95-509: The South Pole Telescope ( SPT ) is a 10-metre (390 in) diameter telescope located at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station , Antarctica. The telescope is designed for observations in the microwave , millimeter-wave , and submillimeter-wave regions of the electromagnetic spectrum , with the particular design goal of measuring the faint, diffuse emission from the cosmic microwave background (CMB). Key results include
190-420: A Wheatstone bridge which was fitted with a sensitive galvanometer and connected to a battery. Electromagnetic radiation falling on the exposed strip would heat it and change its resistance. By 1880, Langley's bolometer was refined enough to detect thermal radiation from a cow a quarter of a mile (400 m) away. This radiant-heat detector is sensitive to differences in temperature of one hundred-thousandth of
285-411: A calorimeter in thermodynamics . However, the approximations, ultra low temperature , and the different purpose of the device make the operational use rather different. In the jargon of high energy physics, these devices are not called "calorimeters", since this term is already used for a different type of detector (see Calorimeter ). Their use as particle detectors was proposed from the beginning of
380-505: A stroke on August 27, resulting in loss of vision and cognitive function. Because the Amundsen–Scott base lacks diagnostic medical equipment such as an MRI or CT scan machine, station doctors were unable to fully evaluate the damage done by the stroke or the chance of recurrence. Physicians on site recommended a medevac flight as soon as possible for Douceur, but offsite doctors hired by Raytheon Polar Services (the company contracted to run
475-796: A 100 square degree survey field. 2013 winterovers Dana Hrubes and Jason Gallicchio surveyed a larger field as part of the full SPTpol survey. This larger survey was completed by 2014 winterovers Robert Citron and Nicholas Huang, 2015 winterovers Charlie Sievers and Todd Veach, and 2016 winterovers Christine Corbett Moran and Amy Lowitz. The first winter of SPT-3G observing was conducted by winterovers Daniel Michalik and Andrew Nadolski. Adam Jones and Joshua Montgomery followed in 2018, with Douglas Howe and David Riebel wintering in 2019, Geoff Chen and Allen Foster in 2020, Sasha Rahlin and Matt Young in 2021, Aman Chokshi and Allen Foster in 2022, and Kyle Ferguson and Alex Pollak in 2023. Amundsen%E2%80%93Scott South Pole Station The Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
570-399: A 500-square-degree region of which the original 100 square degrees is a subset. These are currently the deepest high-resolution maps of the millimeter-wave sky over more than a few square degrees, with the noise level at 150 GHz around 5 micro-Kelvin-arcminute and square root of two deeper on the 100-square-degree field. In January 2017, the third-generation camera SPT-3G was installed on
665-461: A degree Celsius (0.00001 °C). This instrument enabled him to thermally detect across a broad spectrum, noting all the chief Fraunhofer lines . He also discovered new atomic and molecular absorption lines in the invisible infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Nikola Tesla personally asked Dr. Langley whether he could use his bolometer for his power transmission experiments in 1892. Thanks to that first use, he succeeded in making
760-538: A new camera (SPTpol) was installed on the SPT with even greater sensitivity and the capability to measure the polarization of incoming light. This camera operated from 2012–2016 and was used to make unprecedentedly deep high-resolution maps of hundreds of square degrees of the Southern sky. In 2017, the third-generation camera SPT-3G was installed on the telescope, providing nearly an order-of-magnitude increase in detectors in
855-539: A new section of column will be added over the existing columns then the jacks pull the building up to the higher elevation. During the summer the station population is typically around 150. Most personnel leave by the middle of February, leaving a few dozen (39 in 2021) "winter-overs", mostly support staff plus a few scientists, who keep the station functional through the months of Antarctic night. The winter personnel are isolated between mid-February and late October. Wintering-over presents notorious dangers and stresses , as
950-549: A number of science and berthing structures, such as the hypertats and elevated dormitory, were added in the 1990s, particularly for astronomy and astrophysics. During the period in which the dome served as the main station, many changes to United States South Pole operation took place. From the 1990s on, astrophysical research conducted at the South Pole took advantage of its favorable atmospheric conditions and began to produce important scientific results. Such experiments include
1045-592: A patch of sky to a given noise level. The camera consists of over 16,000 detectors, split evenly between 90, 150, and 220 GHz. In 2018, a new survey began using the SPT-3G camera. This survey was to cover 1500 square degrees to a depth of < 3 micro-Kelvin-arcminute at 150 GHz. Significantly, this field overlaps completely with the BICEP Array observing field, enabling joint analyses of SPT and BICEP data which will deliver significantly better constraints on
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#17327763116291140-752: A potential signal from primordial gravitational waves than either instrument can provide alone. The first key project for the SPT, completed in October 2011, was a 2500- square degree survey to search for clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect , a distortion of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB) due to interactions between CMB photons and the Intracluster medium in galaxy clusters. The survey has found hundreds of clusters of galaxies over an extremely wide redshift range. When combined with accurate redshifts and mass estimates for
1235-403: A resistive element is exposed to microwave power. A dc bias current is applied to the resistor to raise its temperature via Joule heating , such that the resistance is matched to the waveguide characteristic impedance. After applying microwave power, the bias current is reduced to return the bolometer to its resistance in the absence of microwave power. The change in the dc power is then equal to
1330-521: A specific range of wavelengths strikes the vanadium oxide or amorphous silicon, and changes its electrical resistance . This resistance change is measured and processed into temperatures which can be represented graphically. The microbolometer grid is commonly found in three sizes, a 640×480 array, a 320×240 array (384×288 amorphous silicon) or less expensive 160×120 array. 640x512 VOx arrays are commonly used in static security camera applications with low shock resistance requirements. Different arrays provide
1425-429: A spectrum from the very ultraviolet (VUV) to soft x-rays (SXR). Given their resilience and innovative design, they are being considered as prototypes for the upcoming ITER bolometer detectors. A microbolometer is a specific type of bolometer used as a detector in a thermal camera . It is a grid of vanadium oxide or amorphous silicon heat sensors atop a corresponding grid of silicon . Infrared radiation from
1520-561: A survey of galaxy clusters through their Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect signature) was split into six pie-shaped wedges, each with 160 detectors. These wedges observed at three different frequencies: 95 GHz, 150 GHz, and 220 GHz. The modularity of the focal plane allowed it to be broken into many different frequency configurations. For the majority of the life of the camera, the SPT-SZ focal plane had one wedge at 95 GHz, four at 150 GHz, and one at 220 GHz. The SPT-SZ camera
1615-407: A thermal link. The result is that any radiation impinging on the absorptive element raises its temperature above that of the reservoir – the greater the absorbed power, the higher the temperature. The intrinsic thermal time constant, which sets the speed of the detector, is equal to the ratio of the heat capacity of the absorptive element to the thermal conductance between the absorptive element and
1710-427: A tourist group, when he fell ill and was evacuated, first to McMurdo Station and from there to Christchurch, New Zealand , where he was reported to be in stable condition. Aldrin's visit at age 86 makes him the oldest person to ever reach the South Pole. In the summer of 2016–17, Anthony Bourdain filmed part of an episode of his television show Anthony Bourdain: Parts Unknown at the station. Science and life at
1805-562: A wide and deep survey of discovering hundreds of clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect , a sensitive 5 arcminute CMB power spectrum survey, and the first detection of B-mode polarized CMB. The first major survey with the SPT—designed to find distant, massive, clusters of galaxies through their interaction with the CMB, with the goal of constraining the dark energy equation of state—was completed in October 2011. In early 2012,
1900-832: Is a United States scientific research station at the South Pole of the Earth. It is the southernmost point under the jurisdiction (not sovereignty ) of the United States. The station is located on the high plateau of Antarctica at 9,301 feet (2,835 m) above sea level . It is administered by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation , specifically the United States Antarctic Program (USAP). It
1995-531: Is a small greenhouse at the station. The variety of vegetables and herbs in the greenhouse, which range from fresh eggplant to jalapeños , are all produced hydroponically , using only water and nutrients and no soil. The greenhouse is the only source of fresh fruit and vegetables during the winter. The station has a runway for aircraft ( ICAO : NZSP ), 12,000 feet (3,658 m) long. Between October and February, there are several flights per day of U.S. Air Force ski-equipped Lockheed LC-130 Hercules aircraft from
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#17327763116292090-572: Is named in honor of Norwegian Roald Amundsen and Briton Robert F. Scott , who led separate teams that raced to become the first to the pole in the early 1900s. The original Amundsen–Scott Station was built by Navy Seabees for the federal government of the United States during November 1956, as part of its commitment to the scientific goals of the International Geophysical Year , an effort lasting from January 1957 to June 1958 to study, among other things,
2185-473: Is optimized to identify 2D radiation distributions within a symmetrical triangular plasma cross-section. Recent progress includes the refinement of a tomographic reconstruction algorithm, which leans on the principle of relative gradient smoothing (RGS) of emission profiles. This has been effectively applied to the W7-X hydrogen discharges powered by electron cyclotron resonance heating (ECRH). In terms of hardware,
2280-402: Is required to achieve the science goals of the SPT cluster survey and CMB polarization measurements. The first camera installed on the SPT contained a 960-element bolometer array of superconducting transition edge sensors (TES), which made it one of the largest TES bolometer arrays ever built. The focal plane for this camera (referred to as the SPT-SZ camera because it was designed to conduct
2375-456: Is the only inhabited place on the surface of the Earth from which the Sun is continuously visible for six months; it is then continuously dark for the next six months, with approximately two days of averaged dark and light, twilight, namely the equinoxes. These are, in observational terms, called one extremely long "day" and one equally long "night". During the six-month "day", the angle of elevation of
2470-486: Is usually solely for supply and refueling of the station, and does not customarily accept passengers, as the plane's cabin is unpressurized. The evacuation was successful, and Douceur arrived in Christchurch , New Zealand, at 10:55 p.m. She ultimately made a full recovery. In March 2014, BICEP2 announced that they had detected B-modes from gravitational waves generated in the early universe , supporting
2565-577: The DOD DSCS -3 satellite, and the commercial Iridium satellite constellation . For the 2007–2008 season, the TDRS relay (named South Pole TDRSS Relay or SPTR) was upgraded to support a data return rate of 50 Mbit/s , which comprises over 90% of the data return capability. The TDRS-1 satellite formerly provided services to the station, but it failed in October 2009 and was subsequently decommissioned. Marisat and LES9 were also formerly used. In July 2016,
2660-578: The Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. It is funded by the National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy . The South Pole region is the premier observing site in the world for millimeter-wavelength observations. The Pole's high altitude of 2.8 km (2,800 m ; 1.7 mi ; 9,200 ft ) above sea level means the atmosphere is thin, and the extreme cold keeps the amount of water vapor in
2755-436: The South Pole . On September 6, 2007, The National Geographic Channel 's television show Man Made aired an episode on the construction of their new facility. On November 9, 2007, edition of NBC 's Today , show co-anchor Ann Curry made a satellite telephone call which was broadcast live from the South Pole. On Christmas 2007, two employees at the base got into a fight and had to be evacuated. On July 11, 2011,
2850-458: The geophysics of the polar regions of Earth . Before November 1956, there was no permanent artificial structure at the pole, and practically no human presence in the interior of Antarctica. The few scientific stations in Antarctica were near its coast. The station has been continuously occupied since it was built and has been rebuilt, expanded, and upgraded several times. The station
2945-541: The inflation theory of cosmology. Later analysis showed that BICEP only saw polarized dust signal in the galaxy and not primordial B-modes. On 20 June 2016, there was another medical evacuation of two personnel around midwinter day, again involving Kenn Borek Air and DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft. In December 2016, Buzz Aldrin was visiting the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, Antarctica, as part of
South Pole Telescope - Misplaced Pages Continue
3040-446: The 20th century, but the first regular, though pioneering, use was only in the 1980s because of the difficulty associated with cooling and operating a system at cryogenic temperature . They can still be considered to be at the developmental stage. Bolometers play a pivotal role in monitoring radiation in fusion plasmas. The Wendelstein 7-X (W7-X) stellarator employs a two-camera bolometer system to capture plasma radiation. This setup
3135-675: The Amundsen-Scott South Pole station is documented in Dr. John Bird 's award-winning book, One Day, One Night: Portraits of the South Pole which chronicles the South Pole Foucault Pendulum, the 300 Club , the first midwinter medevac, and science at the Pole including climate change and cosmology. Science fiction author Kim Stanley Robinson 's book Antarctica features a fictionalized account of
3230-515: The GOES-3 satellite was decommissioned due to it nearing the end of its supply of propellant and was replaced by the use of the DSCS-3 satellite, a military communications satellite . DSCS-3 can provide a 30 MB/s data rate compared to GOES-3's 1.5 MB/s. DSCS-3 and TDRS-4, 5, and 6 are used together to provide the main communications capability for the station. These satellites provide the data uplink for
3325-508: The HFI camera on the Planck satellite , as well as the planned Simons Observatory , CMB-S4 experiment, and LiteBIRD satellite. The term bolometer is also used in particle physics to designate an unconventional particle detector . They use the same principle described above. The bolometers are sensitive not only to light but to every form of energy. The operating principle is similar to that of
3420-459: The NSF continued to state Douceur's condition did not qualify for a medevac attempt and conditions at the base would not permit an earlier flight, Douceur and her supporters brought the situation to media attention. Douceur was evacuated, along with a doctor and an escort, on an October 17 cargo flight. This was the first flight available when the weather window opened up on October 16. This first flight
3515-546: The National Institute of Standards and Technology. The 90 GHz pixels were individually packaged dual-polarization absorber-coupled polarimeters developed at Argonne National Laboratory. The 90 GHz pixels were coupled to the telescope optics through individually machined contoured feedhorns. The first year of SPTpol observing was used to survey a 100-square-degree field centered at R.A. 23h30m declination −55d. The next four years were primarily spent surveying
3610-617: The New York Air National Guard, 109 AW, 139AS Stratton Air National Guard via McMurdo Station to supply the station. Resupply missions are collectively termed Operation Deep Freeze . There is a snow road over the ice sheet from McMurdo, the McMurdo-South Pole highway , which is 995 miles (1,601 km) long. Data access to the station is provided by NASA 's TDRS -4 (non operational), 5 (not radio link to 90°), and 6 (not radio link to 90°) satellites:
3705-577: The Python, Viper , and DASI telescopes, as well as the 390-inch (10 m) South Pole Telescope . The DASI telescope has since been decommissioned and its mount used for the Keck Array . The AMANDA / IceCube experiment makes use of the two-mile (3 km)-thick ice sheet to detect neutrinos which have passed through the earth. An observatory building, the Martin A. Pomerantz Observatory (MAPO),
3800-430: The SPT. Taking advantage of a combination of improvements to the optical system (providing a significantly larger diffraction-limited field of view) and new detector technology (enabling detectors in multiple observing bands in a single pixel), the SPT-3G detector array contains over ten times more sensors than SPTpol, translating almost directly into a tenfold increase in the speed with which the telescope and camera can map
3895-930: The SPTpol and SPT-3G instruments and operations are also provided by the United States Department of Energy Office of Science, Office of High Energy Physics. On February 16, 2007 (17 years ago) ( 2007-02-16 ) , the South Pole Telescope achieved first light. Formal science observations began in March 2007. Commissioning observations and an initial small survey were completed during austral winter 2007 with winter-overs Stephen Padin and Zak Staniszewski at its helm. In 2008, larger survey fields were completed with winter-overs Keith Vanderlinde and Dana Hrubes, and in 2009 with winter-overs Erik Shirokoff and Ross Williamson. In December 2009,
South Pole Telescope - Misplaced Pages Continue
3990-421: The SPTpol camera was used to make several groundbreaking measurements, including the first detection of the so-called "B-mode" or "curl" component of the polarized CMB. This B-mode signal is generated at small angular scales by the gravitational lensing of the much larger primordial "E-mode" polarization signal (generated by scalar density perturbations at the time the CMB was emitted) and at large angular scales by
4085-616: The Skylab, a box-shaped tower slightly taller than the dome. Skylab was connected to the Dome by a tunnel. The Skylab housed atmospheric sensor equipment and later a music room. During the 1970–1974 summers, the Seabees constructing the dome were housed in Korean War era Jamesway huts . A hut consists of a wooden frame with a raised platform covered by canvas tarp. A double-doored vestibule
4180-466: The South Pole by air and airdropped. They were originally built on the surface, with covered wood-framed walkways connecting the buildings. Although snow accumulation in open areas at the South Pole is approximately 8 inches (20 cm) per year, wind-blown snow accumulates much more quickly in the vicinity of raised structures. By 1960, three years after the construction of the station, it had already been buried by 6 feet (1.8 m) of snow. The station
4275-494: The South Pole during the summer. During the winter of 1988 a loud crack was heard in the dome. Upon investigation it was discovered that the foundation base ring beams were broken due to being overstressed. The dome was dismantled in late 2009. It was crated and given to the Seabees. They have it in storage at Port Hueneme , California. The center oculus is suspended in a display at the Seabee Museum there. In 1992,
4370-588: The Sun above the horizon varies incrementally. The Sun reaches a rising position throughout the September equinox , and then it is apparent highest at the December solstice which is summer solstice for the south, setting on the March equinox . During the six-month polar night, air temperatures can drop below −73 °C (−99 °F) and blizzards are more frequent. Between these storms, and regardless of
4465-436: The W7-X bolometers are equipped with metal-resistive detectors. These are distinguished by a 5 μm thick gold absorber, sized 1.3 mm in the poloidal direction and 3.8 mm toroidally, mounted on a ceramic (silicon nitride Si3N4) substrate. The inclusion of a 50 nm carbon layer is strategic, enhancing the detection efficiency for low-energy photons. These detectors are notably attuned to impurity line radiation, covering
4560-511: The absorbed microwave power. To reject the effect of ambient temperature changes, the active (measuring) element is in a bridge circuit with an identical element not exposed to microwaves; variations in temperature common to both elements do not affect the accuracy of the reading. The average response time of the bolometer allows convenient measurement of the power of a pulsed source. In 2020, two groups reported microwave bolometers based on graphene-based materials capable of microwave detection at
4655-402: The air low. This is particularly important for observing at millimeter wavelengths, where incoming signals can be absorbed by water vapor , and where water vapor emits radiation that can be confused with astronomical signals. Since the sun does not rise and set daily, the atmosphere at the pole is particularly stable. In addition, no interference exists from the sun in the millimeter range during
4750-740: The amateur radio call sign prefix run of KC4 and AT; whereas Soviet/Russian stations are known to use 4K1 and others. The popularity of the hobby during the 1950-80s era saw many ham exchanges between South Polar ham stations and enthusiastic ham operators contacting there from world-wide locations. Over the years, ham radio has established needed emergency communication to Polar base personnel as well as recreational uses. Cosmic Microwave Background Telescopes Neutrino Experiments Typical of inland Antarctica, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station experiences an ice cap climate ( EF ) with BWk precipitation patterns. The peak season of summer lasts from December to mid February. In 1991, Michael Palin visited
4845-416: The base on the eighth and final episode of his BBC Television documentary, Pole to Pole . On January 10, 1995, NASA , PBS , and NSF collaborated for the first live television broadcast from the South Pole, titled Spaceship South Pole . During this interactive broadcast, students from several schools in the United States asked the scientists at the station questions about their work and conditions at
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#17327763116294940-620: The base) and the National Science Foundation disagreed with the severity of the situation. The National Science Foundation, which is the final authority on all flights and assumes all financial responsibility for the flights, denied the request for medevac, saying the weather was still too hazardous. Plans were made to evacuate Douceur on the first flight available. Douceur and her niece, believing Douceur's condition to be grave and believing an earlier medevac flight possible, contacted Senator Jeanne Shaheen for assistance; as
5035-418: The camera was upgraded again for the 2010 observing season. The full 2500 square-degree SPT-SZ survey was completed during the 2010 and 2011 observing seasons with winter-overs Dana Hrubes and Daniel Luong-Van. First light (the first observation) with the SPTpol camera was achieved on January 27, 2012. During the first season of observations, the winterover crew, Cynthia Chiang and Nicholas Huang, took data on
5130-417: The clusters, this survey will place interesting constraints on the dark energy equation of state. Data from the SPT-SZ survey have also been used to make the most sensitive existing measurements of the CMB power spectrum at angular scales smaller than roughly 5 arcminutes (multipole number larger than 2000) and to discover a population of distant, gravitationally lensed dusty, star-forming galaxies. Data from
5225-502: The construction crew departed on January 4, 1957. The first wintering-over party consisted of eight IGY scientists led by Paul Siple and eight Navy support men led by LTJG John Tuck. Key components of the camp included an astronomical observatory, a Rawin Tower , a weather balloon inflation shelter, and a 1,000-foot (300 m) snow tunnel with pits for a seismometer and magnetometer . The lowest average temperatures recorded by
5320-513: The culture at Amundsen–Scott and McMurdo , set in the near future. Bolometer A bolometer is a device for measuring radiant heat by means of a material having a temperature-dependent electrical resistance . It was invented in 1878 by the American astronomer Samuel Pierpont Langley . A bolometer consists of an absorptive element, such as a thin layer of metal, connected to a thermal reservoir (a body of constant temperature) through
5415-511: The day, including National Science Foundation Director Arden Bement , scientist Susan Solomon and other government officials. The entirety of building materials to complete the build of the new South Pole Station were flown in from McMurdo Station by the LC-130 Hercules aircraft and the 139th Airlift Squadron Stratton Air National Guard Base, Scotia, New York. Each plane brought 26,000 pounds (12,000 kg) of cargo each flight with
5510-404: The design of a new station began for an 80,000 sq ft (7,400 m ) building with two floor levels that cost US$ 150 million. Construction began in 1999, adjacent to the Dome. The facility was officially dedicated on January 12, 2008, with a ceremony that included the de-commissioning of the old Dome station. The ceremony was attended by a number of dignitaries flown in specifically for
5605-406: The energy left inside the absorber. For this reason they can be used not only for ionizing particles and photons , but also for non-ionizing particles, any sort of radiation , and even to search for unknown forms of mass or energy (like dark matter ); this lack of discrimination can also be a shortcoming. The most sensitive bolometers are very slow to reset (i.e., return to thermal equilibrium with
5700-432: The entry to the dome and it had a transverse arch that contained modular buildings for the station's maintenance, fuel bladders, power plant, snow melter, equipment and vehicles. Individual buildings within the dome contained the dorms, galley, recreational center, post office and labs for monitoring the upper and lower atmosphere and numerous other complex projects in astronomy and astrophysics . The station also included
5795-425: The environment). On the other hand, compared to more conventional particle detectors, they are extremely efficient in energy resolution and in sensitivity. They are also known as thermal detectors. The first bolometers made by Langley consisted of two steel , platinum , or palladium foil strips covered with lampblack . One strip was shielded from radiation and one exposed to it. The strips formed two branches of
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#17327763116295890-433: The equipment and building material. The buildings were constructed from prefabricated four-by-eight-foot modular panels . Exterior surfaces were four inches (10 cm) thick, with an aluminum interior surface, and a plywood exterior surface, sandwiching fiberglass . Skylights were the only windows in flat uniform roof levels, while buildings were connected by a burlap and chicken wire covered tunnel system. The last of
5985-430: The first demonstration between West Point and his laboratory on Houston Street. While bolometers can be used to measure radiation of any frequency, for most wavelength ranges there are other methods of detection that are more sensitive. For sub-millimeter wavelengths through millimeter wavelengths (from around 200 μm to a few mm wavelength, also known as the far- infrared , terahertz ) bolometers are among
6080-580: The focal plane. The SPT collaboration is made up of over a dozen (mostly North American) institutions, including the University of Chicago , the University of California, Berkeley , Case Western Reserve University , Harvard / Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory , the University of Colorado Boulder , McGill University , Michigan State University , The University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign , University of California, Davis , Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich , Argonne National Laboratory , and
6175-425: The foundations of the building were designed to accommodate substantial differential settling over any one wing in any one line or any one column. If differential settling continues, the supported structure will need to be jacked up and re-leveled. The facility was designed with the primary support columns outboard of the exterior walls so that the entire building can be jacked up a full floor level. During this process,
6270-668: The group were in the range −90 °F (−68 °C) to −99 °F (−73 °C), though as Siple points out, "even at −60 °F (−51 °C) I had seen men spitting blood because the capillaries of the bronchial tract frosted". On January 3, 1958, Sir Edmund Hillary 's team from New Zealand, part of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition , reached the station over land from Scott Base , followed shortly by Sir Vivian Fuchs ' British scientific component. The buildings of Old Pole were assembled from prefabricated components delivered to
6365-401: The interaction of the CMB with a background of gravitational waves produced during the epoch of inflation. Measurements of the large-scale B-mode signal have the potential to constrain the energy scale of inflation, thus probing the physics of the universe at the earliest times and highest energy scales imaginable, but these measurements are limited by contamination from the lensing B modes. Using
6460-500: The larger E-mode component of the polarization and measurements of the CMB lensing potential, an estimate can be made of the lensing B modes and used to clean the large-scale measurements. This B-mode delensing was first demonstrated using SPTpol data. SPTpol data also has been used to make the most precise measurements of the E-mode power spectrum and temperature-E-mode correlation spectrum of the CMB and to make high-signal-to-noise maps of
6555-721: The mass of the neutrinos and the existence of light relic particles in the early Universe. The Atacama Cosmology Telescope has similar, but complementary, science objectives. The South Pole Telescope is funded through the National Science Foundation Office of Polar Programs and the United States Department of Energy , with additional support from the Kavli Foundation and the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation . Funding for
6650-415: The months of polar night . The telescope is a 10-meter (394 in) diameter off-axis Gregorian telescope in an altazimuth mount (at the poles, an altazimuth mount is effectively identical to an equatorial mount ). It was designed to allow a large field of view (over 1 square degree) while minimizing systematic uncertainties from ground spill-over and scattering off the telescope optics. The surface of
6745-818: The most sensitive available detectors, and are therefore used for astronomy at these wavelengths. To achieve the best sensitivity, they must be cooled to a fraction of a degree above absolute zero (typically from 50 mK to 300 mK ). Notable examples of bolometers employed in submillimeter astronomy include the Herschel Space Observatory , the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope , and the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). Recent examples of bolometers employed in millimeter-wavelength astronomy are AdvACT , BICEP array , SPT-3G and
6840-468: The phonon system, creating hot electrons. Phonons in the metal are typically well-coupled to substrate phonons and act as a thermal reservoir. In describing the performance of the HEB, the relevant heat capacity is the electronic heat capacity and the relevant thermal conductance is the electron-phonon thermal conductance. If the resistance of the absorbing element depends on the electron temperature, then
6935-491: The polarization of the incoming light (hence the name SPTpol – South Pole Telescope POLarimeter). The 780 polarization-sensitive pixels (each with two separate TES bolometers, one sensitive to each linear polarization) were divided between observing frequencies of 90 GHz and 150 GHz, and pixels at the two frequencies are designed with different detector architectures. The 150 GHz pixels were corrugated-feedhorn-coupled TES polarimeters fabricated in monolithic arrays at
7030-543: The pole. In 1999, CBS News correspondent Jerry Bowen reported on camera in a talkback with anchors from the Saturday edition of CBS This Morning . In 1999, the winter-over physician, Jerri Nielsen , found that she had breast cancer . She had to rely on self-administered chemotherapy , using supplies from a daring July cargo drop, then was picked up in an equally dangerous mid-October landing. On May 11, 2000, astrophysicist Rodney Marks became ill while walking between
7125-453: The projected matter density using reconstructions of the CMB lensing potential. The 1500-square-degree SPT-3G survey will be used to achieve multiple science goals, including unprecedented constraints on a background of primordial gravitational waves joint analysis of B-mode polarization with the BICEP Array , a unique sample of distant galaxy clusters for cosmological and cluster evolution studies, and constraints on fundamental physics such as
7220-488: The remote observatory and the base. He became increasingly sick over 36 hours, three times returning increasingly distressed to the station's doctor. Advice was sought by satellite, but Marks died on May 12, 2000, with his condition undiagnosed. The National Science Foundation issued a statement that Rodney Marks had "apparently died of natural causes, but the specific cause of death had yet to be determined". The exact cause of Marks' death could not be determined until his body
7315-528: The reservoir. The temperature change can be measured directly with an attached resistive thermometer , or the resistance of the absorptive element itself can be used as a thermometer. Metal bolometers usually work without cooling. They are produced from thin foils or metal films. Today, most bolometers use semiconductor or superconductor absorptive elements rather than metals. These devices can be operated at cryogenic temperatures, enabling significantly greater sensitivity. Bolometers are directly sensitive to
7410-496: The resistance can be used as a thermometer of the electron system. This is the case for both semiconducting and superconducting materials at low temperature. If the absorbing element does not have a temperature-dependent resistance, as is typical of normal (non-superconducting) metals at very low temperature, then an attached resistive thermometer can be used to measure the electron temperature. A bolometer can be used to measure power at microwave frequencies. In this application,
7505-431: The same resolution with larger array providing a wider field of view . Larger, 1024×768 arrays were announced in 2008. The hot electron bolometer (HEB) operates at cryogenic temperatures, typically within a few degrees of absolute zero . At these very low temperatures, the electron system in a metal is weakly coupled to the phonon system. Power coupled to the electron system drives it out of thermal equilibrium with
7600-550: The station population is almost totally isolated. The station is completely self-sufficient during the winter, and powered by three generators running on JP-8 jet fuel. An annual tradition is a back-to-back-to-back viewing of The Thing from Another World (1951) , The Thing (1982) , and The Thing (2011) after the last flight has left for the winter. Research at the station includes glaciology , geophysics , meteorology , upper atmosphere physics , astronomy , astrophysics , and biomedical studies. In recent years, most of
7695-464: The station's scientific data as well as provide broadband internet and telecommunications access. Only during the main satellite events is the station's telephone system able to dial out. The commercial Iridium satellite is used when the TDRS and DSCS satellites are all out of range to give the station limited communications capability during those times. During those times, telephone calls may only be made on several Iridium satellite telephone sets owned by
7790-617: The station. The station's IT system also has a limited data uplink over the Iridium network, which allows emails less than 100 KB to be sent and received at all times and small critical data files to be transmitted. This uplink works by bonding the data stream over 12 voice channels. Non-commercial and non-military communication has been provided by amateur ham radio using primarily HF SSB links today but Morse code and other modes have been used, partly in experiments and mainly in bolstering esprit de corps and hobby-type uses. The USA sector has
7885-475: The telescope mirror is smooth down to roughly 25 micrometres (0.025 mm ; 0.98 thou ), or about one-thousandth of an inch (i.e., one thou ), which allows sub-millimeter wavelength observations. A key advantage of the SPT observing strategy is that the entire telescope is scanned, so the beam does not move relative to the telescope mirrors. The fast scanning of the telescope and its large field of view makes SPT efficient at surveying large areas of sky, which
7980-464: The total weight of the building material being 24,000,000 pounds (11,000,000 kg). The new station included a modular design, to accommodate rises in population, and an adjustable elevation to prevent it from being buried in snow. Since roughly 8 inches (20 cm) of snow accumulates every year without ever thawing, the building's designers included rounded corners and edges around the structure to help reduce snow drifts. The building faces into
8075-517: The weather for wavelengths unaffected by drifting snow, the roughly 5 + 3 ⁄ 4 months of ample darkness and dry atmosphere make the station an excellent site for astronomical observations . The number of scientific researchers and members of the support staff housed at the Amundsen–Scott Station has always varied seasonally, with a peak population of around 150 in the summer operational season from October to February. In recent years
8170-415: The wind with a sloping lower portion of wall. The angled wall increases the wind speed as it flows under the buildings, and passes above the snow-pack, causing the snow to be scoured away. This prevents the building from being quickly buried. Wind tunnel tests show that scouring will continue to occur until the snow level reaches the second floor. Because snow gradually settles over time under its own weight,
8265-612: The winter scientists have worked for the IceCube Neutrino Observatory or for low-frequency astronomy experiments such as the South Pole Telescope and BICEP2 . The low temperature and low moisture content of the polar air, combined with the altitude of over 9,000 feet (2,700 m), causes the air to be far more transparent on some frequencies than is typical elsewhere, and the months of darkness permit sensitive equipment to run constantly. There
8360-469: The winter-over communications technician fell ill and was diagnosed with appendicitis . An emergency open appendectomy was performed by the station doctors with several winter-overs assisting during the surgery. The 2011 BBC TV programme Frozen Planet discusses the base and shows footage of the inside and outside of the elevated station in the "Last Frontier Episode". During the 2011 winter-over season, station manager Renee-Nicole Douceur experienced
8455-468: The wintertime population has been around 50 people. The original South Pole station is now referred to as "Old Pole". The station was constructed by U.S. Navy Seabees led by LTJG Richard Bowers, the eight-man Advance Party being transported by the VX-6 Air Squadron in two R4Ds on November 20, 1956. The U.S. Eighteenth Air Force 's C-124 Globemaster IIs airdropped most of
8550-643: Was abandoned in 1975 and became deeply buried, with the pressure causing the mostly wooden roof to cave in. The station was demolished in December ;2010, after an equipment operator fell through the structure doing snow stability testing for the National Science Foundation (NSF). The area was being vetted for use as a campground for NGO guests. The station was moved in 1975 to the newly constructed Buckminster Fuller geodesic dome 160 feet (50 m) wide by 52 feet (16 m) high, with 46 by 79 feet (14 m × 24 m) steel archways. One served as
8645-510: Was at each end. Although heated, the heat was not sufficient to keep them habitable during the winter. After several burned during the 1976–1977 summer, the construction camp was abandoned and later removed. However, in the 1981–1982 season, extra civilian seasonal personnel were housed in a group of Jamesways known as the "summer camp". Initially consisting of only two huts, the camp grew to 11 huts housing about 10 people each, plus two recreational huts with bathroom and gym facilities. In addition,
8740-534: Was dedicated in 1995. The importance of these projects changed the priorities in station operation, increasing the status of scientific cargo and personnel. The 1998–1999 summer season was the last year that VXE-6 with its Lockheed LC-130s serviced the U.S. Antarctic Program. Beginning in 1999–2000, the New York Air National Guard 109th Airlift Wing took responsibility for the daily cargo and passenger flights between McMurdo Station and
8835-427: Was removed from Amundsen–Scott Station and flown off Antarctica for an autopsy . Marks' death was due to methanol poisoning, and the case received media attention as the "first South Pole murder", although there is no evidence that Marks died as the result of the act of another person. On 26 April 2001, Kenn Borek Air used a DHC-6 Twin Otter aircraft to rescue Dr. Ronald Shemenski from Amundsen–Scott. This
8930-509: Was the first ever rescue from the South Pole during polar winter. To achieve the range necessary for this flight, the Twin Otter was equipped with a special ferry tank . In January 2007, the station was visited by a group of high-level Russian officials, including FSB chiefs Nikolai Patrushev and Vladimir Pronichev . The expedition, led by polar explorer Artur Chilingarov , started from Chile on two Mi-8 helicopters and landed at
9025-450: Was used primarily to conduct a survey of 2500 square degrees of the Southern sky (20h to 7h in right ascension, −65d to −40d declination) to a noise level of roughly 15 micro-Kelvin in a 1-arcminute pixel at 150 GHz. The second camera installed on the SPT–also designed with superconducting TES arrays–was even more sensitive than the SPT-SZ camera and, crucially, had the ability to measure
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