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125-833: While leading the Chatham County Crusade For Voters in Savannah, Georgia , one of many SCLC affiliates across the South, Rev. Hosea Williams , an aide to SCLC chairman Martin Luther King Jr. , was joined by white college students for various short-term civil rights projects. From that interracial success, they developed the idea of SCOPE. Dr. King and SCLC leaders decided to recruit white college students to journey south to join with local activists. The goals included preparing African Americans for voting, as they had mostly been long disenfranchised throughout

250-415: A filibuster to prevent its passage. Russell proclaimed, "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would tend to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our [Southern] states." Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond , who was still a Democrat at the time: "This so-called Civil Rights Proposals [ sic ], which

375-824: A 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate. After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964. In the 1883 landmark Civil Rights Cases , the United States Supreme Court had ruled that Congress did not have

500-416: A Democrat and staunch segregationist from Virginia , indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely. The assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy's successor as president, Lyndon B. Johnson , made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of

625-654: A U.S. Congressman, United Nations Ambassador, and Mayor of Atlanta, told a King Holiday audience in Atlanta, "The volunteers in SCOPE knew that some of the Freedom Summer workers had been killed the Summer before, but they came anyway." On another occasion, he told a reunion of civil rights Movement volunteers, including SCOPE veterans, "Most of you were taking your lives in your hands by associating with us. It made us truly

750-604: A coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell Jr. of the NAACP. After the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom , on August 28, 1963, the organizers visited Kennedy to discuss the civil rights bill. Roy Wilkins , A. Philip Randolph , and Walter Reuther attempted to persuade him to support

875-524: A compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative". The president's bill went first to the House of Representatives , where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee , chaired by New York Democrat Emanuel Celler . After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler's committee strengthened

1000-562: A design known as the Oglethorpe Plan . During the 1996 Summer Olympics hosted by Atlanta , Savannah held sailing competitions in the nearby Wassaw Sound . On February 12, 1733, General James Oglethorpe and settlers from the ship Anne landed at Yamacraw Bluff and were greeted by Tomochichi , the Yamacraws , and Indian traders John and Mary Musgrove . Mary Musgrove often served as an interpreter. The city of Savannah and

1125-465: A dramatic increase in the number of violent crimes, including at least 54 deaths due to gun violence, a number not seen since the early 1990s. The first quarter of 2018 saw crime trending downward, compared to 2017. Before British colonization of the Americas and the founding of colonial Georgia , the coastal region's indigenous inhabitants practiced Native American religions . Since colonization,

1250-435: A filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure. The most dramatic moment during the cloture vote came when Senator Clair Engle (D-CA) was wheeled into the chamber. Suffering from terminal brain cancer , unable to speak, he pointed to his left eye, signifying his affirmative " Aye " vote when his name was called. He died seven weeks later. On June 19,

1375-485: A long-term change in the demographics of the support for each. President Kennedy realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose

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1500-607: A national movement, when the students came. Their parents had to learn about the South." Books about SCOPE by its participants include: This Bright Light of Ours: Stories from the Voting Rights Fight , Maria Gitin, University of Alabama Press, Feb 2014. Willy Siegel Leventhal offered his collection of SCOPE documents and essays: The SCOPE of Freedom , to enable Gitin to contact some of her co-workers and to conduct some fact checking. Savannah, Georgia Savannah ( / s ə ˈ v æ n ə / sə- VAN -ə )

1625-921: A non-profit that provides food and assistance to the poor in Atlanta; Rabbi Moshe Shur, Hillel Rabbi at Queens College ; Peter Geffen, international educator and founder of the Abraham Heschel Day School in NYC; Dr. Dean Savage, chair, Dept of Sociology, Queens College;, Dr. James Simons, M.D., oncologist, Kaiser Hospital, Oakland, California, Judy Van Allen, Institute For African Development, Cornell University; Dick Reavis, professor, NC State University; Dr. Bruce Mirhoff, professor, SUNY; Bruce Hartford, co-founder Civil Rights Vets website; Beth Pickens, attorney – NYC; Joel Siegel , film critic for Good Morning America ; Rick Tuttle , served for 16 years as Los Angeles City Controller; and others. The names of additional participants who became leaders can be found on

1750-579: A peaceful surrender to save Savannah from destruction, and Union troops marched into the city at dawn. Savannah was named after the Savannah River, which probably derives from variant names for the Shawnee , a Native American people who migrated to the river in the 1680s. The Shawnee destroyed another Native people, the Westo , and occupied their lands at the head of the Savannah River's navigation on

1875-696: A provision establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission that would ban discriminatory practices by all federal agencies, unions, and private companies. Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage. The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963 and referred to the Rules Committee , whose chairman, Howard W. Smith ,

2000-409: A session at Atlanta's Oglethorpe University , "The SCOPE volunteers were no different than Freedom Summer workers; we were all together that summer of 1965, and we all took the same risks. The SCOPE volunteers stood shoulder to shoulder with us in our struggle for civil and voting rights." In assessing the contributions of the SCOPE volunteers, Andrew Young, who later became a politician, serving as

2125-496: A stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s. Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation, Republican 1964 presidential candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, voted against the bill, remarking, "You can't legislate morality." Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as

2250-465: A substitute bill that they hoped would overcome it by combining a sufficient number of Republicans as well as core liberal Democrats. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version as to the government's power in regulating the conduct of private business, but not weak enough to make the House reconsider it. Senator Robert Byrd ended his filibuster in opposition to the bill on the morning of June 10, 1964, after 14 hours and 13 minutes. Up to then,

2375-496: A supportive memorandum at the behest of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women . Griffiths also argued that the laws "protecting" women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs. The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with

2500-663: A ten-week initiative, the SCOPE Project registered an estimated 49,000 new voters through the combined efforts of the local community and the SCOPE college volunteers, from June 14 – August 28, 1965. In addition, SCOPE educated thousands of citizens in political and voter literacy education classes. The volunteers tested and reported violations of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act (signed into law August 9, 1965) to John Doar, Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights. Based on this and related data,

2625-589: A ton of silk per year was exported to England. Georgia's mild climate offered perfect conditions for growing cotton , which became the dominant commodity after the American Revolution . Its production under the plantation system and shipment through the Port of Savannah helped the city's European immigrants achieve wealth and prosperity. By the nineteenth century, the Port of Savannah had become one of

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2750-639: A violation [of the Constitution], because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race." Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself," but two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing. The bill divided both major American political parties and engendered

2875-547: A week-long orientation at Morris Brown College in Atlanta. It was led by Bayard Rustin , activist and organizer of the 1963 March On Washington . Other faculty included: Vernon Jordan of the Urban League ; Ralph Helstein , president of the Meatpackers Union; John Doar , US Assistant Attorney for Civil Rights; Michael Harrington , author of The Other America , about the problems of persistent poverty in

3000-509: Is Georgia's fifth most populous city, with a 2020 U.S. census population of 147,780. The Savannah metropolitan area , Georgia's third-largest , had a 2020 population of 404,798. Savannah attracts millions of visitors each year to its cobblestone streets, parks, and notable historic buildings. These include the birthplace of Juliette Gordon Low (founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA ),

3125-479: Is the main location of Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil . Opulent buildings that succumbed to fire include the mansions at Bonaventure Plantation and Greenwich Plantation . Colonial Park Cemetery was the city's principal burial ground for much of the eighteenth century when Georgia was a British colony. Laurel Grove Cemetery , with the graves of many Confederate soldiers and enslaved African Americans,

3250-680: Is the oldest city in the U.S. state of Georgia and the county seat of Chatham County . Established in 1733 on the Savannah River , the city of Savannah became the British colonial capital of the Province of Georgia and later the first state capital of Georgia. A strategic port city in the American Revolution and during the American Civil War , Savannah is today an industrial center and an important Atlantic seaport. It

3375-615: The 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax . He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states' rights . Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 60 working day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D-TN) and J. William Fulbright (D-AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D-WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight. There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have

3500-544: The Coastal State Prison in Savannah. Beyond its architectural significance as the nation's largest, historically restored urban area, Savannah has a rich and growing performing arts scene and offers cultural events throughout the year. Savannah's architecture, history, and reputation for Southern charm and hospitality are internationally known. The city's former promotional name was the "Hostess City of

3625-869: The Georgia Historical Society (the oldest continually operating historical society in the South ), the Telfair Academy of Arts and Sciences (one of the South's first public museums), the First African Baptist Church (one of the oldest African-American Baptist congregations in the United States), Temple Mickve Israel (the third-oldest synagogue in the U.S.), and the Central of Georgia Railway roundhouse complex (the oldest standing antebellum rail facility in

3750-805: The Gulfstream Aerospace company, maker of private jets, and various other significant industrial interests. TitleMax is headquartered in Savannah. Morris Multimedia , a newspaper and television company based in Savannah. In 2000, JCB , the third-largest producer of construction equipment in the world and the leading manufacturer of backhoes and telescopic handlers, built its North American headquarters near Savannah in Pooler on I-95 near Savannah/Hilton Head International Airport . By 2023, Naturals2Go relocated to Savannah, and Amazon has operated throughout Savannah and its metropolitan area since 2021. The Georgia Department of Corrections operates

3875-579: The Isle of Hope . The Savannah International Trade & Convention Center is located on Hutchinson Island , across from downtown Savannah and surrounded by the Savannah River. The Savannah Belles Ferry connects the island with the mainland, as does the Talmadge Memorial Bridge . The Georgia Historical Society is an independent educational and research institution with a research center in Savannah. The center's library and archives hold

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4000-662: The January 1985 Arctic outbreak . Seasonally, Savannah tends to have hot and humid summers with frequent (but brief) thunderstorms that develop in the warm and tropical air masses, which are common. Although summers in Savannah are frequently sunny, half of Savannah's annual precipitation falls from June through September. Average dewpoints in summer range from 67.8 to 71.6 °F (20 to 22 °C). Winters in Savannah are mild and sunny with average daily high temperatures of 61.4 °F (16 °C) in January. November and December are

4125-738: The March on Washington Movement , just before the U.S. entered World War II, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 , the first federal anti-discrimination order, and established the Fair Employment Practices Committee . Roosevelt's successor, President Harry Truman , appointed the President's Committee on Civil Rights , proposed the 20th century's first comprehensive Civil Rights Act, and issued Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981 , providing for fair employment and desegregation throughout

4250-546: The Methodist evangelists John Wesley and George Whitefield . Christ Church continues as an active congregation located on its original site on Johnson Square. The Independent Presbyterian Church , which was founded in 1755, has represented the community's Presbyterian constituency. Other historically prominent churches have included: the First Bryan Baptist Church , an African American church that

4375-502: The National Weather Service has kept records of most data continually since then; since 1948, Savannah-Hilton Head International Airport has served as Savannah's official meteorological station. Annual records (dating back to 1950) from the airport's weather station are available on the web. Savannah is a city of diverse neighborhoods. More than 100 distinct neighborhoods can be identified in six principal areas of

4500-556: The Statesboro and Jesup micropolitan statistical areas. The official 2020 population of this area was 608,239, up from 525,844 at the 2010 census. In 2010, there were 51,375 households, out of which 28.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.2% were married couples living together, 21.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 38.9% were non-families. Among them, 31.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.5% had someone living alone who

4625-669: The United States Census Bureau (2011), the city has a total area of 108.7 square miles (281.5 km ), of which 103.1 square miles (267.0 km ) is land and 5.6 square miles (15 km ) is water (5.15%). Savannah is the primary port on the Savannah River and the largest port in Georgia. It is also near the U.S. Intracoastal Waterway . Georgia's Ogeechee River flows toward the Atlantic Ocean some 16 miles (26 km) south of downtown Savannah and forms

4750-468: The fall line , near present-day Augusta . These Shawnee, whose Native name was Ša·wano·ki (literally, "southerners"), were known by several local variants, including Shawano, Savano, Savana and Savannah. Another theory is that the name Savannah refers to the extensive marshlands surrounding the river for miles inland, and is derived from the English term " savanna ", a kind of tropical grassland, which

4875-474: The poverty line , including 31.4% of those under age 18 and 15.1% of those age 65 or over. By the 2022 American Community Survey , the median household income was $ 53,258 with a per capita income of $ 31,006. In 2010, the racial and ethnic makeup of the city was 55.04% Black , 38.03% White , 2.00% Asian , 0.03% Native American , 0.01% Pacific Islander , 0.93% from other races , and 2.01% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.07% of

5000-472: The 11 states that had made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War . "Northern" refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of their geographic location including Southern states like Kentucky. House of Representatives: Senate: House of Representatives: Note that four Representatives voted Present while 13 did not vote. Senate: One year earlier,

5125-681: The 1779 Siege of Savannah and for an independent America. One of the few black regiments to fight for the American side in the Revolutionary War, the soldiers were recruited from present-day Haiti , which was the French colony of Saint-Domingue until its independence in 1804. Chippewa Square honors the Battle of Chippawa during the War of 1812 . It features a large statue of James Oglethorpe ,

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5250-616: The 1930s, during the New Deal , the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the Commerce Clause, thus paving the way for the federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause. Influenced in part by the " Black Cabinet " advisors and

5375-495: The 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision. In June 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in three cases ( Bostock v. Clayton County , Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda , and R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission ) that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which barred employers from discriminating on

5500-564: The 1964 Act. SCLC and other organizations bridged racial and religious barriers to forge partnerships with both white Christian and Jewish groups, along with progressives in the Southern Regional Council and other organizations. The students lived with African-American families, who were paid $ 15 a week for their room and board, which barely covered expenses. About 40 of these college volunteers were invited by Dr. King, Williams, and his assistant, Gwendolyn Green, to join

5625-601: The 1964 bill in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights on June 11, 1963. He sought legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public—hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments"—as well as "greater protection for the right to vote". In late July, Walter Reuther , president of the United Auto Workers , warned that if Congress failed to pass Kennedy's civil rights bill,

5750-792: The Baptist , the Episcopal St. John's Church , and Temple Mickve Israel (the third-oldest synagogue in the U.S.). According to the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020, the largest Christian group overall were Protestants within the Baptist tradition, served by the Southern Baptist Convention , National Baptist Convention , National Missionary Baptist Convention , and Progressive National Baptist Convention . Non-denominational Protestants represented

5875-645: The British at the Siege of Savannah . The British did not leave the city until July 1782. In December 1804 the state legislature declared Milledgeville the new capital of Georgia. Savannah, a prosperous seaport throughout the nineteenth century, was the Confederacy's sixth most populous city and the prime objective of General William T. Sherman 's March to the Sea . On December 21, 1864, local authorities negotiated

6000-854: The Civil Rights Act of 1957 did establish the United States Commission on Civil Rights and the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division . By 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%, and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1960 , which eliminated certain loopholes left by the 1957 Act. In winning the 1960 United States presidential election , Kennedy took 70% of the African American vote. But due to his somewhat narrow victory and Democrats' narrow majorities in Congress, he

6125-447: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process". In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston's claims. Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on

6250-440: The Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III" that had been removed from the 1957 Act and 1960 Act . Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights. Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights ,

6375-486: The Deep South, this is characterized by long and almost tropical summers and short, mild winters. Savannah records only a few days of freezing temperatures each year, and snowfall is rare. Due to its proximity to the Atlantic coast, Savannah rarely experiences temperatures as extreme as those in Georgia's interior. Nevertheless, the extreme temperatures have officially ranged from 105 °F (41 °C), on July 20, 1986, and July 12, 1879, down to 3 °F (−16 °C) during

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6500-453: The Fall, and as a romantic escape. Savannah was also named as America's second-best city for "Cool Buildings and Architecture", behind only Chicago . The mile-long Jones Street has been described as one of the most charming streets in America. Savannah is noted for its 22 squares and small parks along five historic streets running north to south. Each street has between three and five squares. The squares vary in size and character, from

6625-529: The Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits. On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Representatives drafting

6750-455: The President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress." After the filibuster had gone on for 54 days, Senators Mansfield, Hubert Humphrey , Everett Dirksen , and Thomas Kuchel introduced

6875-780: The SCLC Field Staff. They were paid a subsistence salary of $ 5 a week, and the African-American community provided housing and meals. Many veterans from other SCLC campaigns were assigned to the SCOPE project, including: Field Staff members Rev. Willie Bolden, Benjamin Van Clark, Jimmie L. Wells, Lula Williams, Lena Turner, Gloria Wise, Jewell Wise, Patricia Simpson, R. B. Cottonreader, J.T. Johnson, Tom Houck, Dana Swan, Rev. James Orange , Ben "Sunshine" Owens, "Big Lester" Hankerson, Leon Hall, Bruce Hartford, and others. Both Albert Turner and Stony Cooks worked closely with Williams in statewide leadership roles. SCOPE volunteers were subject to violence, tear-gassing, harassment, and threats with guns on numerous occasions, according to "incident reports" from

7000-463: The Savannah River, one mile east of Savannah's Historic District. Built between 1808 and 1812 to protect the city from attack by sea, it was one of several Confederate forts defending Savannah from Union forces during the Civil War . Fort Pulaski National Monument , located on Cockspur Island, 17 miles (27 km) east of Savannah, preserves the largest fort protecting the city during the war. The Union Army bombarded Fort Pulaski in April 1862 with

7125-452: The South", which the city government still uses. An earlier nickname was "the Forest City", in reference to the large population of live oak trees that flourish in the Savannah area. These trees were especially valuable in shipbuilding during the 19th century. In 2019, Savannah attracted 14.8 million tourists from across the country and around the world. Savannah's downtown area is one of the largest National Historic Landmark districts in

7250-411: The South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway." Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election". Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became

7375-422: The South. If necessary, they could participate in organizing street demonstrations to help put political pressure on Congress, should the proposed Voting Rights Act of 1965 be met with congressional resistance and stalling by segregationist forces. In the winter and spring of 1965, the Voting Rights Movement in Selma, Alabama, and the Selma to Montgomery marches were challenging the segregated status quo. During

7500-469: The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) conducted investigations and deployed Federal voter registrars to counties that denied African Americans' right to vote. SCLC field staff and SCOPE volunteers also worked with the DOJ Community Relations Service (CRS). They engaged in nonviolent demonstrations to dramatize the denial of voting rights, and the refusal of local jurisdictions to remove "white only" signs and desegregate public accommodations in accordance with

7625-418: The U.S. and now a museum and visitor center). Savannah's downtown area, which includes the Savannah Historic District , its 22 parklike squares , and the Savannah Victorian Historic District , is one of the largest National Historic Landmark Districts in the United States (designated by the federal government in 1966). Downtown Savannah largely retains the founder James Oglethorpe 's original town plan,

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7750-492: The US; civil rights lawyer Charles Morgan, Jr. , and Dr. King, Young, Rev. Ralph Abernathy , Junius Griffin, Rev. James Bevel , and others on the SCLC Executive Staff. In the targeted counties, where there was a history of black voter disenfranchisement, the student volunteers were led by those local African-American leaders who had requested their aid; they were joined by Black community volunteers, including local ministers and numerous local high school and college youth. During

7875-515: The United States. The city's location offers tourists access to the coastal islands and the Savannah Riverfront, both popular tourist destinations. Tybee Island , formerly known as "Savannah Beach", is the site of the Tybee Island Light Station , the first lighthouse on the southern Atlantic coast. Other picturesque towns adjacent to Savannah include the shrimping village of Thunderbolt and three residential areas that began as summer resort communities for Savannahians: Beaulieu , Vernonburg, and

8000-436: The act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by

8125-694: The aid of a new rifled cannon . Confederate troops soon surrendered, and the cannon rendered all brick fortifications obsolete. 1964 Civil Rights Act This is an accepted version of this page District of Columbia The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ( Pub. L.   88–352 , 78  Stat.   241 , enacted July 2, 1964 ) is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race , color , religion, sex, and national origin. It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations , and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of

8250-424: The amendment. Along with Representative Martha Griffiths , he was the amendment's chief spokesperson. For 20 years, Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. For decades he had been close to the National Woman's Party and its leader Alice Paul , who had been a leading figure in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, co-authored

8375-586: The basis of sex, precluded employers from discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity . Afterward, USA Today stated that in addition to LGBTQ employment discrimination, "[t]he court's ruling is likely to have a sweeping impact on federal civil rights laws barring sex discrimination in education, health care, housing and financial credit." Title I barred unequal application of voter registration requirements. This title did not eliminate literacy tests , which acted as one barrier for black voters, other racial minorities, and poor whites in

8500-442: The bill because he opposed civil rights for Black people and women or attempted to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women. Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party's platform since 1944, would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because labor unions opposed

8625-419: The bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee , which was chaired by James O. Eastland , a Democrat from Mississippi , whose firm opposition made it seem impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the Judiciary Committee from keeping the bill in limbo: initially waiving a second reading immediately after

8750-418: The bill's opponents' most damaging arguments was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools. The bill's proponents, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits , said it would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Hubert Humphrey wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing. Humphrey said, "if the bill were to compel it, it would be

8875-410: The bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long." Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee; it required

9000-436: The city of Savannah and the surrounding area have remained predominantly Christian . However, a Jewish community has lived in Savannah since the colony's first year. Later, Gullah-Geechee culture and Hoodoo practices were also observed, often alongside Christianity. Founded in 1733, with the establishment of the Georgia colony, Christ Church is the longest continuous Christian congregation in Georgia. Early rectors include

9125-435: The city's founder. In popular culture, the square is the location of the park bench seen in the 1994 film Forrest Gump from which the title character dispenses wisdom to others waiting for a bus. Because both Calhoun Square (the official name until 2022) and Whitefield Square were named for prominent slaveholders, a movement was begun in 2021 to rename them Sankofa Square and Jubilee Square, respectively. Calhoun Square

9250-491: The city: Downtown (Landmark Historic District and Victorian District), Midtown, Southside, Eastside, Westside, and Southwest/West Chatham (recently annexed suburban neighborhoods). Besides the Savannah Historic District , one of the nation's largest, five other historic districts have been formally demarcated: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Savannah's official 2020 population was 147,780, up from

9375-638: The civil rights vets website. John Lewis (1940–2020), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) chairman from 1963 to 1966 (later a politician and U.S. Congressman representing Atlanta for decades), had welcomed the SCOPE volunteers as "Brothers and sisters in the movement." He described them as willing to put their lives on the line for freedom. Lewis was jailed with white SCOPE workers, along with local African-American SNCC and SCLC volunteers, in Americus, Georgia , on August 1, 1965, after attempting to integrate local churches. As Lewis said in 2006 during

9500-497: The clause. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later said, "Smith didn't give a damn about women's rights", as "he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who didn't favor women's rights", and according to the Congressional Record , laughter greeted Smith when he introduced the amendment. Smith asserted that he was not joking and sincerely supported

9625-577: The colony of Georgia were founded on that date. In 1751, Savannah and the rest of Georgia became a Royal Colony , with Savannah as its capital. By the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War , Savannah had become the southernmost commercial port in the Thirteen Colonies . British troops took the city in 1778, and the following year, a combined force of American and French soldiers, including Haitians, failed to rout

9750-646: The compromise bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, quickly passed through the conference committee , which adopted the Senate version of the bill, then was passed by both houses of Congress and signed into law by Johnson on July 2, 1964. Totals are in Yea – Nay format: Original House version: Cloture in the Senate: Senate version: Senate version, voted on by the House: Note that "Southern", as used here, only refers to members of Congress from

9875-431: The constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question [...] is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers". Rolleston claimed that

10000-518: The country would face another civil war. Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875 , Kennedy's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations and enable the U.S. Attorney General to join lawsuits against state governments that operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. But it did not include a number of provisions civil rights leaders deemed essential, including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, and granting

10125-544: The driest months recorded at Savannah–Hilton Head International Airport. Each year, Savannah reports 21 days on average with low temperatures below freezing, though in some years, fewer than 10 nights will fall below freezing, and the city has even gone an entire winter season (1879–80) without recording a freeze. Although decades might pass between snowfall events, Savannah has experienced snow on rare occasions, most notably in December 1989 , when up to 3.9 inches (9.9 cm)

10250-679: The executive director of the Western Christian Leadership Conference, joined Dr. King at UCLA and was temporarily assigned to the Atlanta office to serve as the Assistant SCOPE director, reporting to Williams and King. Initially, the SCLC had hoped to recruit 2000 volunteers, but college students from the north and west did not respond in the hoped-for numbers. This was believed due to the sometimes extreme danger that had already erupted against activists in

10375-561: The federal government and the armed forces. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 , signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 9, 1957, was the first federal civil rights legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to become law. After the Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education , Southern Democrats began a campaign of " massive resistance " against desegregation, and even

10500-458: The few moderate white leaders shifted to openly racist positions. Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill that would increase the protection of African American voting rights. Despite having a limited impact on African-American voter participation, at a time when black voter registration from 0% (in 11 counties) to less than 5% (in 97 counties) despite being majority-Black counties,

10625-421: The first Equal Rights Amendment, and had been a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category, and felt now was the moment. Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that that was unfair to white women. Black feminist lawyer Pauli Murray wrote

10750-476: The first reading, which would have sent it to the Judiciary Committee, he took the unprecedented step of giving the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, thereby bypassing the Judiciary Committee, and sending it to the Senate floor for immediate debate. When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the " Southern Bloc " of 18 southern Democratic Senators and lone Republican John Tower of Texas, led by Richard Russell (D-GA), launched

10875-522: The formal fountain and monuments of the largest, Johnson , to the playgrounds of the smallest, Crawford . Elbert, Ellis , and Liberty Squares are classified as the three "lost squares" destroyed in the course of urban development during the 1950s. Elbert and Liberty Squares were paved over to make way for a realignment of U.S. Route 17, while Ellis Square was demolished to build the City Market parking garage. The city restored Ellis Square after razing

11000-467: The ground, especially in the South. When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina, attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the " Orangeburg massacre ." Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black-white school segregation only occurring at the end of

11125-484: The laws under the 14th Amendment , and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment . The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after

11250-415: The measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. The day before, Humphrey, the bill's manager, concluded that he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never before in its entire history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to defeat

11375-726: The mid-60s civil rights movement in the South, such as the Mississippi civil rights workers' murders and Selma to Montgomery march. Eventually about 500 predominantly white college volunteers—representing nearly 100 universities—were deployed in 90 of the 120 counties targeted by SCOPE across six southern states. Williams sometimes redeployed students and assigned them to more than one county. A combat-decorated veteran of World War II, he had received leadership training as an Army Sgt. in General George Patton 's Black tank brigade. The SCOPE project began on June 14, 1965, with

11500-552: The most active in the United States. In the United States' early years, goods produced in the New World had to pass through Atlantic ports such as Savannah's before they could be shipped to England. The Port of Savannah grew to become North America's fourth-largest port for shipping container traffic. In 2023, the port handled 4.9 million twenty-foot equivalent container units (TEU). Savannah's first hotel, City Hotel ,

11625-606: The most significant legislative achievements in American history". Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution , principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8 , its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of

11750-578: The movement struggle in the South. In an August 1965 interview with Stanford University radio station, Rev. Hosea Williams predicted that the SCOPE volunteers would provide significant future leadership to America because of these experiences. Within the ranks of SCOPE students, there have been many who became leaders in various fields, including: Dr. Jo Freeman , author/journalist; Father James Groppi , activist Catholic priest; Dr. Barbara Jean Emerson, college administrator; Elizabeth Omilami , actress and current CEO of Hosea's Feed The Hungry and Homeless Inc,

11875-542: The official 2010 count of 136,286 residents. The U.S. Census Bureau's official 2020 population of the Savannah metropolitan area —defined as Bryan , Chatham, and Effingham counties—was 404,798, up 16.45% from the 2010 census population of 347,611. Savannah is also the largest principal city of the Savannah–Hinesville–Statesboro combined statistical area. This larger trading area includes the Savannah and Hinesville metropolitan statistical areas as well as

12000-421: The oldest materials related to Georgia's history. The Savannah Civic Center on Montgomery Street hosts more than nine hundred events annually. Savannah has consistently been named one of "America's Favorite Cities" by Travel + Leisure . In 2012, the magazine rated Savannah highest in "Quality of Life and Visitor Experience". Savannah was also ranked first for "Public Parks and Outdoor Access", visiting in

12125-673: The parking garage. The garage was rebuilt as an underground facility, the Whitaker Street Parking Garage, and opened in January 2009. The restored Ellis Square opened in March 2010. Separate efforts are now underway to revive Elbert and Liberty Squares. Franklin Square is the site of Savannah's Haitian Monument, which commemorates the heroic efforts of the Chasseurs-Volontaires de Saint-Domingue in

12250-566: The population. Non-Hispanic whites were 32.6% of the population in 2010, compared to 46.2% in 1990. In 2020, its makeup was 48.62% Black or African American, 36.60% non-Hispanic white , 0.21% Native American, 3.80 Asian, 0.16% Pacific Islander, 0.47% some other race, 3.53% multiracial, and 6.62% Hispanic or Latino of any race. The total number of violent crimes in the Savannah-Chatham County reporting area ran just above 1,000 per year from 2003 through 2006. In 2007, however,

12375-484: The power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by members of the United States Supreme Court to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality. In

12500-736: The project's administrative records. On June 18, 1965, in Camden, Alabama , for example, 18 SCOPE workers were arrested in a church for "illegal possession of boycott materials." One SCOPE worker, Mike Farley, was beaten in jail by a white prisoner, who was reportedly both bribed and threatened by a jailer to attack Farley. On July 8 in Wilcox County, Alabama , three cars carrying SCOPE workers were shot at by white men, after police stopped SCOPE workers and spoke with white men. On July 15, in Chatham County, Georgia , SCOPE worker Shirley Savaris

12625-622: The road while returning from a church meeting, and threatened by a white man armed with a shotgun. In Luverne, Alabama , on August 3, SCOPE workers Dunbar Reed, Bruce Hartford, and Carol Richardson, along with a number of local students, were attacked and beaten by a white mob after they integrated a local cafe. On August 18 in Berkeley County, South Carolina , two SCOPE volunteers were beaten after attempting to integrate restaurants in Monk's Corner . The local SCOPE office and volunteer residence

12750-565: The same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963 , which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith , a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and strongly opposed the legislation. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate whether Smith cynically attempted to defeat

12875-672: The second-largest Christian group, including the Christian churches and Churches of Christ . Methodists were the third-largest, spread among the United Methodist Church and African Methodist Episcopal Church . The single second-largest Christian denomination was the Roman Catholic Church , served by the Diocese of Savannah . Among Savannah's non-Christian population, which forms a minority, Hinduism

13000-426: The southern city limit. Savannah is prone to flooding due to abundant rainfall, an elevation just above sea level, and the shape of the coastline, which poses a greater surge risk during hurricanes. The city currently uses five canals. In addition, several pumping stations have been built to help reduce the effects of flash flooding. Savannah's climate is classified as humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa ). Throughout

13125-537: The spring of 1965, Dr. King assigned Williams, SCLC's Director of Voter Registration and Political Education, to lead the SCOPE Project. The SCLC executive committee had approved it in December 1964. The project continued into the Fall of 1965 and Spring of 1966. Some of the white college volunteers returned in the summer of 1966, and a few enrolled in Black southern colleges and continued community organization activities beyond

13250-568: The spring of 1966. Dr. King announced the SCOPE project in a speech at UCLA on April 27, 1965, and his visit resulted in the recruitment of twenty UCLA students, including Joel Siegel and Rick Tuttle , who worked with Williams and Andrew Young . Tuttle was held for two months in a Savannah jail as a result of his movement activities. Tuttle's case resulted in a court ruling to allow the use of property bonds for bail for civil rights workers. The SCLC staff sent regional recruitment teams to visit colleges and universities nationwide. Gwendolyn Green,

13375-457: The support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially, Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many Representatives who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed. After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it

13500-805: The total number of violent crimes jumped to 1,163. Savannah-Chatham has recorded between 20 and 25 homicides each year since 2005. In 2007, Savannah-Chatham recorded a sharp increase in home burglaries but a sharp decrease in thefts from parked automobiles. During the same year, statistics show a 29 percent increase in arrests for Part 1 crimes. An additional increase in burglaries occurred in 2008 with 2,429 residential burglaries reported to Savannah-Chatham police that year. That reflects an increase of 668 incidents from 2007. In 2007, there were 1,761 burglaries, according to metro police data. Savannah-Chatham police report that crimes reported in 2009 came in down 6 percent from 2008. In 2009, 11,782 crimes were reported to metro police — 753 fewer than in 2008. Within 2009, there

13625-581: The votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist wrote in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson , "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives [...] the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act's prohibition against discrimination based on 'sex. ' " One of

13750-481: The year before. In the meantime, street robbery decreased by 23 percent. In 2008, metro police achieved a 90 percent clearance rate for homicide cases, described as exceptional by violent crime unit supervisors. In 2009, the department had a clearance rate of 53 percent, which police attributed to outstanding warrants and grand jury presentations. The SCMPD provides the public with up-to-date crime report information through an online mapping service. The year of 2015 saw

13875-400: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.45 and the average family size was 3.13. As of 2010, the median income for a household in the city was $ 29,038, and the median income for a family was $ 36,410. Males had a median income of $ 28,545 versus $ 22,309 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 16,921. About 17.7% of families and 21.8% of the population were below

14000-611: Was Savannah's chief municipal cemetery during the nineteenth century. Bonaventure Cemetery is a former plantation and the final resting place for some illustrious Savannahians. Also located in Savannah are the Mordecai Sheftall Cemetery and the Levi Sheftall Family Cemetery , which both date back to the second half of the eighteenth century. Fort Jackson (named for the Georgia politician James Jackson , not Andrew Jackson ) lies on

14125-442: Was a 12.2 percent decrease in violent crimes compared with 2008. Property crimes saw a 5.3 percent decline, which included a 5.2 percent reduction in residential burglary. In 2008, residential burglary was up by almost 40 percent. While some violent crimes increased in 2009, crimes like street robbery went down significantly. In 2009, 30 homicides were reported, four more than the year before. Also, 46 rapes were reported, nine more than

14250-569: Was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee. Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that it would be quickly considered by the Senate . Normally,

14375-531: Was borrowed by the English from Spanish sabana and used in the Southern Colonies . (The Spanish word comes from the Taino word zabana .) Still other theories suggest that the name Savannah originates from Algonquian terms meaning not only "southerners" but perhaps also "salt". Savannah lies on the Savannah River, approximately 20 mi (32 km) upriver from the Atlantic Ocean. According to

14500-476: Was completed in 1821. It also housed the city's first United States Post Office branch. Between 1912 and 1968, the Savannah Machine & Foundry Company was a shipbuilder in Savannah. For years, Savannah was the home of Union Camp , which housed the world's largest paper mill. The plant is now owned by International Paper and remains one of Savannah's largest employers. Savannah is also home to

14625-478: Was most recently affected by an active 2016 hurricane season , including Hurricane Matthew (which made a partial eyewall landfall), and was brushed by Hurricane Irma in 2017. The 2024 season saw impacts from Hurricane Debby and Hurricane Helene . The first meteorological observations in Savannah probably occurred at Oglethorpe Barracks circa 1827, continuing intermittently until 1850 and resuming in 1866. The Signal Service began observations in 1874, and

14750-608: Was organized by Andrew Bryan in 1788; First African Baptist Church ; and St. Benedict the Moor Church, which was the first African American Catholic church in Georgia, and one of the oldest in the Southeast . The oldest standing house of worship is First Baptist Church (1833), located on Chippewa Square . Other historic houses of worship in Savannah include: the Roman Catholic Cathedral of St. John

14875-656: Was recorded in one day in parts of the city. Savannah is at risk for hurricanes , particularly of the Cape Verde type of storms that take place during the peak of the season. Because of its location in the Georgia Bight (the arc of the Atlantic coastline in Georgia and northern Florida) as well as the tendency for hurricanes to re-curve up the coast, Savannah has a lower risk of hurricanes than some other coastal cities such as Charleston, South Carolina . Savannah

15000-934: Was renamed Taylor Square in 2024. Among the historic homes that have been preserved are: the Olde Pink House , the Sorrel–Weed House , Juliette Gordon Low 's birthplace, the Davenport House Museum , the Green–Meldrim House , the Owens–Thomas House , the William Scarbrough House , and the Wormsloe plantation of Noble Jones. Mercer Williams House , the former home of Jim Williams in Monterey Square ,

15125-566: Was seldom affected by hurricanes during the 20th century. Hurricane David , in August 1979, is a notable exception. However, the historical record shows that the city was frequently affected during the second half of the 19th century. The most prominent of these storms was the 1893 Sea Islands hurricane , which killed at least 2,000 people. (This estimate may be low, as deaths among the many impoverished rural African Americans living on Georgia's barrier islands may not have been reported.) Savannah

15250-490: Was shot up the following day. The SCOPE volunteers have been profoundly affected on a personal level throughout their lives by these inter-racial experiences, as have been the host families and communities. Press accounts termed the SCOPE volunteers "the freedom corps." Although the college students did not lead the civil rights movement, they were a part of a generational vanguard between 1961 and 1966, of about 3,000 whites who were willing to risk real danger by participating in

15375-600: Was the city's second-largest religion. Judaism was Savannah's third-largest, with a history dating back to 1733. Orthodox Judaism , Reform Judaism , and Conservative Judaism were the predominant Jewish traditions adhered to. Islam was the area's fourth-largest religion, followed by the Baha'i . Agriculture was essential to Savannah's economy during its first two centuries. Silk and indigo production, both in demand in England, were early export commodities. By 1767, almost

15500-777: Was threatened by a white man with a gun and told to leave town. The next day in Taliaferro County, Georgia , SCOPE workers were threatened by a deputy sheriff and county attorney with beatings and killings, "if they did not leave town the next day." Also in Taliaferro County, on July 23, SCOPE volunteer Richard Copeland was beaten by two whites on the courthouse steps in Crawfordsville , the county seat. On July 28 in Sussex County, Virginia , two SCOPE workers, Gary Imsland and Elke Wiedenroth, were run off

15625-538: Was wary to push hard for civil rights legislation for fear of losing southern support. Moreover, according to the Miller Center , he wanted to wait until his second term to send Congress a civil rights bill. But with elevated racial tensions and a wave of African-American protests in the spring of 1963, such as the Birmingham campaign , Kennedy realized he had to act on civil rights. Kennedy first proposed

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