example is a sports club, whose purpose is its members' enjoyment. The names used and precise regulations vary from one jurisdiction to another. According to
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#17327726083972200-557: Is concerned. In many countries, nonprofits may apply for tax-exempt status, so that the organization itself may be exempt from income tax and other taxes. In the United States, to be exempt from federal income taxes, the organization must meet the requirements set forth in the Internal Revenue Code (IRC). Granting nonprofit status is done by the state, while granting tax-exempt designation (such as IRC 501(c) )
2300-453: Is granted by the federal government via the IRS. This means that not all nonprofits are eligible to be tax-exempt. For example, employees of non-profit organizations pay taxes from their salaries, which they receive according to the laws of the country. NPOs use the model of a double bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit, though both are needed to ensure
2400-408: Is not classifiable as another category. Currently, no restrictions are enforced on registration of .com or .org, so one can find organizations of all sorts in either of those domains, as well as other top-level domains including newer, more specific ones which may apply to particular sorts of organization including .museum for museums and .coop for cooperatives . Organizations might also register by
2500-411: Is the remuneration package, though many who have been questioned after leaving an NPO have reported that it was stressful work environments and the workload. Public- and private-sector employment have, for the most part, been able to offer more to their employees than most nonprofit agencies throughout history. Either in the form of higher wages, more comprehensive benefit packages, or less tedious work,
2600-401: Is to promote a safer and more secure world by developing and advancing solutions to important science and technology security policy problems by educating the public and policy makers, and promoting transparency through research and analysis to maximize impact on policy. This mission was established early on and was deemed necessary for the federation, as decisions made by the United States during
2700-476: Is unique in which source of income works best for them. With an increase in NPOs since 2010, organizations have adopted competitive advantages to create revenue for themselves to remain financially stable. Donations from private individuals or organizations can change each year and government grants have diminished. With changes in funding from year to year, many nonprofit organizations have been moving toward increasing
2800-603: The 1958 US–UK Mutual Defence Agreement . The stipulations contained in the Act caused significant controversy during debates over NATO 's military command structure. Both Striking Fleet Atlantic and the United States Sixth Fleet have never been allowed to be placed anywhere but directly under American commanding officers—the Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic and Commander-in-Chief, Allied Forces Southern Europe —because
2900-778: The House Military Affairs Committee , and in the Senate by Senator Edwin C. Johnson from Colorado, the ranking member of the Senate Military Affairs Committee . The bill was known as the May-Johnson Bill for its sponsors. May immediately had the bill referred to the Military Affairs Committee, which held hearings on October 9. Bush, Conant and Groves all testified before the committee. But in
3000-729: The National Center for Charitable Statistics (NCCS), there are more than 1.5 million nonprofit organizations registered in the United States , including public charities , private foundations , and other nonprofit organizations. Private charitable contributions increased for the fourth consecutive year in 2017 (since 2014), at an estimated $ 410.02 billion. Out of these contributions, religious organizations received 30.9%, education organizations received 14.3%, and human services organizations received 12.1%. Between September 2010 and September 2014, approximately 25.3% of Americans over
3100-553: The Price–Anderson Nuclear Industries Indemnity Act of 1957, which capped private liability for nuclear accidents, while providing for adequate compensations for accident victims. Implementing the McMahon Act created a substantial rift between United States and Britain. The new control of "restricted data" prevented the United States' allies from receiving any information, despite the fact that
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3200-494: The United Nations , professional and private organizations, and influential persons. The explosion of postwar political activism demonstrated by the group became known as the "scientists' movement" with the basis of being unhappy with the United States' monopoly on nuclear weapons. During this movement, the idea was also established that no defense against an atomic bomb was feasible in the near future. Using these two ideas,
3300-596: The Wikimedia Foundation , have formed board-only structures. The National Association of Parliamentarians has generated concerns about the implications of this trend for the future of openness, accountability, and understanding of public concerns in nonprofit organizations. Specifically, they note that nonprofit organizations, unlike business corporations, are not subject to market discipline for products and shareholder discipline of their capital; therefore, without membership control of major decisions such as
3400-562: The nuclear technology it had jointly developed with its World War II allies , the United Kingdom and Canada . Most significantly, the Act ruled that nuclear weapon development and nuclear power management would be under civilian , rather than military control, and established the United States Atomic Energy Commission for this purpose. It was sponsored by Senator Brien McMahon ,
3500-592: The Atomic Energy Commission assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the wartime Manhattan Project . The Act was subsequently amended to promote private development of nuclear energy under the Eisenhower administration 's Atoms for Peace program in 1954. In restricting the access to nuclear information to other countries, it created a rift between the United States and its allies, particularly Britain and Canada, which had participated in
3600-667: The Atomic Energy Commission presented a set of draft amendments to the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy for consideration. After some debate, this resulted in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 . The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 proved insufficient in its objective of encouraging privately built and run nuclear reactors. A series of accidents with research reactors, including partial core meltdowns , made private companies cautious, and reluctant to become involved with nuclear energy without protection from liability. This led to
3700-637: The British and Canadian governments, before contributing technology and manpower to the Manhattan Project , had made agreements with the United States about the post-war sharing of nuclear technology. Those agreements had been formalized in the 1943 Quebec Agreement . In the case of the United Kingdom, these were developed further in the 1944 Hyde Park Agreement, which was signed by Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt . The Hyde Park Agreement
3800-1024: The CS Fund, the Bauman Foundation , the Stewart R. Mott Foundation , the Knight Foundation , the HKH Foundation, the Rockefeller Family Fund , and others." The Project on Government Secrecy worked to promote public access to government information and to illuminate the apparatus of government secrecy, including national security classification and declassification policies. The project also published previously undisclosed or hard-to-find government documents of public policy interest, as well as resources on intelligence policy. Declassified documents, as well as Congressional Research Service reports, are archived on
3900-719: The Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, proposed in January 1958 that the President should be able to share nuclear information with allies that were making "substantial and material contributions to the national defense and security". In addition to its own nuclear weapons, Britain had hosted American Strategic Air Command nuclear bombers since 1948. Congress amended the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 in June 1958, and America and Britain again began sharing nuclear research under
4000-403: The FAS had a rough annual budget of $ 7,000 and relied on mostly volunteer staff. In 1970 Jeremy J. Stone was selected as president of the organization and was the only staff member for the next 5 years. Due to Stone being the president and only member of the organization he influenced the future and direction of the organization heavily. With an increased budget in the 1990s FAS was able to employ
4100-653: The FAS proposed the United States and other technologically advanced nations had to work in unison to create a solution that would not end in complete destruction. In 1946, the FAS worked with the Ad Council to broadcast a list of facts regarding the state of the United Nations atomic energy negotiations as well as the American proposal for atomic development. In a rare example of an effort to simply give listeners facts with little to no political or personal bias,
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4200-435: The FAS. Scientists realized the importance of getting their point across, but conveying that to someone who had little to no background knowledge on the subject of atomic energy proved to be a challenge, a challenge that would stick with the FAS for many years. Many scientists from more localized organizations had comments like "We have failed. The people have not understood us or our foreign policy would have changed." By 1948,
4300-603: The Federation had grown to twenty local associations, with 2,500 members, and had been instrumental in the passage of the McMahon Act and the National Science Foundation , and had influenced the American position in the United Nations with regard to international control of atomic energy and disarmament. In addition to influencing government policy, it undertook a program of public education on
4400-469: The Federation of American Scientists, but its purpose remained the same—to agitate for the international control of atomic energy and its devotion to peaceful uses, public promotion of science and the freedom and integrity of scientists and scientific research. For this purpose, permanent headquarters were set up in Washington, D.C. , and contacts were established with the several branches of government,
4500-571: The Manhattan Project. This resulted in cumbersome command and control arrangements, and in Britain developing its own nuclear weapons. The Act was amended in 1958 to allow the United States to share information with its close allies. Nuclear weapons were developed during World War II by the wartime Manhattan Project . Key scientists working on the project anticipated that their development would have wide-ranging implications. However
4600-455: The NPO's reputation, making other employees happy, and attracting new donors. Liabilities promised on the full faith and credit of the organization but not recorded anywhere constitute accounting fraud . But even indirect liabilities negatively affect the financial sustainability of the NPO, and the NPO will have financial problems unless strict controls are instated. Some commenters have argued that
4700-889: The Nuclear Notebook often accurately count warhead inventories, down to the number, and, according to the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , represent an "authoritative accounting of global nuclear warheads compiled by top experts". The Nuclear Information Project conducts other open source investigations into nuclear weapons outside of the Nuclear Notebook. In addition to publishing on the Strategic Security blog, fellows also publish in Forbes . FAS's " Day One Project " crowdsources "science-based policy innovations that can appeal to lawmakers on both sides of
4800-494: The Secrecy News blog. The Biosecurity Program concentrates on researching and advocating policies that balance science and security without compromising national security or scientific progress. This includes preventing the misuse of research and promoting the public understanding of the real threats from biological and chemical weapons . The Federation of American Scientists also concentrates on researching and keeping
4900-640: The Senate Military Affairs Committee, the bill was held up by Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg . There was a storm of criticism from scientists, particularly those at the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago. Leó Szilárd and Harold Urey were particularly notable critics. The bill created a powerful administrator and deputy administrator, and specifically stated that they might be members of the armed forces. It
5000-478: The Senate Military Affairs Committee, which quickly became known as the McMahon Bill. This was initially a very liberal bill regarding the control of scientific research, and was broadly supported by scientists. McMahon framed the controversy as a question of military versus civilian control of atomic energy, although the May-Johnson Bill also provided for civilian control. The McMahon Bill attempted to address
5100-523: The Virtual Biosecurity Center (VBC) was set up. The Virtual Biosecurity Center provides and promotes biosecurity information, education, best practices and collaboration. Additionally, VBC offers significant news and events regarding biosecurity, a regularly updated education center and library, a global forum on Bio risks, an online informative policy tool, empowering partnerships among other professional biosecurity communities around
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#17327726083975200-471: The War Department of attempting to railroad the legislation through Congress. Legislators found themselves in an unusual and uncomfortable situation. Nuclear weapons were terrifying, and the nature of nuclear energy was not widely understood. Because it was so new, there were no policies or precedents to guide legislators, and traditional party alignments were absent. The scientists who had developed
5300-420: The act. Section 10, which was formerly titled "Dissemination of Information", now became "Control of Information". This new section contained the novel doctrine later described as " born secret " or "classified at birth". All information concerning the design, development and manufacture of nuclear weapons was " restricted data ", and regardless of how it was derived or obtained, was considered classified unless it
5400-461: The age of 16 volunteered for a nonprofit. In the United States, both nonprofit organizations and not-for-profit organizations are tax-exempt. There are various types of nonprofit exemptions, such as 501(c)(3) organizations that are a religious, charitable, or educational-based organization that does not influence state and federal legislation, and 501(c)(7) organizations that are for pleasure, recreation, or another nonprofit purpose. There
5500-538: The aisle" ready for implementation on "day one" of the next U.S. presidential administration, a project begun in 2019. "From 1991 to 2021, the FAS Project on Government Secrecy worked to challenge excessive government secrecy and to promote public oversight in national security affairs"..."The Project was directed by Steven Aftergood with the support of grants from the Open Society Foundations ,
5600-415: The amount of nuclear weapons that are in use, and prevent nuclear and radiological terrorism. It says it aims to present high standards for nuclear energy's safety and security, illuminate government secrecy practices, as well as track and eliminate the global illicit trade of conventional, nuclear, biological and chemical weapons. With 100 sponsors, the Federation of American Scientists says that it promotes
5700-649: The appropriate country code top-level domain for their country. In 2020, nonprofit organizations began using microvlogging (brief videos with short text formats) on TikTok to reach Gen Z, engage with community stakeholders, and overall build community. TikTok allowed for innovative engagement between nonprofit organizations and younger generations. During COVID-19, TikTok was specifically used to connect rather than inform or fundraise, as its fast-paced, tailored For You Page separates itself from other social media apps such as Facebook and Twitter. Some organizations offer new, positive-sounding alternative terminology to describe
5800-401: The best of the newly minted workforce. It has been mentioned that most nonprofits will never be able to match the pay of the private sector and therefore should focus their attention on benefits packages, incentives and implementing pleasurable work environments. A good environment is ranked higher than salary and pressure of work. NPOs are encouraged to pay as much as they are able and offer
5900-531: The bill feared that "atomic secrets" were being systematically stolen by Soviet atomic spies . McMahon convened an executive session at which Federal Bureau of Investigation Director J. Edgar Hoover , Secretary of State James F. Byrnes and Groves were called to appear. Groves revealed that the British physicist Alan Nunn May had passed information about the Manhattan Project to Soviet agents. The more conservative elements in Congress now moved to toughen
6000-565: The community; for example aid and development programs, medical research, education, and health services. It is possible for a nonprofit to be both member-serving and community-serving. Nonprofit organizations are not driven by generating profit, but they must bring in enough income to pursue their social goals. Nonprofits are able to raise money in different ways. This includes income from donations from individual donors or foundations; sponsorship from corporations; government funding; programs, services or merchandise sales, and investments. Each NPO
6100-474: The conception of the FAS were critical in terms of shaping international relations. The FAS wanted the public to become more critical and aware of the government, in order to monitor the decisions that were made to ensure that they matched what the public actually wanted. The FAS would act to inform the public about how destructive the improper use of atomic energy could be and emphasize the need to enforce international control of atomic weapons and energy. In 1969,
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#17327726083976200-505: The controversial aspects of the May-Johnson Bill. The number of commissioners was reduced to five, and they would serve full-time. No exemption was provided for serving military officers. An amendment specified that they have staggered terms of five years. While the bill was being debated, the news broke on February 16, 1946, of the defection of Igor Gouzenko in Canada, and the subsequent arrest of 22 people. The members of Congress debating
6300-402: The diversity of their funding sources. For example, many nonprofits that have relied on government grants have started fundraising efforts to appeal to individual donors. Most nonprofits have staff that work for the company, possibly using volunteers to perform the nonprofit's services under the direction of the paid staff. Nonprofits must be careful to balance the salaries paid to staff against
6400-648: The dominant legal interpretation of the McMahon Act has been that nuclear striking forces cannot be controlled by non-US commanders. This was the reason for the formation of Striking Fleet Atlantic as an independent entity, instead of being operationally subordinated to the UK Admiral serving as Commander-in-Chief, Eastern Atlantic, in October–November 1952. This was also the reason why the Sixth Fleet, in its NATO guise as Naval Striking and Support Force, South,
6500-432: The election of the board, there are few inherent safeguards against abuse. A rebuttal to this might be that as nonprofit organizations grow and seek larger donations, the degree of scrutiny increases, including expectations of audited financial statements. A further rebuttal might be that NPOs are constrained, by their choice of legal structure, from financial benefit as far as distribution of profit to members and directors
6600-475: The establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes. Most larger organizations are required to publish their financial reports detailing their income and expenditure publicly. In many aspects, they are similar to corporate business entities though there are often significant differences. Both not-for-profit and for-profit corporate entities must have board members, steering-committee members, or trustees who owe
6700-410: The fact that, under the proposed May-Johnson Bill, the United States military would have the majority of control over the development and control of atomic weapons. Working with congressmen, they worked to create the bill that brought forth the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). The Atomic Energy Commission oversaw the research into atomic energy and atomic weapons. On January 6, 1946, FAS changed its name to
6800-597: The hands of an administrator and his deputy. The Royall–Marbury Bill was reviewed by the Interim Committee at its July 19 meeting and revised in line with their suggestions. After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki lifted the veil of secrecy surrounding the Manhattan Project, Royall and Marbury were able to consult with the Attorney General , the Judge Advocate General and the Office of Scientific Research and Development . The draft
6900-432: The local laws, charities are regularly organized as non-profits. A host of organizations may be nonprofit, including some political organizations, schools, hospitals, business associations, churches, foundations, social clubs, and consumer cooperatives. Nonprofit entities may seek approval from governments to be tax-exempt , and some may also qualify to receive tax-deductible contributions, but an entity may incorporate as
7000-511: The money paid to provide services to the nonprofit's beneficiaries. Organizations whose salary expenses are too high relative to their program expenses may face regulatory scrutiny. A second misconception is that nonprofit organizations may not make a profit. Although the goal of nonprofits is not specifically to maximize profits, they still have to operate as a fiscally responsible business. They must manage their income (both grants and donations and income from services) and expenses so as to remain
7100-630: The national and local level. The Project worked to help create learning tools to bring about major gains in learning and training. The major project of the Program is Immune Attack , a fully 3-D game in which high school students discover the inner workings of the body's circulatory and immune systems, as they pilot a tiny drone through the bloodstream to fight microscopic invaders. The FAS Public Service Awards, established in 1971, recognize outstanding work in science policy and culture. Nonprofit A nonprofit organization ( NPO ), also known as
7200-427: The nature and control of atomic energy through lectures, films, exhibits, and the distribution of literature, coordinating its own activities with that of member organizations through the issue of memorandum , policy statements, information sheets, and newsletters. Nearly ninety percent of Manhattan Project personnel were in approval of the FAS, with few comparing the group to a "scientists' lobby." The mission of FAS
7300-471: The new organization. The Senate passed the Act unanimously through voice vote on June 1, 1946. Considerable political maneuvering was required before it was passed by the House 265–79 on July 20. A compromise bill was then agreed to by both houses on July 26. Truman signed the compromise bill into law as the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 on August 1, 1946. When it went into effect at midnight on January 1, 1947,
7400-404: The new technology had never been vocal before, but suddenly were now. The victorious conclusion of World War II gave the armed forces enormous prestige, but there still remained the long-standing American distrust of standing armies , and the tradition of civilian control of the military . On December 20, 1945, Senator Brien McMahon introduced an alternative bill on atomic energy, drafted by
7500-420: The newly created Atomic Energy Commission assumed responsibility for nuclear energy from the wartime Manhattan Project. An important omission from the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 was any mention of non-governmental use of nuclear energy, since military applications overshadowed all others at the time. The restrictions of the act related to secrecy, the control of fissile materials, the ownership of patents and
7600-445: The nonprofit sector today regarding newly graduated workers, and to some, NPOs have for too long relegated hiring to a secondary priority, which could be why they find themselves in the position many do. While many established NPOs are well-funded and comparative to their public sector competitors, many more are independent and must be creative with which incentives they use to attract and maintain people. The initial interest for many
7700-565: The nuclear fuel cycle. The project provides the general public and policy-makers with information and analysis on the status, number, and operation of nuclear weapons, the policies that guide their potential use and nuclear arms control. The project is run by Hans M. Kristensen . The Nuclear Information Project publishes yearly counts of global nuclear forces in the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists ’ "Nuclear Notebook" column. The Nuclear Notebook counts and analyzes international nuclear arsenals using open source research methodology. The estimates in
7800-406: The operation of production facilities placed a number of legal roadblocks in the way of private nuclear power stations. This was at odds with the Eisenhower administration 's Atoms for Peace program, and resulted in pressure on federal officials to develop a civilian nuclear power industry that could help justify the government's considerable expenditures on the nuclear weapons program. In 1953,
7900-411: The organization a fiduciary duty of loyalty and trust. A notable exception to this involves churches , which are often not required to disclose finances to anyone, including church members. In the United States, nonprofit organizations are formed by filing bylaws, articles of incorporation , or both in the state in which they expect to operate. The act of incorporation creates a legal entity enabling
8000-452: The organization to be treated as a distinct body (corporation) by law and to enter into business dealings, form contracts, and own property as individuals or for-profit corporations can. Nonprofits can have members, but many do not. The nonprofit may also be a trust or association of members. The organization may be controlled by its members who elect the board of directors , board of governors or board of trustees . A nonprofit may have
8100-511: The organization's sustainability. An advantage of nonprofits registered in the UK is that they benefit from some reliefs and exemptions. Charities and nonprofits are exempt from Corporation Tax as well as the trustees being exempt from Income Tax. There may also be tax relief available for charitable giving, via Gift Aid, monetary donations, and legacies. Founder's syndrome is an issue organizations experience as they expand. Dynamic founders, who have
8200-571: The project director, Major General Leslie R. Groves Jr. , was reluctant to spend project funds on activities beyond those required to win the war. Nonetheless, Arthur Compton of the Metallurgical Project in Chicago commissioned a report on post-war nuclear energy, and the Military Policy Committee, the Manhattan Project's governing body, commissioned a similar study by Richard Tolman . Both reports called for
8300-550: The public and private sectors have enjoyed an advantage over NPOs in attracting employees. Traditionally, the NPO has attracted mission-driven individuals who want to assist their chosen cause. Compounding the issue is that some NPOs do not operate in a manner similar to most businesses, or only seasonally. This leads many young and driven employees to forego NPOs in favor of more stable employment. Today, however, nonprofit organizations are adopting methods used by their competitors and finding new means to retain their employees and attract
8400-438: The public informed on genetic engineering and genetic modification as a subset of their biosecurity program. One of their major concerns is resistance that species can develop to certain modifications from genetic resistance or from the use of antibiotics. The big concerns with biosecurity are accidental biological threats, intentional malicious biological threats, and natural biological threat occurrences. Because of these threats
8500-483: The receipt of significant funding from large for-profit corporations can ultimately alter the NPO's functions. A frequent measure of an NPO's efficiency is its expense ratio (i.e. expenditures on things other than its programs, divided by its total expenditures). Competition for employees with the public and private sector is another problem that nonprofit organizations inevitably face, particularly for management positions. There are reports of major talent shortages in
8600-433: The scientists at FAS were able to broadcast this information to the public in hopes of informing the public to be "armed with the facts -- instead of swayed by emotions or prejudices." Throughout the course of trying to give the public information, the FAS attempted to coordinate with PR agencies to better connect with the audience. Most of these plans fell through as the agencies typically did not see eye-to-eye with members of
8700-505: The secret of the bomb", asserting that America's advantage in nuclear weapons could only be temporary, whereas the bill could perpetuate its lead in scientific research. An important addition, known as the Vandenberg Amendment, created a Military Liaison Committee to advise the commission on defense matters. Section 2 of the Act also created a General Advisory Committee, and a new Joint Committee on Atomic Energy to oversee
8800-423: The sector in its own terms, without relying on terminology used for the government or business sectors. However, use of terminology by a nonprofit of self-descriptive language that is not legally compliant risks confusing the public about nonprofit abilities, capabilities, and limitations. McMahon Act The Atomic Energy Act of 1946 ( McMahon Act ) determined how the United States would control and manage
8900-570: The sector. The term civil society organization (CSO) has been used by a growing number of organizations, including the Center for the Study of Global Governance . The term citizen sector organization (CSO) has also been advocated to describe the sector – as one of citizens, for citizens – by organizations including Ashoka: Innovators for the Public . Advocates argue that these terms describe
9000-489: The traditional domain noted in RFC 1591 , .org is for "organizations that didn't fit anywhere else" in the naming system, which implies that it is the proper category for non-commercial organizations if they are not governmental, educational, or one of the other types with a specific TLD. It is not designated specifically for charitable organizations or any specific organizational or tax-law status, but encompasses anything that
9100-612: The world, scheduled global conferences to raise awareness and develop plans for current and future biosecurity issues, as well as partnerships to tighten the gap between the scientific, public health, intelligence and law enforcement communities. The Learning Technologies Program (LTP) focused on ways to use innovative technologies to improve how people teach and learn. The LTP created prototype games and learning tools and assembled collaborative projects consisting of non-governmental organization , design professionals, and community leaders to undertake innovative education initiatives at both
9200-569: Was awarded $ 10,586,000 between 1984 and 2017, including 25 grants in International Peace & Security, MacArthur Award for Creative & Effective Institutions, and Nuclear Challenges. In 2004, the Federation of American Scientists received their largest grant from the MacArthur Foundation of $ 2,400,000 in support of everything that they do. The Nuclear Information Project covers nuclear weapons and arms control and
9300-543: Was based on Bush and Conant's proposal, and the organization that it proposed was based on the existing structure of the Manhattan Project. Their draft bill would have created a nine-person commission consisting of five civilian and four military members. It granted the commission broad powers to acquire property , operate facilities, conduct research, regulate all forms of nuclear energy, and administer its own security, administrative and audit regimes. Royall and Marbury envisaged nuclear energy being controlled by experts, with
9400-463: Was feared that they would dominate the part-time commissioners. The fact that the bill emphasized that the administrator had to keep the deputy fully informed further aroused suspicion that the administrator would be an Army officer and the deputy a Navy officer. The secrecy provisions also frightened many scientists; it contained severe penalties of up to ten years imprisonment and $ 10,000 in fines for security breaches. The Chicago Sun headline accused
9500-566: Was founded as the Federation of Atomic Scientists on November 30, 1945, by a group of scientists and engineers associated with the Manhattan Project, including personnel from the Oak Ridge and Los Alamos sites. Among the founding members were David Hawkins , Melba Phillips , and Robert R. Wilson . Its early mission was to support the McMahon Act of 1946, educate the public, press , politicians, and policy-makers, and promote international transparency and nuclear disarmament . The group
9600-561: Was frustrated with the control of the nation's nuclear arsenal and advocated for public control of the nuclear arsenal. A group of the early members of the Federation of American Scientists went to Washington, D.C. , and set up there sending letters to representatives in the House of Representatives and in the Senate to request support for their original goal not to support the May-Johnson Bill . The group of scientists were opposed to
9700-621: Was lost in Roosevelt's papers after his death, and until the American copy of the document was found American officials were puzzled when the British mentioned it. The Quebec Agreement was an executive agreement that only applied to the Roosevelt administration , and the Senate had not seen the document. McMahon told Churchill in 1952 that "If we had seen this Agreement, there would have been no McMahon Act." The McMahon Act fueled resentment from British scientists and Churchill and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons. Lewis Strauss ,
9800-557: Was placed under American control rather than Allied Forces Mediterranean when the European commands were agreed at the same time. A 2012 court decision concerning a state law attempting to shut down the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant affirmed that the Act gives the federal government exclusive authority over safety at nuclear power plants. This allowed Vermont Yankee to continue operating until it
9900-524: Was sent to the President in August for circulation among, and comment from, affected government agencies. Only the State Department had objections, on the basis that it was still involved in trying to hammer out an international agreement on nuclear energy. On October 3, 1945, the bill was introduced in the House of Representatives by Congressman Andrew J. May from Kentucky , the chairman of
10000-510: Was specifically declassified. This restriction on free speech, covering an entire subject matter, is still enforced. The "wall of secrecy" set up by the Act meant that atomic energy research and development had to be conducted under the supervision of the Atomic Energy Commission. Representative Helen Gahagan Douglas , who sponsored the McMahon Bill in the House, vigorously defended the dissemination provisions of Section 10 against counterarguments. She dismissed objections that it would "give away
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