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57-531: The area was populated by speakers of Uralic languages and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic . It was always a remote part of Kargopol lands characterized by a sparse population. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great , the area was included into Ingermanland Governorate (known from 1710 as Saint Petersburg Governorate ). In 1727, it was transferred to

114-670: A Finno-Permic grouping. Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś. Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988) The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within

171-502: A century's worth of editing work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists. The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches. Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics. There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation: Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in

228-458: A competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric. Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic). One alternative proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows: Another proposed tree, more divergent from

285-528: A connection between Uralic and other Paleo-Siberian languages. Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages, as well as vowel harmony in some. For example,

342-601: A right tributary of the Onega, has the Lake Bolshoye Moshenskoye as its source. This lake is in the southeast of the district and flows northwest, dividing the district into two roughly equal parts. The areas in the west of the district are in the basin of the Voloshka River , also a right tributary of the Onega. Minor areas in the east of the district belong to the basins of the left tributaries of

399-466: A stretch which starts north of Rostov and ends south of Yaroslavl was built as a dual carriageway. In Yaroslavl, the highway crosses the Volga River over a bridge. It further bypasses the center of Danilov and enters Vologda Oblast . The highway bypasses the center of Gryazovets and runs into the center of Vologda . The ring road was built in the 2000s which bypasses the center of Vologda from

456-473: Is porsas ("pig"), loaned from Proto-Indo-European *porḱos or pre- Proto-Indo-Iranian *porśos , unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization , *ś > s.) The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian: However, linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand

513-467: Is a major trunk road that links Moscow to the Russian North in general and the sea harbour of Arkhangelsk in particular. The road runs north of Moscow across a distance of 1271 kilometres through Mytishchi , Pushkino , Sergiyev Posad , Pereslavl-Zalessky , Rostov the Great , Yaroslavl , Danilov , Gryazovets , Vologda , Kadnikov , Velsk , Kholmogory , and Arkhangelsk , ending up in

570-441: Is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list above identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has also preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged. (An example

627-620: Is at the base of today's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of the Uralic family. Meanwhile, in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland , a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the University of Helsinki was created in 1850, first held by Castrén. In 1883, the Finno-Ugrian Society was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of Otto Donner , which would lead to Helsinki overtaking St. Petersburg as

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684-606: Is now European Russia, and the Budini , described by Herodotus as notably red-haired (a characteristic feature of the Udmurts ) and living in northeast Ukraine and/or adjacent parts of Russia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria , the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence. The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish

741-644: Is to any other language family. The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past, is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell , Thomas Burrow , Kamil Zvelebil , and Mikhail Andronov. This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages, and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti . Stefan Georg describes

798-533: The Eskimo–Aleut languages . This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it was made by Bergsland (1959). Uralo-Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan , and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998. Michael Fortescue (2017) presented new evidence in favor for

855-674: The Indo-European family. In 1717, the Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid. Several early reports comparing Finnish or Hungarian with Mordvin, Mari or Khanty were additionally collected by Gottfried Leibniz and edited by his assistant Johann Georg von Eckhart . In 1730, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published his book Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia ( The Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia ), surveying

912-540: The October Revolution of 1917 the road was subordinated to the Department of Northern Okrug of Local Transportation and pretty much neglected due to the lack of expertise. The construction of the modern paved highway connecting Moscow and Arkhangelsk was planned in the 1950s and actually started in 1961. In 1967, the paved road between Kholmogory and Arkhangelsk was opened. Much of the construction work

969-717: The Proto-Uralic language include: The first plausible mention of a people speaking a Uralic language is in Tacitus 's Germania ( c.  98 AD ), mentioning the Fenni (usually interpreted as referring to the Sámi ) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. There are many possible earlier mentions, including the Iyrcae (perhaps related to Yugra) described by Herodotus living in what

1026-796: The Vaga River —the Vel , the Padenga , and the Led . An area in the north of the district belongs to the basin of the Mekhrenga River , a right tributary of the Yemtsa . There are many lakes in the district, the biggest one being Lake Nimengskoye , which belongs to the basin of the Voloshka River. A major part of the district is covered by coniferous forests ( taiga ). There are many swamps in

1083-657: The Vepsians to general knowledge and elucidated in detail the relatedness of Finnish and Komi. Still more extensive were the field research expeditions made in the 1840s by Matthias Castrén (1813–1852) and Antal Reguly (1819–1858), who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the Ob-Ugric languages , respectively. Reguly's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy  [ hu ] (1810–1891) and German Josef Budenz (1836–1892), who both supported

1140-536: The 1960s. Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Nivkh , Ainu , and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000–2002. Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965. The linguist Angela Marcantonio has argued against

1197-767: The European parts of the Russian Federation. Still smaller minority languages are Sámi languages of the northern Fennoscandia ; other members of the Finnic languages , ranging from Livonian in northern Latvia to Karelian in northwesternmost Russia; and the Samoyedic languages , Mansi and Khanty spoken in Western Siberia . The name Uralic derives from the family's purported "original homeland" ( Urheimat ) hypothesized to have been somewhere in

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1254-540: The Uralic affinity of Hungarian. Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto-Finno-Ugric grammar and lexicon. Another late-19th-century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász  [ hu ] (1855–1901), who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s, and whose work

1311-553: The abolished Konoshsky District , but in 1935 Konoshsky District was reestablished, and the areas were transferred to it. In 1936, the krai itself was transformed into Northern Oblast . In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Nyandomsky District remained in Arkhangelsk Oblast ever since. A major part of the district belongs to the basin of the Onega River . The Mosha River ,

1368-409: The acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation ( ⟨ś⟩ [sʲ ~ ɕ] , ⟨ć⟩ [tsʲ ~ tɕ] , ⟨l⟩ [lʲ] ) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter ⟨y⟩ and the letter ⟨ü⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel [y] ; the letters ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are the front vowels [æ] and [ø] . As

1425-404: The area. As an administrative division , the district is divided into eight selsoviets and one town of district significance ( Nyandoma ). One locality which previously had urban-type settlement status ( Shalakusha ), was downgraded to a rural locality in 2005. The following selsoviets have been established (the administrative centers are given in parentheses): As a municipal division ,

1482-525: The arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic. The term Volgaic (or Volga-Finnic ) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one. Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been

1539-405: The center of Pushkino and bypasses Sergiyev Posad . As of 2011, the dual carriageway ends at the border of Moscow Oblast, northeast of the city of Sergiyev Posad . The highway crosses a short stretch of Vladimir Oblast and enters Yaroslavl Oblast . It further runs through the center of Pereslavl-Zalessky (there is a ring road) and through the centers of Rostov and Yaroslavl . As of 2011,

1596-625: The center of Velsk and further north along the left bank of the Vaga River , bypassing the town of Shenkursk (located on the right bank of the Vaga), and north of Bereznik - along the left bank of the Northern Dvina River . It further bypasses the town of Novodvinsk and connects to Arkhangelsk , located on the right bank of the Northern Dvina, by a bridge. The highway route continues further 45 kilometres (28 mi) along

1653-819: The chief northern center of research of the Uralic languages. During the late 19th and early 20th century (until the separation of Finland from Russia following the Russian Revolution ), the Society hired many scholars to survey the still less-known Uralic languages. Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen (studying especially the Mordvinic languages ), Yrjö Wichmann (studying Permic ), Artturi Kannisto  [ fi ] ( Mansi ), Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen ( Khanty ), Toivo Lehtisalo ( Nenets ), and Kai Donner ( Kamass ). The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide over

1710-508: The city of Severodvinsk . It passes Moscow , Vladimir , Yaroslavl , Vologda , and Arkhangelsk Oblasts . In Moscow, the highway is known as Yaroslavskoe Shosse . The stretch of the highway between Moscow and Yaroslavl is part of the Golden Ring of Russia and is also part of European route E115 . The predecessor of the highway was the Yam service state road which was established in

1767-541: The district is divided into one urban settlement and two rural settlements (the administrative centers are given in parentheses): The most important industry in the district is timber industry. Food industry is also present Agriculture in the region is limited mostly to milk and meat production. Nyandoma is on the paved road connecting Dolmatovo, which is on one of the principal highways in Russia, M8 connecting Moscow and Arkhangelsk, with Kargopol . Another paved road, in

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1824-784: The district is the House of Nyan, in Nyandoma. Uralic languages The Uralic languages ( / j ʊəˈr æ l ɪ k / yoor- AL -ik ), sometimes called the Uralian languages ( / j ʊəˈr eɪ l i ə n / yoor- AY -lee-ən ), are spoken predominantly in Europe and North Asia . The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian (which alone accounts for approximately 60% of speakers), Finnish , and Estonian . Other languages with speakers above 100,000 are Erzya , Moksha , Mari , Udmurt and Komi spoken in

1881-502: The early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, " Finno-Ugric " for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639-5 as primary branches of Uralic. The following table lists nodes of

1938-484: The end of 14th century and connected Moscow to Kholmogory. Arkhangelsk was founded in 1548 and until early the 18th century served as the main gateway for foreign trade in Russia. In 1703, Saint Petersburg was founded, but the postal service still proceeded via Arkhangelsk, since the Saint Petersburg route was uncertain doe to the war between Russia and Sweden . In 1693, the regular state postal service along

1995-588: The epoch". Still, in spite of this hostile climate, the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics traveled with Maximilian Hell to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sámi, while they were also on a mission to observe the 1769 Venus transit . Sajnovics published his results in 1770, arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features. In 1799, the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published

2052-402: The geography, peoples and languages of Russia. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here. Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of

2109-472: The most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, knowledge of the Uralic languages spoken in Russia had remained restricted to scanty observations by travelers. Already the Finnish historian Henrik Gabriel Porthan had stressed that further progress would require dedicated field missions. One of the first of these was undertaken by Anders Johan Sjögren , who brought

2166-456: The newly established Novgorod Governorate . After a number of administrative reforms, Kargopolsky Uyezd became one of the four uyezds of the newly established Olonets Governorate . In 1894, the decision was taken on the railroad construction from Vologda to Arkhangelsk. It was decided that the railroad must take the shortest route, which means it should bypass Kargopol and traverse the current territory of Nyandomsky District. In 1896, Nyandoma

2223-469: The nine undisputed families) are becoming more common. A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century. It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Otto Donner's model from 1879 is as follows: At Donner's time, the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in

2280-523: The north, crossing the Vologda River . M8 runs further in the northern direction, bypassing the center of Sokol (it crosses the Sukhona River in the village of Vasyutino southwest of Sokol) and running through the center of Kadnikov . It further passes through the selo and the district center of Syamzha and bypasses Verkhovazhye before entering Arkhangelsk Oblast . M8 runs through

2337-444: The northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages. [REDACTED] All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of language change , from Proto-Uralic . The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed. Doubts about the validity of most or all of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping

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2394-535: The number of common words. The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them. Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation ( ⟨ž⟩ [ʒ] , ⟨š⟩ [ʃ] , ⟨č⟩ [t͡ʃ] ) (In Northern Sámi, ( ⟨ž⟩ [dʒ] ), while

2451-443: The other language's version of the sentence. No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include: Notes: Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these is generally accepted by linguists at the present time: All of the following hypotheses are minority views at

2508-446: The present time in Uralic studies. The Uralic–Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts. Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number. The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with

2565-549: The route was established by Peter the Great . In the 18th century, Arkhangelsk lost its significance, and the road was badly maintained. Since 1834, when the postal service in Arkhangelsk Governorate was created, the road maintenance had to be funded from local sources. The road was split into sections funded locally. By the middle of the 19th century, the road comprised 143 bridges and four river crossings. Fourteen postal stations operated with 140 horses. After

2622-526: The similarities of Sámi, Estonian, and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian. These authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno-Ugric, and later Uralic family. This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as

2679-488: The southern direction, connects Nyandoma with Konosha . Nyandoma is located on the railway line between Moscow and Arkhangelsk (built in the south-north direction), and as a matter of fact was founded in 1896 as a railway station and was only granted town status in 1939. The district contains thirty-one objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local importance. Most of these are chapels and wooden rural houses built prior to 1917. The only state museum in

2736-592: The standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997), and refined in Viitso (2000): The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δʲ > *ð between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for

2793-413: The theory as "outlandish" and "not meriting a second look" even in contrast to hypotheses such as Uralo-Yukaghir or Indo-Uralic. Nostratic associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Afroasiatic, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903 and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in

2850-917: The three families where gradation is found) is noted by Helimski (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well. A computational phylogenetic study by Honkola, et al. (2013) classifies the Uralic languages as follows. Estimated divergence dates from Honkola, et al. (2013) are also given. Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include: Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase

2907-597: The traditional family tree that are recognized in some overview sources. Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage. A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted. The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though

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2964-618: The validity of several subgroups of the Uralic family, as well against the family itself, claiming that many of the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages (e.g. Yukaghir or Turkic), and that in particular Hungarian is a language isolate. Marcantonio's proposal has been strongly dismissed by most reviewers as unfounded and methodologically flawed. Problems identified by reviewers include: M8 highway (Russia) The Russian route M8 "Kholmogory" ( Russian : М-8 «Холмогоры» ) or Yaroslavl highway ( Russian : Ярославское шоссе ),

3021-637: The vicinity of the Ural Mountains , and was first proposed by Julius Klaproth in Asia Polyglotta (1823). Finno-Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages. Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous. Uralic languages are known for their often complex case systems and vowel harmony . Proposed homelands of

3078-469: The word for "language" is similar in Estonian ( keel ) and Mongolian ( хэл ( hel )). These theories are now generally rejected and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence. The Indo-Uralic (or "Indo-Euralic") hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo-European are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either

3135-599: Was completed by the end of the 1970s, however, most of the road (all stretches north of Yaroslavl) still only supports two- or three-lane traffic. The highway starts in Moscow as Bolshaya Lubyanka Street , Sretenka Street , Mira Avenue , and Yaroslavsky Highway . It crosses the Moscow Ring Road and proceeds to the Moscow Region as a dual carriageway. It runs through the urban area of Mytishchi , bypasses

3192-599: Was first proposed in the late 17th century. Three candidates can be credited for the discovery: the German scholar Martin Fogel  [ de ] , the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm , and the Swedish courtier Bengt Skytte . Fogel's unpublished study of the relationship, commissioned by Cosimo III of Tuscany, was clearly the most modern of these: he established several grammatical and lexical parallels between Finnish and Hungarian as well as Sámi. Stiernhielm commented on

3249-561: Was founded as a railway station. On July 15, 1929, the uyezds were abolished, the governorates merged into Northern Krai , and the Nyandomsky District was established. It became a part of Nyandoma Okrug , one of the five in Northern Krai. In 1930, the okrug was abolished, and the district was subordinated to the central administration of Northern Krai. A short time in the 1930s, the district absorbed some areas of

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