Lushootseed ( / l ʌ ˈ ʃ uː t s iː d / luh- SHOOT -tseed ), historically known as Puget Salish, Puget Sound Salish , or Skagit-Nisqually , is a Central Coast Salish language of the Salishan language family. Lushootseed is the general name for the dialect continuum composed of two main dialects, Northern Lushootseed and Southern Lushootseed , which are further separated into smaller sub-dialects.
43-584: The Snoqualmie Indian Tribe ( Lushootseed : sdukʷalbixʷ ) is a federally recognized tribe of Snoqualmie people . They are Coast Salish Native American peoples from the Snoqualmie Valley in east King and Snohomish Counties in Washington state. Other names for the Snoqualmies include Snoqualmu, Snoqualmoo, Snoqualmick, Snoqualamuke, and Snuqualmi. Some Snoqualmies settled onto
86-543: A morphophonemic writing system meaning that it is a phonemic alphabet which does not change to reflect the pronunciation such as when an affix is introduced. The chart below is based on the Lushootseed Dictionary. Typographic variations such as ⟨p'⟩ and ⟨pʼ⟩ do not indicate phonemic distinctions. Capital letters are not used in Lushootseed. Some older works based on
129-427: A change of position for its subject. It is commonly known as a "state of being": ʔəs ƛ̕ubil čəd. 'I am feeling fine.' or 'I am in good health.' If a verb does involve motion, the ʔəs - prefix is replaced with lə -: lə ƛ̕a čəd ʔálʔal. 'I'm going home.' Completed or telic actions use the prefix ʔu -. Most verbs without ʔəs - or lə - will use ʔu -. Some verbs also exhibit
172-484: A contrast in meaning between lə - and ʔu -, and only one of them is correct: ʔu saxʷəb čəxʷ. 'You jump(ed).' The verb saxʷəb literally means 'to jump, leap, or run, especially in a short burst of energy', and is correctly used with ʔu -. In contrast, the verb təlawil , which means 'to jump or run for an extended period of time', is used with lə -: lə təlawil čəxʷ. 'You are jumping.' There are five possessive affixes, derived from
215-467: A family experience. Wa He Lut Indian School teaches Lushootseed to Native elementary school children in their Native Language and Culture program. As of 2013 , an annual Lushootseed conference is held at Seattle University . A course in Lushootseed language and literature has been offered at Evergreen State College . Lushootseed has also been used as a part of environmental history courses at Pacific Lutheran University . It has been spoken during
258-579: A list. This list takes the broad view that acro- and auto- count as English derivational prefixes because they function the same way like that of prefixes such as over- and self- do. As for numeral prefixes , only the most common members of that class are included here. There is a large separate table covering them all at Numeral prefix > Table of number prefixes in English . binomial , "two terms" dipole , "two poles" The choice between hyphenation or solid styling for prefixes in English
301-434: A new word with a new semantic meaning and sometimes also a different lexical category . Prefixes, like all affixes, are usually bound morphemes . English has no inflectional prefixes, using only suffixes for that purpose. Adding a prefix to the beginning of an English word changes it to a different word. For example, when the prefix un- is added to the word happy , it creates the word unhappy . The word prefix
344-462: A number of potential other meanings. They come before the object they reference, much like in English. Examples of this can be found in the following phrases: Lushootseed has four subject pronouns: čəd 'I' (first-person singular), čəɬ 'we' (first-person plural), čəxʷ 'you' (second-person singular), and čələp 'you' (second-person plural). It does not generally refer to the third person in any way. The subject pronoun always comes in
387-654: A part of the formation of nouns, prefixes are less common in Russian than suffixes, but alter the meaning of a word. In German, derivatives formed with prefixes may be classified in two categories: those used with substantives and adjectives, and those used with verbs. For derivative substantives and adjectives, only two productive prefixes are generally addable to any substantive or adjective as of 1970: un- , which expresses negation (as in ungesund , from gesund ), and ur- , which means "original, primitive" in substantives, and has an emphatic function in adjectives. ge- , on
430-474: A plain-glottalic contrast, which is realized as laryngealized with sonorants , and ejective with voiceless stops or fricatives. It is one of only three known languages to possess all three types of glottalized consonant (ejectives, implosives, and resonants). Lushootseed has no phonemic nasals . However, the nasals [m] , [m̰] , [n] , and [n̰] may appear in some speech styles and words as variants of /b/ and /d/ . Lushootseed can be considered
473-611: A relatively agglutinating language, given its high number of morphemes, including a large number of lexical suffixes. Word order is fairly flexible, although it is generally considered to be verb-subject-object (VSO). Lushootseed is capable of creating grammatically correct sentences that contain only a verb, with no subject or object. All information beyond the action is to be understood by context. This can be demonstrated in ʔuʔəy’dub '[someone] managed to find [someone/something]'. Sentences which contain no verb at all are also common, as Lushootseed has no copula . An example of such
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#1732790922887516-478: A sentence is stab əw̓ə tiʔiɫ 'What [is] that?'. Despite its general status as VSO, Lushootseed can be rearranged to be subject-verb-object (SVO) and verb-object-subject (VOS). Doing so does not modify the words themselves, but requires the particle ʔə to mark the change. The exact nature of this particle is the subject of some debate. Prepositions in Lushootseed are almost entirely handled by one word, ʔal, which can mean 'on, above, in, beside, around' among
559-442: A verb in Lushootseed (excluding the zero copula) carry a prefix indicating their tense and/or aspect . Below is a (non-exhaustive) list of these prefixes, along with their meanings and applications. The prefix ʔəs - is one of the most common. It indicates an imperfective aspect-present tense (similar to English '-ing') for verbs that do not involve motion. More specifically, a verb may use ʔəs - if it does not result in
602-422: Is constructed in two possible ways, one for negatives of existence, and one for negatives of identity. If taking the form of a negative of identity, a proclitic lə- must be added to the sentence on the next adverb. If there are no further adverbs in the sentence, the proclitic attaches to the head word of the predicate, as in the sentence xʷiʔ čəxʷ sixʷ ləbakʷɬ 'Don't get hurt again'. Almost all instances of
645-509: Is covered at Hyphen > Prefixes and suffixes . Commonly used prefixes in Japanese include お〜 ( o- ) and ご〜 ( go- ) . They are used as part of the honorific system of speech , and are used as markers for politeness, showing respect for the person or thing they are affixed to, notably also being used euphemistically . In the Bantu languages of Africa , which are agglutinating ,
688-522: Is derived from dxʷləšucid . The prefix dxʷ- along with the suffix -ucid means "language." The root word , ləš , is an archaic word for the Puget Sound region. Some scholars, such as Wayne Suttles , believe it may be an old word for "people," possibly related to the word " Salish ." Lushootseed has a complex consonantal phonology and 4 vowel phonemes. Along with more common voicing and labialization contrasts, Lushootseed has
731-410: Is itself made up of the stem fix (meaning "attach", in this case), and the prefix pre- (meaning "before"), both of which are derived from Latin roots . This is a fairly comprehensive, although not exhaustive, list of derivational prefixes in English. Depending on precisely how one defines a derivational prefix, some of the neoclassical combining forms may or may not qualify for inclusion in such
774-510: Is placed on the penultimate syllable. Some words do not fit the pattern, but generally, pronunciation is consistent in those ways. Northern Lushootseed also was affected by progressive dissimilation targeting palatal fricatives and affricates, whereas Southern Lushootseed was not, leading to some words like čəgʷəš ("wife") being pronounced čəgʷas in Northern dialects. Different dialects often use completely different words. For example,
817-716: Is scheduled to be offered in August 2019, with the instructors Danica Sterud Miller, Assistant Professor of American Indian Studies at the University of Washington Tacoma , and Zalmai Zahir, a PhD student of theoretical linguistics at the University of Oregon . Lushootseed consists of two main dialect groups, Northern Lushootseed ( dxʷləšucid ) and Southern Lushootseed ( txʷəlšucid ~ xʷəlšucid ). Both of these dialects can then be broken down into subdialects: The Lower and Upper Skagit dialects have variously been categorized as being different from one another, or one in
860-824: The Bureau of Indian Affairs once again granted recognition to the Snoqualmie. They purchased land for and were granted a reservation near Snoqualmie, Washington , on which the tribe opened the Snoqualmie Casino in 2008. They have tried and failed on several occasions to secure a reservation on their ancestral lands along the Tolt River (a tributary of the Snoqualmie River ) until the Snoqualmie Tribe Ancestral Forest
903-566: The Navajo language are formed from a word stem and multiple affixes. For example, each verb requires one of four non-syllabic prefixes ( ∅ , ł , d , l ) to create a verb theme. In the Sunwar language of Eastern Nepal , the prefix ma- म is used to create negative verbs . It is the only verbal prefix in the language. ma .rimʃo NEG .nice al child ma .rimʃo al NEG.nice child Bad child! (scolding) As
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#1732790922887946-541: The Puyallup Tribe . By their definition, a "speaker" includes anyone who speaks in Lushootseed for at least an hour each day. As of 2013 , the Tulalip Tribes ' Lushootseed Language Department teaches classes in Lushootseed, and its website has Lushootseed phrases with audio. The Tulalip Montessori School also teaches Lushootseed to young children. Tulalip Lushootseed language teachers also teach at
989-818: The Tulalip Reservation after signing the Point Elliott Treaty with the Washington Territory in 1855, but many remained in their ancestral homelands around the Snoqualmie Valley and Lake Sammamish . At that time they were one of the largest tribes in the Puget Sound region numbering around 4,000. In 1937 the Federal Government proposed granting a reservation though in the end the land was never given. The tribe lost federal recognition in 1953. In October 1999,
1032-603: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English: Prefix A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word. Particularly in the study of languages, a prefix is also called a preformative , because it alters the form of the word to which it is affixed. Prefixes, like other affixes, can be either inflectional , creating a new form of a word with the same basic meaning and same lexical category , or derivational , creating
1075-442: The noun class is conveyed through prefixes, which is declined and agrees with all of its arguments accordingly. ò-mú -límí AG - CL1 -farmer ò-mú -néné AG - CL1 -fat ò-mú -kâddé AG - CL1 -old ò-mú AG .one à-∅-gênda he- PRES -go ò-mú -límí ò-mú -néné ò-mú -kâddé ò-mú à-∅-gênda AG-CL1-farmer AG-CL1-fat AG-CL1-old AG.one he-PRES-go The one, old, fat farmer goes. Verbs in
1118-534: The Dictionary of Puget Salish distinguishes between schwas that are part of the root word and those inserted through agglutination which are written in superscript. The Tulalip Tribes of Washington's Lushootseed Language Department created a display with nearly all the letters in the Lushootseed alphabet , sans the letter b̓, which is a rare sound which no words begin with. See the external links below for resources. The Lushootseed language originates from
1161-671: The Tulalip Early Learning Academy, Quil Ceda-Tulalip Elementary in the Marysville School District, Totem Middle School, and Marysville-Getchell, Marysville-Pilchuck and Heritage High Schools. Since 1996, the Tulalip Lushootseed Department has hosted the annual dxʷləšucid sʔəsqaləkʷ ʔə ti wiw̓suʔ , a summer language camp for children. Teachers also offer family classes in the evening every year, making Lushootseed
1204-526: The World's Languages in Danger and classified as Reawakening by Ethnologue. Despite this, many Lushootseed-speaking tribes are attempting to revitalize their language in daily use, with several language programs and classes offered across the region. Lushootseed has been historically known as Niskwalli/Nisqually, Puget Sound Salish, Puget Salish, Pugué, Squaxon, Skagit, and Skagit-Nisqually. The name of
1247-596: The annual Tribal Canoe Journeys that takes place throughout the Salish Sea . There are also efforts within the Puyallup Tribe. Their website and social media, aimed at anyone interested in learning the language, are updated often. To facilitate the use of Lushootseed in electronic files, in 2008 the Tulalip Tribes contracted type designer Juliet Shen to create Unicode -compliant typefaces that met
1290-433: The boundary between the northern and southern varieties). Some sources given for these figures, however, go back to the 1970s when the language was less critically endangered. Linguist Marianne Mithun has collected more recent data on the number of speakers of various Native American languages, and could document that by the end of the 1990s there were only a handful of elders left who spoke Lushootseed fluently. The language
1333-627: The coastal region of Northwest Washington State and the Southwest coast of Canada. There are words in the Lushootseed language which are related to the environment and the fishing economy that surrounded the Salish tribes. The following tables show different words from different Lushootseed dialects relating to the salmon fishing and coastal economies. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lushootseed: Article 1 of
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1376-455: The forming of the past participle of verbs; ver- has an emphatic function, or it is used to turn a substantive or an adjective into a verb. In some cases, the prefix particle ent- (negation) can be considered the opposite of particle be- , while er- can be considered the opposite of ver- . The prefix er- usually indicates the successful completion of an action, and sometimes the conclusion means death. With fewer verbs, it indicates
1419-514: The language in Lushootseed is pronounced (and spelled) variably across different dialects. In the northern dialects, the language is called dxʷləšucid . In most southern dialects, it is txʷəlšucid , whereas in the Muckleshoot dialect it is pronounced xʷəlšucid . The southern pronunciation txʷəlšucid is derived from the original by de-voicing d into t and switching the position of l and ə . The English name "Lushootseed"
1462-483: The needs of the language. Drawing upon traditional Lushootseed carvings and artwork, she developed two typefaces: Lushootseed School and Lushootseed Sulad. In the summer of 2016, the first ever adult immersion program in Lushootseed was offered at the University of Washington's Tacoma campus . It was sponsored by The Puyallup Tribal Language Program in partnership with University of Washington Tacoma and its School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences. A similar program
1505-427: The other hand, expresses union or togetherness, but only in a closed group of words—it cannot simply be added to any noun or adjective. Verbal prefixes commonly in use are be- , ent- , er- , ge- , miss- , ver- , and zer- (see also Separable verb ). be- expresses strengthening or generalization. ent- expresses negation. ge- indicates the completion of an action, which is why its most common use has become
1548-741: The pronouns: The third person singular -s is considered marginal and does not work with an actual lexical possessor. Lushootseed, like its neighbors Twana , Nooksack , Klallam , and the North Straits Salish languages , are in the Central Coast Salish subgroup of the Salishan family of languages. The language is spoken by many peoples in the Puget Sound region, including the Duwamish , Suquamish , Squaxin , Muckleshoot , Snoqualmie , Nisqually , and Puyallup in
1591-581: The same, but are both recognized as being distinct from the Sauk dialect. There is no consensus on whether the Skykomish dialect should be grouped into Northern or Southern Lushootseed. Dialects differ in several ways. Pronunciation between dialects is different. In Northern dialects, the stress of the word generally falls on the first non-schwa of the root, whereas in the Southern dialects, stress usually
1634-417: The second position in the sentence: dxʷləbiʔ čəxʷ ʔu 'Are you Lummi?' xʷiʔ čəd lədxʷləbiʔ 'I am not Lummi.' Here, negation takes the first position, the subject pronoun takes the second, and 'Lummi' is pushed to the end of the sentence. Negation in Lushootseed takes the form of an adverb xʷiʔ 'no, none, nothing' which always comes at the beginning of the sentence that is to be negated. It
1677-665: The south and the Snohomish , Stillaguamish , Upper Skagit , and Swinomish in the north. Ethnologue quotes a source published in 1990 (and therefore presumably reflecting the situation in the late 1980s), according to which there were 60 fluent speakers of Lushootseed, evenly divided between the northern and southern dialects. On the other hand, the Ethnologue list of United States languages also lists, alongside Lushootseed's 60 speakers, 100 speakers for Skagit, 107 for Southern Puget Sound Salish, and 10 for Snohomish (a dialect on
1720-816: The word for "raccoon" is x̌aʔx̌əlus in Northern Lushootseed, whereas bəlups is used in Southern Lushootseed. Morphology also differs between Northern and Southern Lushootseed. Northern Lushootseed and Southern Lushootseed have related, but different determiner systems. There are also several differences in utilizing the prefix for marking "place where" or "reason for," in subordinate clauses, with Northern Lushootseed using dəxʷ- and Southern Lushootseed using sxʷ- . See Determiners for more information on this dialectical variation. According to work published by Vi Hilbert and other Lushootseed-language specialists, Lushootseed uses
1763-493: Was extensively documented and studied by linguists with the aid of tribal elder Vi Hilbert , d. 2008, who was the last speaker with a full native command of Lushootseed. There are efforts at reviving the language, and instructional materials have been published. In 2014, there were only five second-language speakers of Lushootseed. As of 2022, although there were not yet native speakers, there were approximately 472 second-language Lushootseed speakers, according to data collected by
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1806-468: Was historically spoken across southern and western Puget Sound roughly between modern-day Bellingham and Olympia by a large number of Indigenous peoples , numbering 12,000 at its peak. Today, however, it is primarily a ceremonial language, spoken for heritage or symbolic purposes, and there are about 472 second-language speakers. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of
1849-781: Was purchased by the tribe at the end of 2021. The 12,000-acre ancestral forestlands (4,900 ha) in East King County holds environmental, economic, and historic value to the tribe. The land, most recently used for industrial timber, will be sustainably harvested while the ecosystem is managed to support the native plant and wildlife populations. The Snoqualmie Tribe is governed by a Tribal constitution and an elected Council. The Tribe's governing structure includes building codes, health codes and other standard governmental functions. 47°31′09″N 121°50′30″W / 47.51917°N 121.84167°W / 47.51917; -121.84167 Lushootseed language Lushootseed
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