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52-467: The Knossos figurines, both significantly incomplete, date to near the end of the neo-palatial period of Minoan civilization , around 1600 BCE. It was Evans who called the larger of his pair of figurines a "Snake Goddess", the smaller a "Snake Priestess"; since then, it has been debated whether Evans was right, or whether both figurines depict priestesses, or both depict the same deity or distinct deities. The combination of elaborate clothes that leave

104-476: A brief impact on Crete, when "the elites at Knossos emulated Syrian iconography as an assertion of their access to exotic knowledge and control of trade." The figurines are probably (according to Burkert ) related to the Paleolithic traditions regarding women and domesticity. The figurines have also been interpreted as showing a mistress of animals -type goddess and as a precursor to Athena Parthenos , who

156-659: A gradual shift from localized clan-based villages towards the more urbanized and stratified society of later periods. EM I (c. 3100-2650 BC) is marked by the appearance of the first painted ceramics. Continuing a trend that began during the Neolithic, settlements grew in size and complexity, and spread from fertile plains towards highland sites and islands as the Minoans learned to exploit less hospitable terrain. EM II (c. 2650-2200 BC) has been termed an international era. Trade intensified and Minoan ships began sailing beyond

208-429: A group of stone-lined and lidded cists Evans called the "Temple Repositories", since they contained a variety of objects that were presumably no longer required for use, perhaps after a fire. The figurines are made of faience , a crushed quartz -paste material which after firing gives a true vitreous finish with bright colors and a lustrous sheen. This material symbolized the renewal of life in old Egypt , therefore it

260-662: A pair of limestone heads of Old Testament rulers that came from the abbey church of Saint-Denis . Beginning in 1903, Walters served on the executive committee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . In 1913 he became second vice president, a position he retained for the rest of his life. His experiences on a number of museum committees may have resulted in a change of direction in his collecting after World War I. He shifted from acquiring works representative of various fields and more committed to objects of major historical and artistic significance. Walters died in 1931, leaving

312-630: A place setting for a "Snake Goddess". Neo-palatial period Minoan chronology is a framework of dates used to divide the history of the Minoan civilization . Two systems of relative chronology are used for the Minoans. One is based on sequences of pottery styles, while the other is based on the architectural phases of the Minoan palaces . These systems are often used alongside one another. Establishing an absolute chronology has proved difficult, since different methodologies provide different results. For instance, while carbon dating places

364-636: A position he held until his death. Like his father William Thompson Walters , (1820–1894), he was a businessman in the railroad industry, serving as president of the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad (1894–1902), which had been established by his father. Walters was born in 1848 to William Thompson Walters , (1820–1894), a businessman who later founded the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad . Henry graduated from Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. , in 1869. He did graduate work in

416-504: Is also associated with snakes. The serpent is often symbolically associated with the renewal of life because it sheds its skin periodically. A similar belief existed in the ancient Mesopotamians and Semites , and appears also in Hindu mythology . The Pelasgian myth of creation refers to snakes as the reborn dead. However, Martin P. Nilsson noticed that in the Minoan religion the snake

468-453: Is also possible that bared breasts represented a sign of mourning. Homer gives a literary description of this kind of mourning, and this was also observed by Herodotus among Egyptian women. The snake goddess's Minoan name may be related with A-sa-sa-ra , a possible interpretation of inscriptions found in Linear A texts. Although Linear A is not yet deciphered, Palmer relates tentatively

520-572: Is based on the sequence of pottery styles excavated at Minoan sites. For instance, the transition from EM III to MM IA is characterized by the appearance of handmade polychrome pottery; the transition from MM IA to MM IB follows the appearance of wheel-made pottery . This framework was originated by Arthur Evans during his excavations at Knossos. It remains the standard in Minoan archaeology, though it has been revised and refined by subsequent researchers and some aspects remain under debate. An alternative framework divides Minoan history based on

572-470: Is broken off at the waist, but the lower part is comparable. The cist also contained another arm that might have held a snake. Another figurine now in Berlin, made of bronze, has on her head what may be three snakes, or just tresses of hair. She seems to be a priestess or worshipper rather than a deity, as she is stooped slightly forward, and making the Minoan worship gesture of a facepalm with one hand and

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624-406: Is not clear if it is one or more snakes around her arms. Her dress includes a thick belt with a "sacred knot". The smaller figure, as restored, holds two snakes in her raised hands, and the figure on her head-dress is a cat or panther . However, as excavated, she lacked a head and the proper left arm was missing below the elbow. The head was recreated by Evans and one of his restorers. The crown

676-439: Is of particular significance to the chronology of Minoan history. The Theran eruption plays a role in both the high and low chronological approaches, although there is a difference in the date range each system assigns to the event. In his initial framework, Evans vaguely assigned the eruption to the 17th century BCE. Low chronological assessments revise the eruption to the mid-15th century, while high and blended chronologies push

728-489: Is often used side-by-side with the ceramic chronology, since the two are commensurate. For instance, the Prepalatial period covers the ceramic phases EM I through MM IA. Establishing an absolute chronology has proved difficult. Archaeologists have attempted to determine calendar dates by synchronizing the periods of Minoan relative chronology with those of better understood neighbors. For example, Minoan artifacts from

780-489: The Lawrence Scientific School at Harvard University from 1869 to 1872. In 1889, Walters moved to Wilmington, North Carolina , to serve as general manager of his father's company, the Atlantic Coast Line Railroad . Following his father's death in 1894, Walters was elected president of the company, and he relocated the line's headquarters from North Carolina to New York City . Under his leadership,

832-496: The Monopalatial period , as the palace at Knossos was the sole one remaining in use. Late Minoan III (c. 1420-1075 BC) shows profound social and political changes. Among the palaces, only Knossos remained in use, though it too was destroyed by LM IIIB2 and possibly earlier. The language of administration shifted to Mycenaean Greek , written in Linear B , and material culture shows increased mainland influence, reflecting

884-479: The National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Walters envisaged a museum that would fulfill an educational role within the community, but initially made modest additions to his father's collection. In 1897, his purchase of a 15th-century Koran, originally thought to be Persian, but now regarded as Indian, may have initiated the manuscript collection. In 1900 Walters bought Raphael 's Madonna of

936-640: The Snake goddess figurines , La Parisienne Fresco , and the marine style of pottery decoration. Late Minoan I (c. 1700-1470 BC) was a continuation of the prosperous Neopalatial culture. A notable event from this era was the eruption of the Thera volcano , which occurred around 1600 BC towards the end of the LM IA subperiod. One of the largest volcanic explosions in recorded history, it ejected about 60 to 100 cubic kilometres (14 to 24 cu mi) of material and

988-611: The Walters Art Museum in Baltimore, is a small steatite bare-breasted female figurine with a snake engraved around her headdress, and holes pierced through her clenched fists, presumably to suggest these held snakes. This is also now regarded as a fake. It was bought by Henry Walters from a dealer in Paris in 1929, and left to the museum in 1931. Emily Bonney regards the figures as reflective of Syrian religion which had

1040-430: The eruption of Thera around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later. The standard relative chronology divides Minoan history into three eras: Early Minoan (EM) , Middle Minoan (MM) and Late Minoan (LM) . These eras are divided into sub-eras using Roman numerals (e.g. EM I, EM II, EM III) and sub-sub-eras using capital letters (e.g. LM IIIA, LMIIIB, LM IIIC). This system

1092-453: The Aegean to Egypt and Syria, possibly enabled by the invention of masted ships. Minoan material culture shows increased international influence, for instance in the adoption of Minoan seals based on the older Near Eastern seal . Minoan settlements grew, some doubling in size, and monumental buildings were constructed at sites that would later become palaces. EM III (c. 2200-2100 BC) saw

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1144-756: The Candelabra , which had passed through both the Borghese and Bonaparte family collections. The U.S. Postal Service featured this painting on its 2011 Christmas stamp. In 1902. he undertook an acquisition on a scale unprecedented in the history of American collecting: he bought the contents of the Palazzo Accoramboni in Rome. The collection abounded in significant works, many of them found to be by masters other than those to whom they had been ascribed, and others by artists not in fashion at that time. In

1196-584: The Figure 10 of her article. Citing Nanno Marinatos , she argues that these images were meant to represent the goddess opening her skirt to display her sexuality. According to Bonney, Both goddesses have a knot with a projecting looped cord between their breasts. Evans noticed that these are analogous to the sacral knot , his name for a knot with a loop of fabric above and sometimes fringed ends hanging down below. Numerous such symbols in ivory, faience, painted in frescoes or engraved in seals sometimes combined with

1248-507: The LM IB ceramic period have been found in 18th Dynasty contexts in Egypt, for which Egyptian chronology provides generally accepted calendar dates. However, dates determined in this manner do not always match the results of carbon dating and other methods based on natural science . Much of the controversy concerns the dating of the eruption of Thera , which is known to have occurred towards

1300-458: The Neolithic. Middle Minoan artisans developed new colorful paints and adopted the potter's wheel during MM IB, producing wares such as Kamares ware . MM II (c. 1875-1750 BC) saw the development of the Minoan writing systems, Cretan hieroglyphic and Linear A . It ended with mass destructions generally attributed to earthquakes, though violent destruction has been considered as an alternative explanation. MM III (c. 1750-1700 BC) marks

1352-549: The Niece of Cardinal Bibbiena , bought in 1903. Although Walters was not fond of French Impressionism, he bought two works in 1903 from American artist Mary Cassatt , including Claude Monet 's Springtime . Walters continued to augment his holdings, buying both in New York and abroad. He collected Egyptian, ancient Near Eastern, and Islamic art, as well as a number of key classical and western medieval objects. These included

1404-597: The Safe Deposit and Trust Company. Three years after Pembroke Jones' death in 1919, Walters married the widow Sarah Jones in 1922. They continued living in the Manhattan house surrounded by their art collections. Walters died in 1931. When his father died in 1894, he bequeathed his collection to Henry Walters, who greatly expanded the scope of acquisitions. He purchased the contents of a palace in Rome that contained over 1,700 pieces. In September 1900, Henry bought

1456-505: The beginning of the Neopalatial period. Most of the palaces were rebuilt with architectural innovations, with the notable exception of Phaistos. Cretan hieroglyphs were abandoned in favor of Linear A, and Minoan cultural influence becomes significant in mainland Greece. The Late Minoan period was an eventful time that saw profound change in Minoan society. Many of the most recognizable Minoan artifacts date from this time, for instance

1508-660: The breasts completely bare, and "snake-wrangling", attracted considerable publicity, not to mention various fakes, and the smaller figure in particular remains a popular icon for Minoan art and religion, now also generally referred to as a "Snake Goddess". But archaeologists have found few comparable images, and a snake goddess plays little part in current thinking about the cloudy topic of Minoan religion . Several scholars have also argued that these figurines are not really holding snakes in their hands, or as many snakes as Evans thought, but some other items. The two Knossos snake goddess figurines were found by Evans's excavators in one of

1560-518: The construction phases of the Minoan palaces . In this system, the Prepalatial period covers the timespan before the construction of the palaces. The Protopalatial era begins with the construction of the first palaces, and ends with their destruction. The Neopalatial period, often considered the zenith of Minoan civilization, begins with the rebuilding of the palaces, and ends with yet another wave of destructions. The Postpalatial period covers

1612-400: The continuation of these trends. MM I (c. 2100-1875 BC) saw the emergence of Protopalatial society. During MM IA (c. 2100-1925 BC), populations increased dramatically at sites such as Knossos, Phaistos, and Malia, accompanied by major construction projects. During MM IB (c. 1925-1875 BC), the first palaces were built at these sites, in areas which had been used for communal ceremonies since

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1664-583: The date back to a point in between Evans' and low chronologies, a more commonly accepted specific date of approximately 1628, though the date is by no means generally agreed. The precise date is of more concern to archaeologists of the Asian mainland and Ancient Egypt, where volcanic ash from Thera is widely evident, and there are established competing chronologies, than to those of Crete. High chronological techniques such as radiocarbon dating can be used in conjunction with evidence from artifacts indirectly related to

1716-465: The end of the LM IA period. While carbon dating places this event (and thus LM IA) around 1600 BC, synchronism with Egyptian records would place it roughly a century later. The timing of natural disasters is of importance to high and low chronologies, which can use the resulting geological evidence to date co-located artifacts. The eruption of the Thera volcano on what is now the island of Santorini

1768-469: The era in which Minoan culture continued in the absence of the palaces. Some variants of this system include a Final palace period or a Monopalatial period between the Neo- and Postpalatial periods, corresponding to era when the palace at Knossos was reoccupied. The architectural periodization was proposed by Nikolaos Platon in 1961, though later scholars have proposed variants and refinements. This system

1820-495: The eruption, such as eruption-caused tsunami debris to pinpoint the exact timing of the event, and therefore which Minoan period it belongs in. However, the broadness of radiocarbon dating has also resulted in dates for the eruption of Thera that do not precisely match evidence from the archeological record. Early Minoan society developed largely continuously from local Neolithic predecessors, with some cultural influence and perhaps migration from eastern populations. This period saw

1872-631: The headress, typified by the Poppy goddess (AMH). The tremendous impact of the Knossos figures, once published by Evans and in a book by the Italian doctor Angelo Mosso , quickly led to ingenious fakes. A figure in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts with an ivory body and gold snakes twined around the arms is now generally regarded as a fake. It was bought by the museum in 1914. Another figure, in

1924-559: The inscription a-sa-sa-ra-me which seems to have accompanied goddesses, with the Hittite išhaššara , which means "mistress". Emily Bonney argues that the goddess isn’t holding the snakes at all, and thus could not be seen as a ‘Snake Goddess’. Instead, “she stands with arms raised, holding either end of what appears to be a long cord that hangs nearly to her feet”. This fits well with the Syrian iconographic tradition of similar images as in

1976-432: The island, marking the end of Neopalatial society. These destructions are thought to have been deliberate, since they spared certain sites in a manner inconsistent with natural disasters. For instance, the town at Knossos burned while the palace itself did not. The causes of these destructions have been a perennial topic of debate. While some researchers attributed them to Mycenaean conquerors, others have argued that they were

2028-602: The latter category fell El Greco 's painting, St. Francis Receiving the Stigmata . Among the collection's archeological treasures were seven magnificent sarcophagi from a burial chamber associated with the Calpurnii Pisones family. Walters agreed to buy the collection for the sum of five million Italian lire, equivalent at the time to $ 1.0 million. He enhanced the breadth of the 19th-century holdings with such early works as Ingres ' The Betrothal of Raphael and

2080-476: The other brought up to the chest or, in this case, the throat. The one breast visible has a prominent nipple, so is presumably intended to be bare. This is probably Late Minoan I, rather later than the Knossos figures. Later still are some terracotta votive offerings , probably representing the goddess rather than humans, in at least one case "snake-wrangling" and with snakes rising from the diadem or headress. This type of figure often has attributes rising from

2132-544: The railroad experienced rapid growth until World War I . In 1902, Walters also took control of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . In New York City, Walters lived with Pembroke and Sarah Jones, two friends he had met in Wilmington, North Carolina . Each of them was interested in art, and their town house was filled with their collections. Walters seldom returned to Baltimore other than to attend board meetings of

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2184-410: The result of internal upheavals. Similarly, while some researchers have attempted to link them to lingering environmental disruption from the Thera eruption, others have argued that the two events are too distant in time for any causal relation. Late Minoan II (c. 1470-1420 BC) is sparsely represented in the archaeological record, but appears to have been a period of decline. It marks the beginning of

2236-517: The rise of a Greek-speaking elite. In Late Minoan IIIC (c. 1200-1075 BC), coinciding with the wider Late Bronze Age collapse , coastal settlements were abandoned in favor of defensible locations on higher ground. These small villages, some of which grew out of earlier mountain shrines, continued aspects of recognizably Minoan culture until the Early Iron Age . Henry Walters Henry Walters (September 26, 1848 – November 30, 1931)

2288-479: The snake goddess with the Phoenician Astarte ( virgin daughter ). She was the goddess of fertility and sexuality and her worship was connected with an orgiastic cult. Her temples were decorated with serpentine motifs. In a related Greek myth Europa , who is sometimes identified with Astarte in ancient sources, was a Phoenician princess whom Zeus abducted and carried to Crete. Evans tentatively linked

2340-498: The snake goddess with the Egyptian snake goddess Wadjet but did not pursue this connection. Statuettes similar to the "snake goddess" type identified as "priest of Wadjet" and "magician" were found in Egypt. While the statuette's true function is somewhat unclear, her exposed and amplified breasts suggest that she is probably some sort of fertility figure. The figurines may illustrate the fashion of dress of Minoan women, however, it

2392-503: The symbol of the double-edged axe or labrys which was the most important Minoan religious symbol. Such symbols were found in Minoan and Mycenaean sites. It is believed that the sacral knot was the symbol of holiness on human figures or cult-objects. Its combination with the double-axe can be compared with the Egyptian ankh (eternal life), or with the tyet (welfare/life) a symbol of Isis (the knot of Isis). The 1979 feminist artwork The Dinner Party by Judy Chicago features

2444-581: The three houses adjoining the property owned by his father in the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, in order to house and display the full collection. He had the site designed and adapted as a palazzo-style building, which opened to the public in 1909 as the Walters Art Gallery . Walters also donated four public bath houses to the City of Baltimore. Walters Bath No. 2 was added to

2496-418: Was an incomplete fragment in the same pit, and the cat/panther was another separate piece, which Evans only decided belonged to the figure some time later, partly because there seemed to be matching fittings on the crown and cat. Recent scholars seem somewhat more ready to accept that the hat and cat belong together than that either or both belong to the rest of the figure. A third figure, intermediate in size,

2548-568: Was measured at 7 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index . While the eruption destroyed Cycladic settlements such as Akrotiri and led to the abandonment of some sites in northeast Crete, other Minoan sites such as Knossos continued to prosper. The post-eruption LM IB period (c.1625-1470) saw ambitious new building projects, booming international trade, and artistic developments such as the marine style . Late Minoan IB (c. 1625-1470 BC) ended with severe destructions throughout

2600-630: Was noted as an art collector and philanthropist, a founder of the Walters Art Gallery (now the Walters Art Museum) in Baltimore, Maryland , which he donated to the city in his 1931 will for the benefit of the public. From the late 19th century, Walters lived most of the time in New York City , where from 1903 on, he served on the executive committee of the Metropolitan Museum of Art . He was selected as second vice president in 1913,

2652-541: Was the protector of the house, as it later appears also in Greek religion . Within the Greek Dionysiac cult it signified wisdom and was the symbol of fertility. Barry Powell suggested that the "snake goddess" reduced in legend into a folklore heroine was Ariadne (whose name might mean "utterly pure" or "the very holy one"), who is often depicted surrounded by Maenads and satyrs . Hans Georg Wunderlich related

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2704-404: Was used in the funeral cult and in the sanctuaries. The larger of these figures has snakes crawling over her arms and up to her "tall cylindrical crown", at the top of which a snake's head rears up. The figure lacked the body below the waist, one arm, and part of the crown. She has prominent bare breasts, with what seems to be one or more snakes winding round them. Because of the missing pieces, it

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