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98-584: It was first excavated in 1931 by the Egypt Exploration Society . The structure was surrounded by a large temenos enclosure wall made of large bricks measuring 37 x 19 x 14.5 cm. The temenos enclosed an area of 127 m by 200 m. On the eastern end the remains of flower beds were found, and an avenue of trees separated it from the surrounding buildings. The main entrance was from the west, through two massive brick pylons . Each pylon had slots for two flag poles. Walls projecting forward from

196-459: A stone palette from the Naqada ;II period of prehistory ( c.  3500–3200 BC ), shows the silhouette of a cow's head with inward-curving horns surrounded by stars. The palette suggests that this cow was also linked with the sky, as were several goddesses from later times who were represented in this form: Hathor, Mehet-Weret , and Nut . Despite these earlier precedents, Hathor

294-409: A blissful afterlife. In New Kingdom funerary texts and artwork, the afterlife was often illustrated as a pleasant, fertile garden, over which Hathor sometimes presided. The welcoming afterlife goddess was often portrayed as a goddess in the form of a tree, giving water to the deceased. Nut most commonly filled this role, but the tree goddess was sometimes called Hathor instead. The afterlife also had

392-597: A complex relationship with those of sistra. Both styles of sistrum can bear the Hathor mask on the handle, and Hathoric columns often incorporate the naos sistrum shape above the goddess's head. During the Early Dynastic Period, Neith was the preeminent goddess at the royal court, while in the Fourth Dynasty, Hathor became the goddess most closely linked with the king. Sneferu , the founder of

490-484: A creation myth that adapted long-standing ideas about creation. The version from Hathor's temple at Dendera emphasizes that she, as a female solar deity, was the first being to emerge from the primordial waters that preceded creation, and her life-giving light and milk nourished all living things. Hathor's maternal aspects can be compared with those of Isis and Mut, yet there are many contrasts between them. Isis's devotion to her husband and care for their child represented

588-544: A curling wig taken from Hathor's iconography. Which goddess these images represent is not known, but the Egyptians adopted her iconography and came to regard her as an independent deity, Qetesh , whom they associated with Hathor. Hathor was closely connected with the Sinai Peninsula , which was not considered part of Egypt proper but was the site of Egyptian mines for copper, turquoise , and malachite during

686-484: A different way. She used names and titles that linked her to a variety of goddesses, including Hathor, so as to legitimize her rule in what was normally a male position. She built several temples to Hathor and placed her own mortuary temple , which incorporated a chapel dedicated to the goddess, at Deir el-Bahari , which had been a cult site of Hathor since the Middle Kingdom. The preeminence of Amun during

784-558: A healing aspect to her character, as she was said to have restored Horus's missing eye or eyes after Set attacked him. In the version of this episode in "The Contendings of Horus and Set", Hathor finds Horus with his eyes torn out and heals the wounds with gazelle's milk. Beginning in the Late Period (664–323 BC), temples focused on the worship of a divine family: an adult male deity, his wife, and their immature son. Satellite buildings, known as mammisis , were built in celebration of

882-413: A more socially acceptable form of love than Hathor's uninhibited sexuality, and Mut's character was more authoritative than sexual. The text of the 1st century CE Insinger Papyrus likens a faithful wife, the mistress of a household, to Mut, while comparing Hathor to a strange woman who tempts a married man. Like Meskhenet , another goddess who presided over birth, Hathor was connected with shai ,

980-470: A sexual aspect. In the Osiris myth, the murdered god Osiris was resurrected when he copulated with Isis and conceived Horus. In solar ideology, Ra's union with the sky goddess allowed his own rebirth. Sex therefore enabled the rebirth of the deceased, and goddesses like Isis and Hathor served to rouse the deceased to new life. But they merely stimulated the male deities' regenerative powers, rather than playing

1078-465: A single entity". Hathor's diversity reflects the range of traits that the Egyptians associated with goddesses. More than any other deity, she exemplifies the Egyptian perception of femininity . Hathor was given the epithets "mistress of the sky" and "mistress of the stars", and was said to dwell in the sky with Ra and other sun deities. Egyptians thought of the sky as a body of water through which

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1176-565: A sistrum or a menat necklace. The sistrum came in two varieties: a simple loop shape or the more complex naos sistrum, which was shaped to resemble a naos shrine and flanked by volutes resembling the antennae of the Bat emblem. Mirrors were another of her symbols, because in Egypt they were often made of gold or bronze and therefore symbolized the sun disk, and because they were connected with beauty and femininity. Some mirror handles were made in

1274-495: A site linked to the Biblical city of Zoan . Petrie focussed much of his work on the ordinary dwellings of the site. This presented a new array of discoveries for the society. Petrie was among the first to understand that there was more than æsthetically appealing objects. Rather, he understood that many objects could provide information about the society of that time. He developed many techniques in which he could excavate and record

1372-561: A small porters house. Outside this gate was a dump of stone from the destruction of the Sanctuary, like that of the Great Aten Temple. The southern pylon had a small priest's house attached to it. Fragments of a small painted uraeus cornice were found here. The gateway to this court was again flanked by pylons identical to the previous gates. However, there were no additional entrances and no niches for stelae. Trees surround

1470-465: A sycamore tree, Hathor was usually shown with the upper body of her human form emerging from the trunk. Like other goddesses, Hathor might carry a stalk of papyrus as a staff, though she could instead hold a was staff, a symbol of power that was usually restricted to male deities. The only goddesses who used the was were those, like Hathor, who were linked with the Eye of Ra. She also commonly carried

1568-402: A vengeful aspect that protected him from his enemies. Her beneficent side represented music, dance, joy, love, sexuality, and maternal care, and she acted as the consort of several male deities and the mother of their sons. These two aspects of the goddess exemplified the Egyptian conception of femininity . Hathor crossed boundaries between worlds, helping deceased souls in the transition to

1666-410: Is a British non-profit organization. The society was founded in 1882 by Amelia Edwards and Reginald Stuart Poole in order to examine and excavate in the areas of Egypt and Sudan . The intent was to study and analyze the results of the excavations and publish the information for the scholarly world. The organization has worked at many major Egyptian excavation and sites. Their discoveries include

1764-487: Is able to escape one of the possible violent deaths that the Seven Hathors have foretold for him, and while the end of the story is missing, the surviving portions imply that the prince can escape his fate with the help of the gods. Hathor was connected with trade and foreign lands, possibly because her role as a sky goddess linked her with stars and hence navigation, and because she was believed to protect ships on

1862-407: Is called the mistress of music, dance, garlands, myrrh , and drunkenness . In hymns and temple reliefs, musicians play tambourines , harps , lyres , and sistra in Hathor's honor. The sistrum , a rattle-like instrument, was particularly important in Hathor's worship. Sistra had erotic connotations and, by extension, alluded to the creation of new life. These aspects of Hathor were linked with

1960-656: Is not unambiguously mentioned or depicted until the Fourth Dynasty ( c.  2613–2494 BC ) of the Old Kingdom , although several artifacts that refer to her may date to the Early Dynastic Period ( c.  3100–2686 BC ). When Hathor does clearly appear, her horns curve outward, rather than inward like those in Predynastic art. A bovine deity with inward-curving horns appears on

2058-481: Is the goddess with whom Khonsu mates to enable creation. Hathor could be the consort of many male gods, of whom Ra was only the most prominent. Mut was the usual consort of Amun , the preeminent deity during the New Kingdom who was often linked with Ra. But Mut was rarely portrayed alongside Amun in contexts related to sex or fertility, and in those circumstances, Hathor or Isis stood at his side instead. In

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2156-666: Is today one of the best-preserved Egyptian temples from that time. As the rulers of the Old Kingdom made an effort to develop towns in Upper and Middle Egypt , several cult centers of Hathor were founded across the region, at sites such as Cusae , Akhmim , and Naga ed-Der . In the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC) her cult statue from Dendera was periodically carried to the Theban necropolis. During

2254-744: The British Museum , decided to create the Egypt Exploration Fund as a way to raise funds for more excavations in the Nile Delta , which had been noted as being rarely visited. After announcing their intentions in The Times , they started off being funded by individuals such as the Archbishop of Canterbury , the poet Robert Browning , and Sir Erasmus Wilson . Wilson, in particular, showed enough interest to pledge £500 to

2352-544: The Narmer Palette from near the start of Egyptian history, both atop the palette and on the belt or apron of the king, Narmer . The Egyptologist Henry George Fischer suggested this deity may be Bat , a goddess who was later depicted with a woman's face and inward-curling horns, seemingly reflecting the curve of the cow horns. The Egyptologist Lana Troy, however, identifies a passage in the Pyramid Texts from

2450-522: The Nile Delta , such as Yamu and Terenuthis , also had temples to her. Dendera, Hathor's oldest temple in Upper Egypt, dates to at least to the Fourth Dynasty. After the end of the Old Kingdom it surpassed her Memphite temples in importance. Many kings made additions to the temple complex through Egyptian history. The last version of the temple was built in the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods and

2548-543: The Old Kingdom ( c.  2686–2181 BC ). With the patronage of Old Kingdom rulers, she became one of Egypt's most important deities. More temples were dedicated to her than to any other goddess; her most prominent temple was Dendera in Upper Egypt . She was also worshipped in the temples of her male consorts. The Egyptians connected her with foreign lands, such as Nubia and Canaan , and their valuable goods, such as incense and semiprecious stones, and some of

2646-621: The Ptolemaic period (305–30 BC), when Greeks governed Egypt and their religion developed a complex relationship with that of Egypt, the Ptolemaic dynasty adopted and modified the Egyptian ideology of kingship. Beginning with Arsinoe II , wife of Ptolemy II , the Ptolemies closely linked their queens with Isis and with several Greek goddesses, particularly their own goddess of love and sexuality, Aphrodite . Nevertheless, when

2744-408: The afterlife . Hathor was often depicted as a cow , symbolizing her maternal and celestial aspect, although her most common form was a woman wearing a headdress of cow horns and a sun disk. She could also be represented as a lioness , a cobra , or a sycamore tree . Cattle goddesses similar to Hathor were portrayed in Egyptian art in the fourth millennium BC, but she may not have appeared until

2842-653: The Egypt Exploration Fund. This marked the start of the Egypt Exploration Society. The first excavator of the Egypt Exploration Fund was Édouard Naville , a Swiss Egyptologist and Biblical scholar. In January 1883, Naville set out for Tell el-Maskhuta . His goal was to find the route of the Biblical exodus as the Fund had decided to broaden its interests in order to appeal to a wider audience. Naville's work attracted much interest from

2940-644: The Egypt Exploration Society. Today, the EES continues to publish its annual organ, the Journal of Egyptian Archaeology , which details the society's findings, for all of its members to read. They also publish a newsletter bi-annually called Egyptian Archaeology . The Egypt Exploration Society has been based in Doughty Mews, London WC1N since 1969. In October 2019 officials from the Egypt Exploration Society alleged that Oxford professor, Dirk Obbink , engaged in

3038-519: The Egyptian belief that women, as the Egyptologist Carolyn Graves-Brown puts it, "encompassed both extreme passions of fury and love". Egyptian religion celebrated the sensory pleasures of life, believed to be among the gods' gifts to humanity. Egyptians ate, drank, danced, and played music at their religious festivals. They perfumed the air with flowers and incense . Many of Hathor's epithets link her to celebration; she

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3136-533: The Egyptian concept of fate , particularly when she took the form of the Seven Hathors. In two New Kingdom works of fiction, the " Tale of Two Brothers " and the " Tale of the Doomed Prince ", the Hathors appear at the births of major characters and foretell the manner of their deaths. The Egyptians tended to think of fate as inexorable. Yet in "The Tale of the Doomed Prince", the prince who is its protagonist

3234-402: The Fourth Dynasty, may have built a temple to her, and Neferhetepes , a daughter of Djedefra , was the first recorded priestess of Hathor . Old Kingdom rulers donated resources only to temples dedicated to particular kings or to deities closely connected with kingship. Hathor was one of the few deities to receive such donations. Late Old Kingdom rulers especially promoted the cult of Hathor in

3332-534: The Great Aten Temple. The entire court was filled with offering tables and surrounded by small chapels built into the walls. In 1994, concrete replicas of the papyriform columns were assembled in their original position in front of the inner sanctuary court. These columns were replicas based on the fragments found in the 1931 excavation and were manufactured in Egypt from moulds made in England. Egypt Exploration Society The Egypt Exploration Society ( EES )

3430-606: The Greeks referred to Egyptian gods by the names of their own gods (a practice called interpretatio graeca ), they sometimes called Hathor Aphrodite. Traits of Isis, Hathor, and Aphrodite were all combined to justify the treatment of Ptolemaic queens as goddesses. Thus, the poet Callimachus alluded to the myth of Hathor's lost lock of hair in the Aetia when praising Berenice II for sacrificing her own hair to Aphrodite, and iconographic traits that Isis and Hathor shared, such as

3528-470: The Hathor-cow suckling the king date to his reign, and several priestesses of Hathor were depicted as though they were his wives, although he may not have actually married them. In the course of the Middle Kingdom, queens were increasingly seen as directly embodying the goddess, just as the king embodied Ra. The emphasis on the queen as Hathor continued through the New Kingdom. Queens were portrayed with

3626-462: The Herdsman", a herdsman encounters a hairy, animal-like goddess in a marsh and reacts with terror. On another day he encounters her as a nude, alluring woman. Most Egyptologists who study this story think this woman is Hathor or a goddess like her, one who can be wild and dangerous or benign and erotic. Thomas Schneider interprets the text as implying that between his two encounters with the goddess

3724-453: The Middle and New Kingdoms. One of Hathor's epithets, "Lady of Mefkat ", may have referred specifically to turquoise or to all blue-green minerals. She was also called "Lady of Faience ", a blue-green ceramic that Egyptians likened to turquoise. Hathor was also worshipped at various quarries and mining sites in Egypt's Eastern Desert , such as the amethyst mines of Wadi el-Hudi, where she

3822-511: The New Kingdom gave greater visibility to his consort Mut, and in the course of the period, Isis began appearing in roles that traditionally belonged to Hathor alone, such as that of the goddess in the solar barque. Despite the growing prominence of these deities, Hathor remained important, particularly in relation to fertility, sexuality, and queenship, throughout the New Kingdom. After the New Kingdom, Isis increasingly overshadowed Hathor and other goddesses as she took on their characteristics. In

3920-646: The New Kingdom, Hathor was increasingly overshadowed by Isis, but she continued to be venerated until the extinction of ancient Egyptian religion in the early centuries AD. Images of cattle appear frequently in the artwork of Predynastic Egypt (before c.  3100 BC ), as do images of women with upraised, curved arms, reminiscent of the shape of bovine horns. Both types of imagery may represent goddesses connected with cattle . Cows are venerated in many cultures , including ancient Egypt, as symbols of motherhood and nourishment, because they care for their calves and provide humans with milk. The Gerzeh Palette ,

4018-575: The New Kingdom. Because Isis adopted the same headdress during the New Kingdom, the two goddesses can be distinguished only if labeled in writing. When in the role of Imentet, Hathor wore the emblem of the west upon her head instead of the horned headdress. The Seven Hathors were sometimes portrayed as a set of seven cows, accompanied by a minor sky and afterlife deity called the Bull of the West. Some animals other than cattle could represent Hathor. The uraeus

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4116-517: The Nile and in the seas beyond Egypt as she protected the barque of Ra in the sky. The mythological wandering of the Eye goddess in Nubia or Libya gave her a connection with those lands as well. Egypt maintained trade relations with the coastal cities of Syria and Canaan , particularly Byblos , placing Egyptian religion in contact with the religions of that region . At some point, perhaps as early as

4214-404: The Old Kingdom, the Egyptians began to refer to the patron goddess of Byblos, Baalat Gebal , as a local form of Hathor. So strong was Hathor's link to Byblos that texts from Dendera say she resided there. The Egyptians sometimes equated Anat , an aggressive Canaanite goddess who came to be worshipped in Egypt during the New Kingdom, with Hathor. Some Canaanite artworks depict a nude goddess with

4312-477: The Osiris myth emerged during the Old Kingdom. Even after Isis was firmly established as Horus's mother, Hathor continued to appear in this role, especially when nursing the pharaoh. Images of the Hathor-cow with a child in a papyrus thicket represented his mythological upbringing in a secluded marsh. Goddesses' milk was a sign of divinity and royal status. Thus, images in which Hathor nurses the pharaoh represent his right to rule. Hathor's relationship with Horus gave

4410-399: The Sanctuary on the eastern side. The southern half of the court contained a number of buildings. In the southeast corner there was a small brick building that contained a series of rooms including one with a dais. To the northwest of this building was another approached by a ramp which was possibly a subsidiary chapel. To the west of this building was another, consisting of a single room, which

4508-433: The Sanctuary, passing between two thin pylons, and likely continued as a causeway to the altar in the centre. This first court was full of offering tables. The thin gateway to the inner court was flanked by four large columns on each side. It is likely that the life-size limestone statues, fragments of which were found in the dump, once stood in this area. The entrance to the inner court was of the same winding type also seen in

4606-556: The Southern Sycamore was her main temple in Memphis. At that site she was described as the daughter of the city's main deity, Ptah . The cult of Ra and Atum at Heliopolis, northeast of Memphis, included a temple to Hathor-Nebethetepet that was probably built in the Middle Kingdom. A willow and a sycamore tree stood near the sanctuary and may have been worshipped as manifestations of the goddess. A few cities farther north in

4704-555: The Vulva". At Ra's cult center of Heliopolis , Hathor-Nebethetepet was worshipped as his consort, and the Egyptologist Rudolf Anthes argued that Hathor's name referred to a mythical "house of Horus" at Heliopolis that was connected with the ideology of kingship. She was one of many goddesses to take the role of the Eye of Ra, a feminine personification of the disk of the sun and an extension of Ra's own power. Ra

4802-501: The afterlife, just as men joined the following of Osiris. In the Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070–664 BC), Egyptians began to add Hathor's name to that of deceased women in place of that of Osiris. In some cases, women were called "Osiris-Hathor", indicating that they benefited from the revivifying power of both deities. In these late periods, Hathor was sometimes said to rule the afterlife as Osiris did. Hathor

4900-484: The beginning of the Middle Kingdom, Mentuhotep   II established a permanent cult center for her in the necropolis at Deir el-Bahari. The nearby village of Deir el-Medina , home to the tomb workers of the necropolis during the New Kingdom, also contained temples of Hathor. One continued to function and was periodically rebuilt as late as the Ptolemaic Period, centuries after the village was abandoned. In

4998-462: The birth of the local child deity. The child god represented the cyclical renewal of the cosmos and an archetypal heir to the kingship. Hathor was the mother in many of these local divine triads . At Dendera, the mature Horus of Edfu was the father and Hathor the mother, while their child was Ihy , a god whose name meant "sistrum-player" and who personified the jubilation associated with the instrument. At Kom Ombo , Hathor's local form, Tasenetnofret,

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5096-546: The bovine horns and vulture headdress, appeared on images portraying Ptolemaic queens as Aphrodite. More temples were dedicated to Hathor than to any other Egyptian goddess. During the Old Kingdom her most important center of worship was in the region of Memphis , where "Hathor of the Sycamore" was worshipped at many sites throughout the Memphite Necropolis . During the New Kingdom era, the temple of Hathor of

5194-401: The central role. Ancient Egyptians prefixed the names of the deceased with Osiris's name to connect them with his resurrection . For example, a woman named Henutmehyt would be dubbed "Osiris-Henutmehyt". Over time they increasingly associated the deceased with both male and female divine powers. As early as the late Old Kingdom, women were sometimes said to join the worshippers of Hathor in

5292-482: The cult of Bat in the neighboring region of Hu , so that in the Middle Kingdom ( c.  2055–1650 BC ) the two deities fused into one. The theology surrounding the pharaoh in the Old Kingdom, unlike that of earlier times, focused heavily on the sun god Ra as king of the gods and father and patron of the earthly king. Hathor ascended with Ra and became his mythological wife, and thus divine mother of

5390-507: The discovery of a shrine for the goddess Hathor , a statue of a cow from Deir el-Bahri , the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut , and the sculpted model of Nefertiti from Amarna . The organization has made major contributions to the study of the ancient Egyptian world. It is based in London and is a registered charity under English law. In 1873, the English writer Amelia Edwards

5488-416: The enlargement of the two altars nearest to the entrance, which may have served as the bases of statues. A second set of pylon gateways with smaller entrances identical to the main entrance lead to this court. Within the pylons were niches for granite stelae . This court had side entrances to the north and south, thought to be private entrances for the king and priests respectively. The southern entrance has

5586-466: The eye goddess, who would later give birth to him. Ra gave rise to his daughter, the eye goddess, who in turn gave rise to him, her son, in a cycle of constant regeneration. The Eye of Ra protected the sun god from his enemies and was often represented as a uraeus , or rearing cobra , or as a lioness. A form of the Eye of Ra known as "Hathor of the Four Faces", represented by a set of four cobras,

5684-435: The form of Hathor, rebels against Ra's control and rampages freely in a foreign land: Libya west of Egypt or Nubia to the south. Weakened by the loss of his Eye, Ra sends another god, such as Thoth , to bring her back to him. Once pacified, the goddess returns to become the consort of the sun god or of the god who brings her back. The two aspects of the Eye goddess—violent and dangerous versus beautiful and joyful—reflected

5782-428: The headdress of Hathor beginning in the late Eighteenth Dynasty. An image of the sed festival of Amenhotep III , meant to celebrate and renew his rule, shows the king together with Hathor and his queen Tiye , which could mean that the king symbolically married the goddess in the course of the festival. Hatshepsut , a woman who ruled as a pharaoh in the early New Kingdom, emphasized her relationship to Hathor in

5880-439: The herdsman has done something to pacify her. In " The Contendings of Horus and Set ", a New Kingdom short story about the dispute between those two gods , Ra is upset after being insulted by another god, Babi , and lies on his back alone. After some time, Hathor exposes her genitals to Ra, making him laugh and get up again to perform his duties as ruler of the gods. Life and order were thought to be dependent on Ra's activity, and

5978-662: The inundation therefore incorporated drink, music, and dance as a way to appease the returning goddess. A text from the Temple of Edfu says of Hathor, "the gods play the sistrum for her, the goddesses dance for her to dispel her bad temper." A hymn to the goddess Raet-Tawy as a form of Hathor at the temple of Medamud describes the Festival of Drunkenness (Tekh Festival) as part of her mythic return to Egypt. Women carry bouquets of flowers, drunken revelers play drums, and people and animals from foreign lands dance for her as she enters

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6076-499: The king. The text describes these exotic goods as Hathor's gift to the pharaoh. Egyptian expeditions to mine gold in Nubia introduced her cult to the region during the Middle and New Kingdoms, and New Kingdom pharaohs built several temples to her in the portions of Nubia that they ruled. Although the Pyramid Texts, the earliest Egyptian funerary texts , rarely mention her, Hathor was invoked in private tomb inscriptions from

6174-474: The late Old Kingdom that connects Hathor with the "apron" of the king, reminiscent of the goddess on Narmer's garments, and suggests the goddess on the Narmer Palette is Hathor rather than Bat. In the Fourth Dynasty, Hathor rose rapidly to prominence. She supplanted an early crocodile god who was worshipped at Dendera in Upper Egypt to become Dendera's patron deity , and she increasingly absorbed

6272-471: The late periods of Egyptian history, the form of Hathor from Dendera and the form of Horus from Edfu were considered husband and wife and in different versions of the myth of the Distant Goddess, Hathor-Raettawy was the consort of Montu and Hathor-Tefnut the consort of Shu. Hathor's sexual side was seen in some short stories . In a cryptic fragment of a Middle Kingdom story, known as "The Tale of

6370-500: The lioness goddess Sekhmet and massacres the rebellious humans, but Ra decides to prevent her from killing all humanity. He orders that beer be dyed red and poured out over the land. The Eye goddess drinks the beer, mistaking it for blood, and in her inebriated state reverts to being the benign and beautiful Hathor. Related to this story is the myth of the Distant Goddess, from the Late and Ptolemaic periods. The Eye goddess, sometimes in

6468-456: The main pylons. A ramp of whitewashed mud led down into this area. On either side of this ramp were offering tables of mudbrick and in the centre a large altar of mudbrick. The whole court was paved with mud plaster. This area seems to be the oldest part of the complex, as it overlays clean gravel and its surface underlays the later pylon gateway. This 'Great Altar' was later demolished to ground level and some of its bricks were incorporated into

6566-489: The myth of the Eye of Ra. The Eye was pacified by beer in the story of the Destruction of Mankind. In some versions of the Distant Goddess myth, the wandering Eye's wildness abated when she was appeased with products of civilization like music, dance, and wine. The water of the annual flooding of the Nile , colored red by sediment, was likened to wine, and to the red-dyed beer in the Destruction of Mankind. Festivals during

6664-402: The objects he found and his overall findings. At the end of his excavation, Petrie was able to bring back many valuable findings and items that he donated to the British Museum . The society became one of the first to provide scientifically excavated objects around Britain as well as overseas. By the time of the third excavation, and the third year since the Fund was established, the society

6762-467: The peoples in those lands adopted her worship. In Egypt , she was one of the deities commonly invoked in private prayers and votive offerings , particularly by women desiring children. During the New Kingdom ( c.  1550–1070 BC ), goddesses such as Mut and Isis encroached on Hathor's position in royal ideology, but she remained one of the most widely worshipped deities. After the end of

6860-530: The pharaoh. Hathor took many forms and appeared in a wide variety of roles. The Egyptologist Robyn Gillam suggests that these diverse forms emerged when the royal goddess promoted by the Old Kingdom court subsumed many local goddesses worshipped by the general populace, who were then treated as manifestations of her. Egyptian texts often speak of the manifestations of the goddess as "Seven Hathors" or, less commonly, of many more Hathors—as many as 362. For these reasons, Gillam calls her "a type of deity rather than

6958-458: The provinces, as a way of binding those regions to the royal court. She may have absorbed the traits of contemporary provincial goddesses. Many female royals, though not reigning queens, held positions in the cult during the Old Kingdom. Mentuhotep II , who became the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom despite having no relation to the Old Kingdom rulers, sought to legitimize his rule by portraying himself as Hathor's son. The first images of

7056-417: The public and at the first General Meeting of the Fund, which happened on 3 July 1883, the society was seen to have a good amount of funds in its accounts. A copy of Naville's work was distributed to the subscribers of the Fund. Eventually the Fund decided to have the subscribers become members instead. During the second excavation, the Fund sent Flinders Petrie , an English Egyptologist, who went to Tanis ,

7154-487: The pylon gateway originally held doors. In the main entrance, a large area of preserved gypsum plaster was found bearing the impressions of blocks and mason's marks. This area of plaster was the base of a later platform with a stepped exterior approach and a ramped interior. The find of a ring bezel bearing the name 'Ankhkheperure' dates this to the reigns of pharaohs Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten . Smaller entrances, with their own projecting walls, were found on either side of

7252-635: The same era, and in the Middle Kingdom Coffin Texts and later sources, she is frequently linked with the afterlife. Just as she crossed the boundary between Egypt and foreign lands, Hathor passed through the boundary between the living and the Duat , the realm of the dead. She helped the spirits of deceased humans enter the Duat and was closely linked with tomb sites, where that transition began. The necropolises , or clusters of tombs, on

7350-429: The shape of Hathor's face. The menat necklace, made up of many strands of beads, was shaken in ceremonies in Hathor's honor, similarly to the sistrum. Images of it were sometimes seen as personifications of Hathor herself. Hathor was sometimes represented as a human face with bovine ears, seen from the front rather than in the profile-based perspective that was typical of Egyptian art. When she appears in this form,

7448-528: The story implies that Hathor averted the disastrous consequences of his idleness. Her act may have lifted Ra's spirits partly because it sexually aroused him, although why he laughed is not fully understood. Hathor was praised for her beautiful hair. Egyptian literature contains allusions to a myth not clearly described in any surviving texts, in which Hathor lost a lock of hair that represented her sexual allure. One text compares this loss with Horus's loss of his divine Eye and Set 's loss of his testicles during

7546-616: The struggle between the two gods, implying that the loss of Hathor's lock was as catastrophic for her as the maiming of Horus and Set was for them. Hathor was called "mistress of love", as an extension of her sexual aspect. In the series of love poems from Papyrus Chester Beatty   I, from the Twentieth Dynasty (c. 1189–1077 BC), men and women ask Hathor to bring their lovers to them: "I prayed to her [Hathor] and she heard my prayer. She destined my mistress [loved one] for me. And she came of her own free will to see me." Hathor

7644-414: The sun god sailed, and they connected it with the waters from which, according to their creation myths , the sun emerged at the beginning of time. This cosmic mother goddess was often represented as a cow. Hathor and Mehet-Weret were both thought of as the cow who birthed the sun god and placed him between her horns. Like Nut, Hathor was said to give birth to the sun god each dawn. Hathor's Egyptian name

7742-401: The sun god. Coffins, tombs, and the underworld itself were interpreted as the womb of this goddess, from which the deceased soul would be reborn. Nut, Hathor, and Imentet could each, in different texts, lead the deceased into a place where they would receive food and drink for eternal sustenance. Thus, Hathor, as Imentet, often appears on tombs, welcoming the deceased person as her child into

7840-441: The temple's festival booth. The noise of the celebration drives away hostile powers and ensures the goddess will remain in her joyful form as she awaits the male god of the temple, her mythological consort Montu , whose son she will bear. Hathor's joyful, ecstatic side indicates her feminine, procreative power. In some creation myths she helped produce the world itself. Atum , a creator god who contained all things within himself,

7938-725: The theft and sale of "at least 11 ancient Bible fragments to the Green family, the Hobby Lobby owners who operate a Bible museum and charitable organization in Washington." The Museum of the Bible said it will return the fragments to the Egypt Exploration Society and Oxford University . Hathor Hathor ( Ancient Egyptian : ḥwt-ḥr , lit.   'House of Horus', Ancient Greek : Ἁθώρ Hathōr , Coptic : ϩⲁⲑⲱⲣ , Meroitic : 𐦠𐦴𐦫𐦢 ‎ Atari )

8036-433: The tresses on either side of her face often curl into loops. This mask-like face was placed on the capitals of columns beginning in the late Old Kingdom. Columns of this style were used in many temples to Hathor and other goddesses. These columns have two or four faces, which may represent the duality between different aspects of the goddess or the watchfulness of Hathor of the Four Faces. The designs of Hathoric columns have

8134-521: The west bank of the Nile were personified as Imentet , the goddess of the west, who was frequently regarded as a manifestation of Hathor. The Theban necropolis , for example, was often portrayed as a stylized mountain with the cow of Hathor emerging from it. Her role as a sky goddess was also linked to the afterlife. Because the sky goddess—either Nut or Hathor—assisted Ra in his daily rebirth, she had an important part in ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs , according to which deceased humans were reborn like

8232-458: The world's perspective on both modern and ancient Egypt . This attracted the attention of both scholarly society and the rest of the world. It ended up becoming a bestseller due to this increased interest, which prompted Edwards to think about continuing her studies of ancient Egypt. In 1882, Amelia Edwards and Reginald Stuart Poole , an employee from the Department of Coins and Medals at

8330-419: Was ḥwt-ḥrw or ḥwt-ḥr . It is typically translated "house of Horus" but can also be rendered as "my house is the sky". The falcon god Horus represented, among other things, the sun and sky. The "house" referred to may be the sky in which Horus lives, or the goddess's womb from which he, as a sun god, is born each day. Hathor was a solar deity , a feminine counterpart to sun gods such as Horus and Ra, and

8428-442: Was a common motif in Egyptian art and could represent a variety of goddesses who were identified with the Eye of Ra. When Hathor was depicted as a uraeus, it represented the ferocious and protective aspects of her character. She also appeared as a lioness, and this form had a similar meaning. In contrast, the domestic cat , which was sometimes connected with Hathor, often represented the Eye goddess's pacified form. When portrayed as

8526-479: Was a major goddess in ancient Egyptian religion who played a wide variety of roles. As a sky deity , she was the mother or consort of the sky god Horus and the sun god Ra , both of whom were connected with kingship, and thus she was the symbolic mother of their earthly representatives, the pharaohs . She was one of several goddesses who acted as the Eye of Ra , Ra's feminine counterpart, and in this form, she had

8624-464: Was a member of the divine entourage that accompanied Ra as he sailed through the sky in his barque . She was commonly called the "Golden One", referring to the radiance of the sun, and texts from her temple at Dendera say "her rays illuminate the whole earth." She was sometimes fused with another goddess, Nebethetepet , whose name can mean "Lady of the Offering", "Lady of Contentment", or "Lady of

8722-433: Was able to send Edouard Naville , Flinders Petrie and Francis Llewellyn Griffith to Egypt. During this time and for the next few years, the Fund was able to bring back many findings, which resulted in the advancement of knowledge on ancient Egypt . Some of the sites included the fortified camp and Tell Dafana and the temple of Bastet . In 1919, at the end of World War I , the Egypt Exploration Fund changed its name to

8820-403: Was connected to the south wing of the Sanctuary by a series of walls that possibly belonged to a small house. Its walls were thick and well built, and the floor was paved with bricks. The outer court of the Sanctuary had projecting wings on either side of the main building. The exterior of these walls were stone and the partitions were of mud brick. A ramp with balustrade led to the first court of

8918-524: Was considered the mother of various child deities. As suggested by her name, she was often thought of as both Horus's mother and consort. As both the king's wife and his heir's mother, Hathor was the divine counterpart of human queens. Isis and Osiris were considered Horus's parents in the Osiris myth as far back as the late Old Kingdom, but the relationship between Horus and Hathor may be older still. If so, Horus only came to be linked with Isis and Osiris as

9016-569: Was led to the sites of Egypt while encountering cold, wet climates in Europe. She and several friends ended up travelling up the Nile River from Cairo to Abu Simbel . She recorded the events and discoveries of this journey and eventually published it as A Thousand Miles up the Nile in 1876. The book became renowned for its description of 19th-century Egypt and the largely un-excavated antiques that she encountered. Edwards' descriptions changed

9114-422: Was mother to Horus's son Panebtawy. Other children of Hathor included a minor deity from the town of Hu , named Neferhotep, and several child forms of Horus. The milky sap of the sycamore tree , which the Egyptians regarded as a symbol of life, became one of her symbols. The milk was equated with water of the Nile inundation and thus fertility. In the late Ptolemaic and Roman Periods , many temples contained

9212-442: Was often depicted as a cow bearing the sun disk between her horns, especially when shown nursing the king. She could also appear as a woman with the head of a cow. Her most common form, however, was a woman wearing a headdress of the horns and sun disk, often with a red or turquoise sheath dress, or a dress combining both colors. Sometimes the horns stood atop a low modius or the vulture headdress that Egyptian queens often wore in

9310-509: Was said to face in each of the cardinal directions to watch for threats to the sun god. A group of myths, known from the New Kingdom (c. 1550–1070 BC) onward, describe what happens when the Eye goddess rampages uncontrolled. In the funerary text known as the Book of the Heavenly Cow , Ra sends Hathor as the Eye of Ra to punish humans for plotting rebellion against his rule. She becomes

9408-526: Was said to have produced his children Shu and Tefnut , and thus begun the process of creation, by masturbating. The hand he used for this act, the Hand of Atum, represented the female aspect of himself and could be personified by Hathor, Nebethetepet, or another goddess, Iusaaset . In a late creation myth from the Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC), the god Khonsu is put in a central role, and Hathor

9506-622: Was sometimes called "Lady of Amethyst". South of Egypt, Hathor's influence was thought to have extended over the land of Punt , which lay along the Red Sea coast and was a major source for the incense with which Hathor was linked, as well as with Nubia, northwest of Punt. The autobiography of Harkhuf , an official in the Sixth Dynasty (c. 2345–2181 BC), describes his expedition to a land in or near Nubia, from which he brought back great quantities of ebony , panther skins, and incense for

9604-409: Was sometimes portrayed inside the disk, which Troy interprets as meaning that the eye goddess was thought of as a womb , from which the sun god was born. Hathor's seemingly contradictory roles as mother, wife, and daughter of Ra reflected the daily cycle of the sun. At sunset the god entered the body of the sky goddess, impregnating her and fathering the deities born from her womb at sunrise: himself and

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