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92-774: Snohomish can refer to: Snohomish people , a tribe of the Lushootseed people native to Puget Sound in Washington State Snohomish dialect , the dialect of Lushootseed spoken by the tribe Snohomish, Washington , a city located in the county of the same name Snohomish County, Washington Snohomish River in Washington Snohomish High School in Washington MV ; Napa , formerly known as MV Snohomish ,

184-599: A Lushootseed-speaking Southern Coast Salish people who are indigenous to the Puget Sound region of Washington State . Most Snohomish are enrolled in the Tulalip Tribes of Washington and reside on the reservation or nearby, although others are enrolled in other tribes, and some are members of the non-recognized Snohomish Tribe of Indians. Traditionally, the Snohomish occupied a wide area of land, including

276-661: A Snoqualmie subgroup. Their three villages were located on the Skykomish River , above Monroe. Once a powerful group, they were decimated by Smallpox epidemics and left to live in other villages. They were party to the Treaty of Point Elliott, where siʔalapax̌ad signed the treaty for them. The Quadsack, also called the Kwatsakwbixw ( Lushootseed : qʷacaʔkʷbixʷ ), were a group who lived on Hat Slough. They had just one village, and have been variously considered

368-693: A large number of Indigenous peoples , numbering 12,000 at its peak. Today, however, it is primarily a ceremonial language, spoken for heritage or symbolic purposes, and there are about 472 second-language speakers. It is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger and classified as Reawakening by Ethnologue. Despite this, many Lushootseed-speaking tribes are attempting to revitalize their language in daily use, with several language programs and classes offered across

460-483: A morphophonemic writing system meaning that it is a phonemic alphabet which does not change to reflect the pronunciation such as when an affix is introduced. The chart below is based on the Lushootseed Dictionary. Typographic variations such as ⟨p'⟩ and ⟨pʼ⟩ do not indicate phonemic distinctions. Capital letters are not used in Lushootseed. Some older works based on

552-514: A potlatch house ( sgʷigʷialʔtxʷ ) for specifically for ceremonies. Some villages, notably the village at hibulb , had large cedar palisades which protected the village. Low class villages, such as the village at č̓ƛ̕aʔqs , did not. ( sduhubš ) ( dxʷkʷiƛ̕əbabš ) ( sduduhubš ) One of the primary beliefs of traditional Snohomish religion is in the spirit power or guardian spirit ( sqəlalitut ). Spirit powers are used in many ways, from daily activities to warfare. For example:

644-501: A syncretic Christian denomination. A Shaker church was built at Tulalip. The main dwelling of the Snohomish was the winter longhouse. Longhouses were often between one-hundred to two-hundred feet long. The Snohomish had two types of longhouses as identified by their roof shape: the slanted shed-roof houses and the triangular gable-roof houses. Longhouses were constructed out of long cedar planks tied to vertical posts for support. Houses were divided into rooms for each family. Inside

736-467: A family experience. Wa He Lut Indian School teaches Lushootseed to Native elementary school children in their Native Language and Culture program. As of 2013 , an annual Lushootseed conference is held at Seattle University . A course in Lushootseed language and literature has been offered at Evergreen State College . Lushootseed has also been used as a part of environmental history courses at Pacific Lutheran University . It has been spoken during

828-544: A feature of traditional Snohomish religion are shamanistic spirits. Shamans, also called doctors, ( dxʷdahəb ), are marked by their ability to get unique spirits which can be used to heal or hurt people. Traditionally, a dxʷdahəb did not have a winter dance, and their spirits are said to remain with them at all times. Unlike many other Indigenous peoples of the Northwest Coast , the Snohomish did not have secret societies for their shamans. The traditional belief

920-523: A ferry in the San Francisco Bay Area USCGC Snohomish (CG-16) , (1908–1934) originally a United States Revenue Cutter USCGC Snohomish (WYTM-98) , a former US Coast Guard icebreaking tug Topics referred to by the same term [REDACTED] This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title Snohomish . If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to

1012-512: A hole in it. This spirit is said to help people in catching fish, as well as searching for people lost in the woods. During the winter ceremony, people with this spirit did not perform their spirit dance themselves; rather, they hired four men to dance for them in pairs. In each pair, one danced with a larger board and one danced with a smaller board, putting their hand through the hole in the board and dancing counter-clockwise. The sgʷədilič dances traditionally lasted four days and four nights, and

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1104-447: A hunter might sing their spirit song during their hunt, and if they heard the spirit singing back, they would be successful. Certain professions were only open to those with certain helpful spirits. Traditionally, Snohomish children were trained from a very young age to go on a spirit power journey ( ʔalacut ) to remote locations where they would receive a power. Popular places to get spirit powers were at Stevens Pass and Lake Getchel in

1196-485: A low-class group, compared to the high-class Snohomish proper. The name N'Quentlmamish ( Lushootseed : dxʷkʷiƛ̕əbabš , also spelled Kwehtlamamish ) refers to all those who lived in villages along the Pilchuck River ( Lushootseed : dxʷkʷiƛ̕əb ). Their territory included the Pilchuck River drainage, including Little Pilchuck Creek and Lake Stevens. They had two villages, and have sometimes been referred to as

1288-500: A proclitic lə- must be added to the sentence on the next adverb. If there are no further adverbs in the sentence, the proclitic attaches to the head word of the predicate, as in the sentence xʷiʔ čəxʷ sixʷ ləbakʷɬ 'Don't get hurt again'. Almost all instances of a verb in Lushootseed (excluding the zero copula) carry a prefix indicating their tense and/or aspect . Below is a (non-exhaustive) list of these prefixes, along with their meanings and applications. The prefix ʔəs -

1380-473: A short burst of energy', and is correctly used with ʔu -. In contrast, the verb təlawil , which means 'to jump or run for an extended period of time', is used with lə -: lə təlawil čəxʷ. 'You are jumping.' There are five possessive affixes, derived from the pronouns: The third person singular -s is considered marginal and does not work with an actual lexical possessor. Lushootseed, like its neighbors Twana , Nooksack , Klallam , and

1472-493: A source published in 1990 (and therefore presumably reflecting the situation in the late 1980s), according to which there were 60 fluent speakers of Lushootseed, evenly divided between the northern and southern dialects. On the other hand, the Ethnologue list of United States languages also lists, alongside Lushootseed's 60 speakers, 100 speakers for Skagit, 107 for Southern Puget Sound Salish, and 10 for Snohomish (a dialect on

1564-636: A subgroup of the Snohomish or of the Stillaguamish . Although they were once an independent group, they were closely related to both the Snohomish and the Stillaguamish, and got absorbed after the Smallpox epidemics. For thousands of years, the Snohomish hunted, fished, and gathered around their territory. Ethnologist Colin Tweddell estimated that the pre-contact Snohomish population was in

1656-541: A subgroup of the Snohomish or part of the Snohomish proper. The Quil Ceda people ( Lushootseed : qʷəl̕sidəʔəbš ) were those who came from the many villages in the vicinity of Quil Ceda Creek , including the village at Priest Point . The Sdodohobsh ( Lushootseed : sduduhubš ), also known as the Upper Snohomish or Monroe people, hailed from three independent villages in the vicinity of Monroe . Their name, sduduhubš , means "little Snohomish." They were

1748-475: A time occupied a summer house. Food was always abundant on Puget Sound before colonization, and the traditional diet of the Snohomish was well-rounded. The Snohomish took steelhead , dog , pink , sockeye , and king salmon, as well as trout , sturgeon , and flounder , on the lakes, rivers, and saltwater. Many types of shellfish such as clams, cockles, and mussels were gathered on the coast. Bear, deer, beaver, elk, goat, and duck, and goose were all hunted in

1840-510: A verb, with no subject or object. All information beyond the action is to be understood by context. This can be demonstrated in ʔuʔəy’dub '[someone] managed to find [someone/something]'. Sentences which contain no verb at all are also common, as Lushootseed has no copula . An example of such a sentence is stab əw̓ə tiʔiɫ 'What [is] that?'. Despite its general status as VSO, Lushootseed can be rearranged to be subject-verb-object (SVO) and verb-object-subject (VOS). Doing so does not modify

1932-470: Is tubšədad , which is a war spirit which came to people in time of war or courage. People with tubšədad often were great and famous warriors. Both of these spirits were found only in deep water. The only spirit which one did not ever want to meet was the ʔayahus (Ayahos). The Ayahos is a highly-powerful elk-snake spirit which as two horns which lives in the forest. Hunters which follow this spirit are believed to die soon after meeting it. Also

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2024-437: Is generally the small mountain range between Mount Pilchuck and Bald Mountain . Like other Puget Sound tribes, the Snohomish historically had a strong conception of their territory and its boundaries. People were aware of tribal boundaries and where they were, and there was mutual respect for the boundaries of other tribes. Alliances and friendship between nations allowed for arrangements which could allow others to cross into

2116-420: Is one of the most common. It indicates an imperfective aspect-present tense (similar to English '-ing') for verbs that do not involve motion. More specifically, a verb may use ʔəs - if it does not result in a change of position for its subject. It is commonly known as a "state of being": ʔəs ƛ̕ubil čəd. 'I am feeling fine.' or 'I am in good health.' If a verb does involve motion, the ʔəs - prefix

2208-510: Is placed on the penultimate syllable. Some words do not fit the pattern, but generally, pronunciation is consistent in those ways. Northern Lushootseed also was affected by progressive dissimilation targeting palatal fricatives and affricates, whereas Southern Lushootseed was not, leading to some words like čəgʷəš ("wife") being pronounced čəgʷas in Northern dialects. Different dialects often use completely different words. For example,

2300-556: Is pronounced xʷəlšucid . The southern pronunciation txʷəlšucid is derived from the original by de-voicing d into t and switching the position of l and ə . The English name "Lushootseed" is derived from dxʷləšucid . The prefix dxʷ- along with the suffix -ucid means "language." The root word , ləš , is an archaic word for the Puget Sound region. Some scholars, such as Wayne Suttles , believe it may be an old word for "people," possibly related to

2392-423: Is replaced with lə -: lə ƛ̕a čəd ʔálʔal. 'I'm going home.' Completed or telic actions use the prefix ʔu -. Most verbs without ʔəs - or lə - will use ʔu -. Some verbs also exhibit a contrast in meaning between lə - and ʔu -, and only one of them is correct: ʔu saxʷəb čəxʷ. 'You jump(ed).' The verb saxʷəb literally means 'to jump, leap, or run, especially in

2484-716: Is scheduled to be offered in August 2019, with the instructors Danica Sterud Miller, Assistant Professor of American Indian Studies at the University of Washington Tacoma , and Zalmai Zahir, a PhD student of theoretical linguistics at the University of Oregon . Lushootseed consists of two main dialect groups, Northern Lushootseed ( dxʷləšucid ) and Southern Lushootseed ( txʷəlšucid ~ xʷəlšucid ). Both of these dialects can then be broken down into subdialects: The Lower and Upper Skagit dialects have variously been categorized as being different from one another, or one in

2576-483: Is that shamans can cure people from many things, but those wounded in war could not be cured by a shaman, only by their own spirit powers. Shamans could also restore the spirit of a person who had their spirit power stolen. It was said that a shaman showed their power by wearing a stone or belt which could turn into a snake. After colonization, many Snohomish also converted to the Indian Shaker Church ,

2668-721: The North Straits Salish languages , are in the Central Coast Salish subgroup of the Salishan family of languages. The language is spoken by many peoples in the Puget Sound region, including the Duwamish , Suquamish , Squaxin , Muckleshoot , Snoqualmie , Nisqually , and Puyallup in the south and the Snohomish , Stillaguamish , Upper Skagit , and Swinomish in the north. Ethnologue quotes

2760-478: The Puyallup Tribe . By their definition, a "speaker" includes anyone who speaks in Lushootseed for at least an hour each day. As of 2013 , the Tulalip Tribes ' Lushootseed Language Department teaches classes in Lushootseed, and its website has Lushootseed phrases with audio. The Tulalip Montessori School also teaches Lushootseed to young children. Tulalip Lushootseed language teachers also teach at

2852-563: The Cascade Mountains. The Snohomish were central in the trade of mountain goat wool and dog wool to many saltwater groups which had limited access to such resources. The Snohomish sold large quantities of mountain goat wool and blankets to the Indigenous peoples of Vancouver Island, in particular. A common currency used by the Snohomish was shell money, called dentalium or solax. While many tribes had to trade for shells,

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2944-672: The Cascades. Generally, a spirit quest would take place during the spring, and it was best done during a storm. In order to acquire a spirit power, one had to do something challenging. This usually involved fasting, bathing many times a day, and diving deep into water. The longer someone fasted, or the more difficult the challenges they overcame, the more powerful spirit they would obtain. Spirits could also be obtained later in life due to overcoming personal challenges or developing skills. Traditionally, both women and men could get spirits, although men tended to get more powerful spirits. The winter

3036-534: The Dictionary of Puget Salish distinguishes between schwas that are part of the root word and those inserted through agglutination which are written in superscript. The Tulalip Tribes of Washington's Lushootseed Language Department created a display with nearly all the letters in the Lushootseed alphabet , sans the letter b̓, which is a rare sound which no words begin with. See the external links below for resources. The Lushootseed language originates from

3128-427: The N'Quentlmamish and Sdodohobsh, among others. Each group was traditionally independent at the village level, but there was a greater cultural connection, and all called themselves Snohomish. They had a strong conception of their territory, and formed strong alliances between each other and outside with other peoples through marriage and diplomacy, which allowed their reach to extend far beyond their territory. Throughout

3220-520: The Pilchuck people. Like the Sdodohobsh, they were low-class, seen by the Snohomish as mean and isolative. They were party to the Treaty of Point Elliot, as a subgroup of the Snohomish, and their land was ceded by Patkanim , a Snoqualmie. The Sktalejum ( Lushootseed : st̕aq̓taliǰabš ) have sometimes been classed as a Snohomish subgroup, other times as a Skykomish subgroup, and other times as

3312-699: The Snohomish River, parts of Whidbey and Camano Islands, and the nearby coastline of Skagit Bay and Puget Sound. They had at least 25 permanent villages throughout their lands, but in 1855, signed the Treaty of Point Elliott and were relocated to the Tulalip Reservation. Although some moved to the reservation, the harsh conditions, lack of land, and oppressive policies of the United States government caused many to leave. The Snohomish today are descended from several groups, including

3404-521: The Snohomish had been warring with the Klallam and Cowichan people for some time. In December of that year, they met the trading party of John Work, a Hudson's Bay Company trader. The Snohomish were among the tribes that later traded with the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Nisqually , established in 1833 at the southern tip of Puget Sound. They also met Roman Catholic missionaries who entered their lands in

3496-461: The Snohomish were "doing nothing" for the American government, and one Indian Agent recommended that the tribe be "disbanded." During this period, the Snohomish were encouraged to remove to a temporary reservation on Whidbey Island, so as to lessen the influence of the tribes fighting the American government. According to Article 2 of the treaty, the original plan for the Snohomish under the treaty

3588-457: The Snohomish were able to gather some types in their own territory, although certain shells did have to be traded. Shells were strung together with a string, and some high-class people wore shells as jewelry, on the end of a necklace or as earrings. The canoe was the primary method of transportation in historic times. Even today, they are widely used in cultural contexts. Traditionally, the Snohomish utilized five types of canoes. The largest kind

3680-504: The Snohomish were made subordinate to the Snoqualmie by Stevens, and the treaty was signed for the Snohomish by Patkanim ( paƛ̕adib ), a Snoqualmie leader. This was widely resented by the Snohomish. Patkanim, along with nine Snohomish "sub-chiefs," authorized the cession of all Snohomish lands to the United States. During the 1855-1856 Puget Sound War , the Snohomish remained neutral. This upset American authorities, who felt that

3772-415: The Snoqualmie as subordinates during treaty negotiations, a fact many Snohomish deeply resented. Each subgroup was historically independent from one another, not seen as united under the Snohomish as they are today. Furthermore, each subgroup was composed of several independent villages who were tied together based on shared drainage systems and a complex network of alliances between families. In addition, all

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3864-671: The Tulalip Early Learning Academy, Quil Ceda-Tulalip Elementary in the Marysville School District, Totem Middle School, and Marysville-Getchell, Marysville-Pilchuck and Heritage High Schools. Since 1996, the Tulalip Lushootseed Department has hosted the annual dxʷləšucid sʔəsqaləkʷ ʔə ti wiw̓suʔ , a summer language camp for children. Teachers also offer family classes in the evening every year, making Lushootseed

3956-463: The Tulalip Tribes, the majority of whom are of Snohomish ancestry. The core of Snohomish territory was the lower Snohomish River, particularly the area near the mouth. The historical extent of Snohomish territory stretched over Snohomish , King , and Island counties, including Whidbey Island , Camano Island , Hat Island , the eastern shoreline of Puget Sound, the Snohomish River, and

4048-532: The annual Tribal Canoe Journeys that takes place throughout the Salish Sea . There are also efforts within the Puyallup Tribe. Their website and social media, aimed at anyone interested in learning the language, are updated often. To facilitate the use of Lushootseed in electronic files, in 2008 the Tulalip Tribes contracted type designer Juliet Shen to create Unicode -compliant typefaces that met

4140-433: The boundary between the northern and southern varieties). Some sources given for these figures, however, go back to the 1970s when the language was less critically endangered. Linguist Marianne Mithun has collected more recent data on the number of speakers of various Native American languages, and could document that by the end of the 1990s there were only a handful of elders left who spoke Lushootseed fluently. The language

4232-574: The city of Snohomish , and the Snohomish River are all named after the Snohomish people. The Snohomish are a Southern Coast Salish people, like most of their neighbors. The Coast Salish are a related group of disparate peoples who speak related languages and share elements of culture, religion, and stories. The Southern Coast Salish branch includes all Lushootseed-speaking peoples and the Twana , extending over all of Puget Sound , except for

4324-544: The coast was at what is now Richmond Beach , south of Edmonds . The northernmost border encompassed Warm Beach ( dxʷtux̌ʷub ), and continued easterly to Jordan and southerly to Granite Falls . To the east and west, Snohomish territory encompasses the entire Snohomish River drainage, excluding the Snoqualmie River, and including the Skykomish River to just downriver of Elwell Creek. The eastern boundary

4416-699: The coastal region of Northwest Washington State and the Southwest coast of Canada. There are words in the Lushootseed language which are related to the environment and the fishing economy that surrounded the Salish tribes. The following tables show different words from different Lushootseed dialects relating to the salmon fishing and coastal economies. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Lushootseed: Article 1 of

4508-548: The diet, obtained through trade with settlers. The Snohomish domesticated and kept the native Salish Wool Dog ( sqix̌aʔ ), which were sheared for their wool. The wool was highly valuable and could be made into clothing and blankets. According to ethnologist Colin Tweddell, the Snohomish were the center of the woolly-dog craft among the Coast Salish. The Snohomish also made blankets out of feathers and fireweed, as well as from high-quality mountain goat wool caught high in

4600-465: The dilapidated sawmill. Not only that, but in 1874 it became illegal for the residents of the reservation to actually log their own forests, and all work on the reservation was disallowed. This resulted in many leaving the reservation to find logging jobs elsewhere. Eventually, logging was made legal again, but by 1883, most of the forests on the reservation had been logged. Parts of the reservation that weren't forested, about 1,200 acres, were swampland, and

4692-400: The early 1840s. In 1855, a council was held at what is now Mukilteo, Washington ( Lushootseed : bək̓ʷəɬtiwʔ ) in order for then- Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens to draft a treaty that would cede the lands of the people living in the northern Puget Sound region to the United States. The Snohomish were party to this treaty, and about 350 Snohomish attended. During the treaty process,

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4784-407: The end of this ceremony, a person would usually give a potlatch. Snohomish religion also features the sgʷədilič , which is a type of spirit in the shape of a board. The sgʷədilič tradition emerged in the Puget Sound region during the early historic period and a Snohomish woman claimed to be the first to get it. The boards are painted red and black and were about one-and-a-half feet long with

4876-420: The first position, the subject pronoun takes the second, and 'Lummi' is pushed to the end of the sentence. Negation in Lushootseed takes the form of an adverb xʷiʔ 'no, none, nothing' which always comes at the beginning of the sentence that is to be negated. It is constructed in two possible ways, one for negatives of existence, and one for negatives of identity. If taking the form of a negative of identity,

4968-472: The following phrases: Lushootseed has four subject pronouns: čəd 'I' (first-person singular), čəɬ 'we' (first-person plural), čəxʷ 'you' (second-person singular), and čələp 'you' (second-person plural). It does not generally refer to the third person in any way. The subject pronoun always comes in the second position in the sentence: dxʷləbiʔ čəxʷ ʔu 'Are you Lummi?' xʷiʔ čəd lədxʷləbiʔ 'I am not Lummi.' Here, negation takes

5060-402: The inside. It could carry as many as fifteen people. A smaller variant of this canoe, the stiwatɬ , was made for women and hauling trade goods. The Nootka-style canoe replaced a similar type of canoe, the qəbuɬ , which was manufactured natively by the Snohomish. The Snohomish used two types of canoes for river travel, the river canoe and the shovel-nose canoe. The river canoe ( sdəxʷiɬ )

5152-558: The intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Snohomish&oldid=1070747787 " Categories : Disambiguation pages Place name disambiguation pages Ship disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Language and nationality disambiguation pages Snohomish people The Snohomish people ( Lushootseed : sduhubš , [sdohobʃ] , sdoh- HOHBSH ) are

5244-569: The intent was for the residents to drain the swampland for farming. However, the soil quality was poor, and little funding was given for draining the swamps. Because of these problems, the Indian Agent at the time wrote: "possessed of few resources which are likely to kindle the flame of jealousy in the whites, it is preeminently the most proper selection which the Government has ever made for an Indian Reservation." The Tulalip Reservation

5336-400: The longhouse, the house posts were carved and painted by the oldest member of the family, and cattail mats were hung over the walls for insulation and storage. Two rows of sleeping platforms were around the wall, and above them were located storage shelves where provisions, blankets, and other belongings were stored. Fireplaces were never in the center of the house, but rather were located around

5428-408: The longhouse. The potlatch house was a special type of longhouse that wealthier communities could afford. Although any longhouse could be used for potlatches, large and wealthy communities often elected to build special longhouses exclusively for potlatching. Such houses were constructed in a similar fashion to normal houses, but had generally no partitions inside. The largest Snohomish potlatch house

5520-408: The lower reaches of the Skykomish River . The Snohomish controlled the entirety of Whidbey Island south of a portage at what is now Greenbank ( k̓ʷik̓ʷaac̓əb ). It also encompassed most of Camano Island, controlling the western side of the island south of Point Demock and the eastern side south of Livingston Bay ( ʔaʔacəp ). On the mainland, the southernmost border of Snohomish territory along

5612-467: The nasals [m] , [m̰] , [n] , and [n̰] may appear in some speech styles and words as variants of /b/ and /d/ . Lushootseed can be considered a relatively agglutinating language, given its high number of morphemes, including a large number of lexical suffixes. Word order is fairly flexible, although it is generally considered to be verb-subject-object (VSO). Lushootseed is capable of creating grammatically correct sentences that contain only

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5704-483: The needs of the language. Drawing upon traditional Lushootseed carvings and artwork, she developed two typefaces: Lushootseed School and Lushootseed Sulad. In the summer of 2016, the first ever adult immersion program in Lushootseed was offered at the University of Washington's Tacoma campus . It was sponsored by The Puyallup Tribal Language Program in partnership with University of Washington Tacoma and its School of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences. A similar program

5796-485: The number of people living along the rivers was as high as 1,800. The two sections of land (1,280 acres) set apart for the Snohomish, Snoqualmie, Skykomish, and Stillaguamish peoples was wholly inadequate according to anthropologist Barbara Lane, and all four tribes would never have been able to support themselves on such a reservation. At a later date, the Tulalip Reservation was established, as outlined in Article 3. It

5888-448: The overcrowding, disease, and lack of work, the oppressive policies of the American government, including suppression of traditional language and religion, caused many people to leave the reservation during the early reservation period. In 2008 membership in the unrecognized Snohomish Tribe of Indians had increased to 1,200, although it is unknown what percentage of the members are Snohomish. As of 2023, there are at least 5,100 members of

5980-496: The people who came from island villages were known as čaʔkʷbixʷ , however this was not an ethnic term, and purely a geographical identifier. The dəgʷasx̌abš ("people of dəgʷasx̌ "), also called the Whidbey Island Snohomish, were a wealthy people, widely famous throughout Puget Sound. They had several villages on the southern half of Whidbey Island. Some ethnographers disagree on whether they were

6072-482: The platform and lower a dip-net ( luk̓ʷ ) down into the trapped fish. Traps, hooks, and spears were used as well. Flare fishing, using flares made of pine chips, was done on rivers at night. Plant resources were also widely used. Roots and berries, as well as certain native vegetables were gathered in the prairies, forests, and marshes. Berries, especially blackberries, were dried and made into cakes for dessert, or for future use. Flour and potatoes were also added to

6164-415: The process of revitalizing the language, as well as preserving and restoring other traditional cultural teachings, which are known in Lushootseed as x̌əč̓usadad . "Snohomish" is an anglicization of the Lushootseed name sduhubš . Around the time of contact, a linguistic shift occurred where nasal consonants, such as m or n, shifted in many words to become b or d respectively. This is seen in many of

6256-536: The pronunciations of the oldest speakers of Lushootseed, some of which still pronounced words in the old way. When the Snohomish first encountered Europeans, their name was pronounced as snuhumš , producing the word "Snohomish" in English. After some time, the Lushootseed changed, while the English-language name stayed the same, creating the discrepancy that exists today. The name "Snohomish" ( sduhubš )

6348-484: The region. Lushootseed has been historically known as Niskwalli/Nisqually, Puget Sound Salish, Puget Salish, Pugué, Squaxon, Skagit, and Skagit-Nisqually. The name of the language in Lushootseed is pronounced (and spelled) variably across different dialects. In the northern dialects, the language is called dxʷləšucid . In most southern dialects, it is txʷəlšucid , whereas in the Muckleshoot dialect it

6440-581: The same, but are both recognized as being distinct from the Sauk dialect. There is no consensus on whether the Skykomish dialect should be grouped into Northern or Southern Lushootseed. Dialects differ in several ways. Pronunciation between dialects is different. In Northern dialects, the stress of the word generally falls on the first non-schwa of the root, whereas in the Southern dialects, stress usually

6532-634: The sides to allow for easy passage throughout the entire house. A replica of a traditional shed-roof longhouse was constructed at the Hibulb Cultural Center for gatherings and storytelling. The Gathering Hall at Tulalip Bay is inspired by the design of a traditional gable-roof longhouse. Longhouses were owned by those who built it, with many longhouses being owned by the whole community. In larger longhouses with partitions, each room would be owned by one or several families. Other longhouses were owned by just one man and his family, all living in

6624-412: The songs were sung four times fast and four times slow. Traditionally, the most powerful and desired spirit powers was tiyuɬbax̌ (also spelled tiyuɬbax̌əd or tiyuɬəbax̌ad ). This spirit power is primarily a wealth spirit which helps one acquire wealth and property in life. Someone with tiyuɬbax̌ was said to receive more gifts during a potlatch than others. Another highly powerful spirit

6716-535: The summer, they traveled across their territory and beyond to hunt, gather, and fish, while the winter was reserved for religious observances and ceremonies. Today, the Snohomish maintain their tradition of potlatching, as well as other cultural elements such as use of canoes, fishing, hunting, and gathering of traditional materials for cultural crafts. Traditionally, the Snohomish spoke a subdialect of Northern Lushootseed , although it has fallen out of use in favor of English in more modern times. The Tulalip Tribes are in

6808-399: The surrounding forests. Fish was mainly dried, while meat was both smoked and dried. Fishing is highly important to the Snohomish, and there are many traditional techniques used to catch many types of fish, both in rivers and on the saltwater. The most famous method of fishing on the river is with weirs ( Lushootseed : stqalikʷ ). Weirs were built over a river so that one could walk on

6900-687: The territory of one's group. Through this system of alliances, the Snohomish allowed other allied peoples to use certain areas of their territory. Snohomish-controlled areas on Whidbey Island were shared with the Skagit , the Kikiallus , the Snoqualmie , and the Suquamish . The Stillaguamish , Snoqualmie, and Kikiallus were allowed to use certain areas of Snohomish Camano Island. The Snoqualmie and Duwamish were allowed to visit Hat Island. Tulalip Bay

6992-443: The thousands, possibly over 6,000. In the early 1800s, there were smallpox and measles epidemics which ravaged the population. Around 1820, several Snohomish villages were decimated by a large landslide at Camano Head ( Lushootseed : x̌ʷuyšəd ), the southern tip of Camano Island. A massive landslide occurred when the bluff collapsed, burying a village directly below it. Another village on Hat Island ( Lushootseed : č̓əč̓əsəliʔ )

7084-584: The westernmost shore of Admiralty Inlet . The Snohomish today are descended from several peoples, including the Snohomish proper, the Sdodohobsh, and the N'Quentlmamish. Some ethnographers and historians have historically considered the Skykomish and the Sktalejum to be subgroups of the Snohomish as well, due to their close ties with the Snohomish, with many Snohomish people seeing the Skykomish as an offshoot group. The Snohomish themselves were placed under

7176-462: The word sduhubš has been debated by linguists and tribal historians. According to the Tulalip Tribes and several ethnologists and historians, the name means "many men" or "lots of people." William Shelton , a prominent leader of the Snohomish people in the early 20th century, said that it meant "lowland people". Snohomish has also been anglicized many other ways, including Sdoh-hobsh, Sdohobc, Sinahomish, and Sneomuses. Today, Snohomish County ,

7268-492: The word " Salish ." Lushootseed has a complex consonantal phonology and 4 vowel phonemes. Along with more common voicing and labialization contrasts, Lushootseed has a plain-glottalic contrast, which is realized as laryngealized with sonorants , and ejective with voiceless stops or fricatives. It is one of only three known languages to possess all three types of glottalized consonant (ejectives, implosives, and resonants). Lushootseed has no phonemic nasals . However,

7360-816: The word for "raccoon" is x̌aʔx̌əlus in Northern Lushootseed, whereas bəlups is used in Southern Lushootseed. Morphology also differs between Northern and Southern Lushootseed. Northern Lushootseed and Southern Lushootseed have related, but different determiner systems. There are also several differences in utilizing the prefix for marking "place where" or "reason for," in subordinate clauses, with Northern Lushootseed using dəxʷ- and Southern Lushootseed using sxʷ- . See Determiners for more information on this dialectical variation. According to work published by Vi Hilbert and other Lushootseed-language specialists, Lushootseed uses

7452-405: The words themselves, but requires the particle ʔə to mark the change. The exact nature of this particle is the subject of some debate. Prepositions in Lushootseed are almost entirely handled by one word, ʔal, which can mean 'on, above, in, beside, around' among a number of potential other meanings. They come before the object they reference, much like in English. Examples of this can be found in

7544-493: Was extensively documented and studied by linguists with the aid of tribal elder Vi Hilbert , d. 2008, who was the last speaker with a full native command of Lushootseed. There are efforts at reviving the language, and instructional materials have been published. In 2014, there were only five second-language speakers of Lushootseed. As of 2022, although there were not yet native speakers, there were approximately 472 second-language Lushootseed speakers, according to data collected by

7636-623: Was historically a common time for many religious ceremonies, but especially prominent was the winter spirit power ceremony ( spigʷəd ). In Snohomish religion, spirit powers travel around the world but return during the winter. When a spirit power returns, a person feels sick and hears their spirit power song. When this happens, one would traditionally host a large ceremony, often lasting several days, in which they would sing, dance, and give out gifts to friends and family. Unlike other ceremonies where people sang their spirit power songs alone, in this ceremony, friends were invited to help sing and dance. At

7728-421: Was located at dxʷlilap . A large shed-roof house, it was 115 feet long and 43 feet wide, with ten carved house posts. The Snohomish also built smaller, temporary summer lodgings. They were square shaped, either like a lean-to or with a gabled roof. It was constructed of a frame with large mats stacked on top of each other and overlapped to be waterproof to form the roof and walls. Generally, only one family at

7820-486: Was originally planned to be a 36-section parcel of land to which all peoples living in western Washington would be relocated. The Tulalip Reservation encompassed the Snohomish reservation, and it was incorporated into the Tulalip Reservation. On December 3, 1873, the Tulalip Reservation was expanded by an executive order . It was enlarged to 24,320 acres. Although the Tulalip Reservation was initially chosen for its timber and nearby sawmill, funds were never given to rebuild

7912-586: Was severely overcrowded. Although people were trying to move to the reservation as required, there simply was not enough land. By 1909, the Tulalip Reservation had been completely allotted. Some lost their allotted land, while others never got any allotment at all. Most Snohomish did in fact relocate to the Tulalip reservation early on, however, due to the lack of land, most returned to their traditional homelands. In 1919, 360 Snohomish lived off-reservation, twice as many as those living on-reservation. In addition to

8004-513: Was shared with the Stillaguamish and Snoqualmie, and the southern Puget Sound coast owned by the Snohomish was shared with their southern Duwamish neighbors. Likewise, many of these groups allowed the Snohomish to visit their lands for hunting, fishing, and gathering in return. The Snohomish and their associated groups permanently occupied at least 25 villages throughout their territory. Villages were composed of at least one longhouse, and larger villages such as hibulb often had smaller houses and

8096-437: Was that they would be relocated to a temporary Snohomish reservation, alongside the Skykomish , Snoqualmie , and Stillaguamish peoples. However, the treaty commission vastly underestimated the number of people who were living along the Snohomish and Stillaguamish drainage systems. In 1854, the treaty commission were under the impression that there were less than 400 people living along both watersheds. By 1856, reports said that

8188-575: Was the Quinault -style canoe, an ocean-going canoe manufactured by the Quinault, who traded it to the Snohomish. It could hold as many as 60 people. The smaller Nootka-style canoe ( ʔəʔutx̌s ), also called the war canoe or Chinook canoe, was a saltwater canoe originally from the Makah, but was widely adopted by the Snohomish for traveling. The Snohomish painted this canoe black on the outside, and red on

8280-449: Was the smallest of the two, usually built for two people, and was made to look like the larger canoes. It was used most commonly for duck hunting and fishing. The more common shovel-nose canoe ( ƛ̕əlayʔ ) was used widely by the Snohomish for quick river travel and for fishing. Lushootseed language Lushootseed was historically spoken across southern and western Puget Sound roughly between modern-day Bellingham and Olympia by

8372-457: Was traditionally used to refer to all those who lived in villages on southern Whidbey and Camano Islands, Hat Island , the coast of Puget Sound from Warm Beach to Muckilteo , and along the Snohomish River until Snohomish City . There were many villages and subgroups within the Snohomish proper, but they all had a level of social cohesion above their own village. In total, the Snohomish had 15 villages around their territory. The meaning of

8464-483: Was wiped out by a large tidal wave caused by the landslide. Residents of the village at č̓əč̓əsəliʔ saw the landslide happen, and some managed to escape to higher ground before the impact of the wave. The wave also almost destroyed the largest Snohomish village of hibulb . The landslide was catastrophic, with hundreds of casualties. It was during the clamming season, and many who were visiting x̌ʷuyšəd and č̓əč̓əsəliʔ were buried and drowned. Around 1824,

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