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71-702: The district operated elementary and secondary schools that served students from the St. Lawrence School Board and the South Centre School Board areas. The Richelieu Valley School Board operated its own elementary schools but secondary students from that board attended South Shore. In 1967 the board of education of the school district had nine members. One of the Working papers on English language institutions in Quebec of 1982, by Alliance Québec, stated that

142-578: A curriculum that taught all subjects, including literature and math, in the children’s L1: P’urhepecha. Years after the curriculum was implemented in 1995, researchers conducted a study comparing L1 P’urhepecha students with L1 Spanish students. Results found that students who had acquired L1 P’urhepecha literacy performed better in both languages (P’urhepecha and Spanish) than students who were L1 Spanish literate. New Zealand shows another instance of heritage bilingual immersion programs. Established in 1982, full Māori-language immersion education strictly forbids

213-415: A desired speech response), morpheme studies, behaviourism, error analysis, stages and order of acquisition, structuralism (approach that looks at how the basic units of language relate to each other according to their common characteristics), 1st language acquisition studies, contrastive analysis (approach where languages are examined in terms of differences and similarities) and inter-language (which describes

284-462: A few of the researchers who have dedicated time to this subject. They have worked to determine what qualities make a "good language learner". Some of their common findings are that a good language learner uses positive learning strategies, is an active learner who is constantly searching for meaning. Also a good language learner demonstrates a willingness to practice and use the language in real communication. He also monitors himself and his learning, has

355-425: A first language and with few exceptions, they will be fully successful. For second language learners, success is not guaranteed. For one, learners may become fossilized or stuck as it were with ungrammatical items. ( Fossilization occurs when language errors become a permanent feature.) The difference between learners may be significant. As noted elsewhere, L2 learners rarely achieve complete native-like control of

426-401: A more balanced approach to teaching and helps students of a variety of learning styles succeed. The defining difference between a first language (L1) and a second language (L2) is the age the person learned the language. For example, linguist Eric Lenneberg used second language to mean a language consciously acquired or used by its speaker after puberty. In most cases, people never achieve

497-467: A neighbouring language, another language of the speaker's home country, or a foreign language . A speaker's dominant language, which is the language a speaker uses most or is most comfortable with, is not necessarily the speaker's first language. For example, the Canadian census defines first language for its purposes as "the first language learned in childhood and still spoken", recognizing that for some,

568-539: A place (within their native country or abroad) where their native language is not the majority language of that community. For example, Canadian anglophones go to Quebec (see Explore and Katimavik ), and Irish anglophones go to the Gaeltacht . Often, that involves a homestay with a family that speaks only the target language. Children whose parents emigrate to a new country also find themselves in an immersion environment with respect to their new language. Another method

639-620: A portion of St. Bernard de Lacolle . When it opened in 1967, the district served schooling in all grade levels in the school boards of Chambly-Richelieu, Greenfield Park, Lacolle, Longueuil, Pinehurst-East Greenfield, Rougemont, St. Hubert, St. Hyacinthe, St. Johns, and St. Lambert. In the St. Hilaire and Richelieu Valley school boards the district served grades 7 through 12. In the Candiac school board it only served grades 8 through 12. Secondary schools: Primary schools: Language immersion Language immersion , or simply immersion ,

710-468: A program because it allows for yearly evaluation and, if it were to fail from the beginning, the impact of the loss is less significant. The method of implementation is crucial to the success of the program, as the RAND Institute has concluded that the final result of these programs is positive, but only so long as implemented correctly, meaning consistency and strict adherence to the curriculum in

781-452: A second language leads students to fail to be proficient in their first language. As of 2009, about 300,000 Canadian students (roughly 6% of the school population) were enrolled in immersion programs. In early immersion, L1 English-speakers are immersed in French in their education for 2 to 3 years prior to formal English education. This early exposure prepares Canadian L1 English speakers for

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852-427: A strong drive to communicate, and has a good ear and good listening skills. Özgür and Griffiths have designed an experiment in 2013 about the relationship between different motivations and second language acquisition. They looked at four types of motivations—intrinsic (inner feelings of learner), extrinsic (reward from outside), integrative (attitude towards learning), and instrumental (practical needs). According to

923-433: A strong foundation for fluency later in life and help students gain appreciation of languages and cultures other than their own. There are no long-term adverse effects of bilingual education on the learning of the majority language, regardless of whether the students' first language (L1) is a majority or a minority language or of the organization of the educational program. Several observed outcomes of bilingual education are

994-777: A variety of different approaches outside the traditional sink-or-swim model of full submersion in an L2 without assistance in the L1. According to the Center for Applied Linguistics (CAL), in 1971, there were only three immersion programs within the United States. As of 2011, there were 448 language immersion schools in the US, with the three main immersion languages of instruction being Spanish (45%), French (22%), and Mandarin (13%). The first French-language immersion program in Canada, with

1065-440: Is a hypothesis that when a child is going through puberty, that is the time that accents start . Before a child goes through puberty, the chemical processes in the brain are more geared towards language and social communication. Whereas after puberty, the ability for learning a language without an accent has been rerouted to function in another area of the brain—most likely in the frontal lobe area promoting cognitive functions, or in

1136-510: Is a technique used in bilingual language education in which two languages are used for instruction in a variety of topics, including maths, science, or social studies. The languages used for instruction are referred to as the L1 and the L2 for each student, with L1 being the student's native language and L2 being the second language to be acquired through immersion programs and techniques. There are different types of language immersion that depend on

1207-460: Is still no evidence to prove that any particular way is best. In the United States, state and local government only provide curriculum for teaching students in only one language. There is no standard curriculum for language-immersion schools. Besides, the states do not provide assistance in how to promote biliteracy. Bilingual teaching has been too little researched. The report of the Council of

1278-527: Is taught as a separate course. In Zambia, English is the main language of instruction, and the local language, Nyanja, is taught as a separate course. Williams's study took children from six schools in each country in Grade 5. He administered two tests: an English-language reading test, and a mother-tongue reading test. One result showed that there was no significant difference in the English reading ability between

1349-487: Is to create a temporary environment in which the target language predominates, as in linguistic summer camps like the " English villages " in South Korea and parts of Europe. Study abroad can also provide a strong immersion environment to increase language skills. However, many factors may affect immersion during study abroad, including the amount of foreign-language contact during the program. To impact competence in

1420-534: Is widely used in a variety of contexts in these countries, and signs are normally printed in both Arabic and French. A similar phenomenon exists in post-Soviet states such as Ukraine , Uzbekistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan , where Russian can be considered a second language, and there are large Russophone communities . However, unlike in Hong Kong , English is considered a foreign language in China due to

1491-571: The Nordic countries and the Netherlands is considered a second language by many of its speakers, because they learn it young and use it regularly; indeed in parts of South Asia it is the official language of the courts, government and business. The same can be said for French in Algeria , Morocco and Tunisia , although French is not an official language in any of them. In practice, French

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1562-738: The 4th grade, when they begin to be instructed in English 50% of the time and French the other 50%. In the United States and since the 1980s, dual immersion programs have grown for a number of reasons: competition in a global economy, a growing population of second-language learners, and the successes of previous programs. Language immersion classes can now be found throughout the US, in urban and suburban areas, in dual-immersion and single-language immersion, and in an array of languages. As of May 2005, there were 317 dual immersion programs in US elementary schools, providing instruction in 10 languages, and 96% of those programs were in Spanish. The 1970s marked

1633-661: The Andaman Association and creator of the encyclopedic andaman.org Web site, made a report in December 1997 about the number of secondary speakers of the world's leading languages. Weber used the Fischer Weltalmanach of 1986 as his primary and only source for the L2-speakers data, in preparing the data in the following table. These numbers are here compared with those referred to by Ethnologue,

1704-452: The Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition is a phase-in method, which starts with the lowest year participating in the program as the only year and adds a new grade of students into the program each year, working up towards high school. This slow incorporation of an immersion program is useful for schools with limited funding and those who are skeptical about the benefits of such

1775-628: The Great City Schools in 2013 has shown that half of the city schools lack professional bilingual teaching instructors. There are challenges to developing high proficiency in two languages or balance in bilingual skills, especially for early immersion students. Children complete the development of their first language by the age 7, and L1 and L2 affect each other during language development. High levels of bilingual proficiency are hard to achieve. Students with more exposure are better. For second-language immersion schools, immersion too early in

1846-413: The L1 group. The inability of some subjects to achieve native-like proficiency must be seen in relation to the age of onset (AO). Later, Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson modified their age cut-offs to argue that after childhood, in general, it becomes more and more difficult to acquire native-like-ness, but that there is no cut-off point in particular. As we are learning more and more about the brain, there

1917-408: The L2 learner's language as a rule-governed, dynamic system). These theories have all influenced second-language teaching and pedagogy. There are many different methods of second-language teaching, many of which stem directly from a particular theory. Common methods are the grammar-translation method , the direct method , the audio-lingual method (clearly influenced by audio-lingual research and

1988-588: The US because of immigration from Spanish-speaking countries. The other two common immersion language programs in the US are French and Mandarin, which have 114 and 71 language immersion programs, respectively. Types of language immersion can be characterized by the total time students spend in the program and also by the students' age. Types that are characterized by learning time: Types that are characterized by age: The stages of immersion can also be divided into: People may also relocate temporarily to receive language immersion, which occurs when they move to

2059-556: The Zambian and Malawian school children. However, there were significant differences in the proficiency of mother tongue reading ability. The results of the study showed that the Malawian students did better in their mother tongue, Chichewa, than Zambian children did in their mother tongue, Nyanja. Second language A second language ( L2 ) is a language spoken in addition to one's first language (L1). A second language may be

2130-399: The age of 5 have more or less mastered their first language with the exception of vocabulary and a few grammatical structures, and the process is relatively very fast because language is a very complex skill. Moreover, if children start to learn a second language when they are seven years old or younger, they will also be fully fluent with their second language in a faster speed comparing to

2201-431: The age of the students, the classtime spent in L2, the subjects that are taught, and the level of participation by the speakers of L1. Although programs differ by country and context, most language immersion programs have the overall goal of promoting bilingualism between the two different sets of language-speakers. In many cases, biculturalism is also a goal for speakers of the majority language (the language spoken by

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2272-607: The beginning of bilingual education programs in Hawaii. The Hawaiian Language Program was geared to promote cultural integrity by emphasizing native-language proficiency through heritage language bilingual immersion instruction. By 1995, there were 756 students enrolled in the Hawaiian Language Immersion Program from K to 8. The program was taught strictly in Hawaiian until Grades 5 and 6, when English

2343-539: The behaviourist approach), the Silent Way , Suggestopedia , community language learning , the Total Physical Response method , and the communicative approach (highly influenced by Krashen's theories). Some of these approaches are more popular than others, and are viewed to be more effective. Most language teachers do not use one singular style, but will use a mix in their teaching. This provides

2414-1089: The board's territory. The board was dissolved in 1998. As of 1965 the municipalities within the school board were: Beloeil , Boucherville , Brossard , Candiac , Chambly , Douville, Fort Chambly , Greenfield Park , Iberville , Jacques Cartier , L'Acadie , Lacolle , Lafleche , Laprairie , La Providence, Lemoyne, Longueuil , Marieville , McMasterville , Mont St. Hilaire , Notre Dame, Notre Dame de Bon Secours , Notre Dame du Mont Carmel , Otterburn Park , Preville , Richelieu , Rougemont , Ste. Angele de Monnoir , Ste. Anne de Sabrevois , St. Basile le Grand , St. Blaise , St. Bruno de Montarville , St. Cyprien of Chaudière-Appalaches (including Napierville V.), Ste. Famille de Boucherville , St. Hilaire, St. Hubert , St. Hyacinthe , St. Johns , St. Jean Baptiste , St. Jean l'Evangeliste, St. Joseph, St. Joseph de Chambly, Ste. Julie , St. Lambert , St. Luc , St. Marc, Ste. Marie de Monnoir, St. Mathieu de Beloeil , St. Michel de Rougemont, St. Patrice de Sherrington , St. Paul de l'ile aux Noix and St. Valentin . It also served

2485-435: The capacity to figure out the grammatical rules. Error correction does not seem to have a direct influence on learning a second language. Instruction may affect the rate of learning, but the stages remain the same. Adolescents and adults who know the rule are faster than those who do not. In the learning of a second language the correction of errors remains a controversial topic with many differing schools of thought. Throughout

2556-432: The classroom than the cognitive processing of the students. He contested that the affective side of students and their self-esteem were equally important to the teaching process. In the 1980s, the strict grammar and corrective approach of the 1950s became obsolete. Researchers asserted that correction was often unnecessary and that instead of furthering students' learning it was hindering them. The main concern at this time

2627-590: The classroom. Studies have shown that students who study a foreign language in school, especially those who start in elementary school, tend to receive higher standardized test scores than students who have not studied a foreign language in school. According to additional research, learning another language can also help students do better in math, focusing, and remembering. Students who study foreign languages also tend to have increased mental capabilities, such as creativity and higher-order thinking skills (see cognitive advantages of bilingualism ) and have advantages in

2698-782: The corrective processes. According to Noam Chomsky , children will bridge the gap between input and output by their innate grammar because the input (utterances they hear) is so poor but all children end up having complete knowledge of grammar. Chomsky calls it the Poverty of Stimulus . And second language learners can do this by applying the rules they learn to the sentence-construction, for example. So learners in both their native and second language have knowledge that goes beyond what they have received, so that people can make correct utterances (phrases, sentences, questions, etc) that they have never learned or heard before. Bilingualism has been an advantage to today's world and being bilingual gives

2769-443: The developing knowledge and use of a language by children and adults who already know at least one other language... [and] a knowledge of second-language acquisition may help educational policy makers set more realistic goals for programmes for both foreign language courses and the learning of the majority language by minority language children and adults." SLA has been influenced by both linguistic and psychological theories. One of

2840-624: The district was one of the first in North America to create a language immersion program targeting Anglophone students. The school board was formed in 1965. It went into effect on July 1, 1967. The district had 23 schools when it opened on September 5 of that year, and at that time it had over 450 teaching employees and over 9,000 students. In 1992 all areas of the Richelieu Valley and the South Shore were incorporated into

2911-501: The dominant linguistic theories hypothesizes that a device or module of sorts in the brain contains innate knowledge. Many psychological theories, on the other hand, hypothesize that cognitive mechanisms , responsible for much of human learning, process language. Other dominant theories and points of research include 2nd language acquisition studies (which examine if L1 findings can be transferred to L2 learning), verbal behaviour (the view that constructed linguistic stimuli can create

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2982-405: The earliest language may be lost, a process known as language attrition . This can happen when young children start school or move to a new language environment. The distinction between acquiring and learning was made by Stephen Krashen as part of his Monitor Theory . According to Krashen, the acquisition of a language is a natural process; whereas learning a language is a conscious one. In

3053-648: The first, initially reported that students receive standardized test scores that are slightly below average. That was true in Canada's program, but by Grade 5, there was no difference between their scores and the scores of students who were instructed only in English. The English spelling abilities soon matched those of the English-only students. Ultimately, students did not lose any proficiency in English and were able to develop native-like proficiency in French reading and comprehension but they did not quite reach native-like proficiency in spoken and written French. However,

3124-497: The fluency, it is better to do foreign language education at an early age, but being exposed to a foreign language since an early age causes a "weak identification". Such issue leads to a "double sense of national belonging," that makes one not sure of where they belong to because, according to Brian A. Jacob, multicultural education affects students' "relations, attitudes, and behaviors". And as children learn more and more foreign languages, children start to adapt, and get absorbed into

3195-520: The foreign culture that they "undertake to describe themselves in ways that engage with representations others have made". Due to such factors, learning foreign languages at an early age may incur one's perspective of his or her native country. Acquiring a second language can be a lifelong learning process for many. Despite persistent efforts, most learners of a second language will never become fully native-like in it, although with practice considerable fluency can be achieved. However, children by around

3266-457: The former, the student needs to partake in natural communicative situations. In the latter, error correction is present, as is the study of grammatical rules isolated from natural language. Not all educators in second language agree to this distinction; however, the study of how a second language is learned/acquired is referred to as second-language acquisition (SLA). Research in SLA "...focuses on

3337-415: The immersion program is seen as providing a strong foundation for oral French fluency later in life, and other similar programs that might not fully reach their projected goals may also be seen in the same light. Programs with the goal of preserving heritage languages, such as Hawaii's language immersion program, have also reported initial outcomes of below-average test scores on standardized tests. However,

3408-537: The initial lag in achievement of the programs of Canada and Hawaii but are less effective than full immersion programs, and students generally do not achieve native-like L2 proficiency. The first issue is the allocation of time given to each language. Educators have thought that more exposure to the students' L2 will lead to greater L2 proficiency, but it is difficult for students to learn abstract and complex concepts only by L2. Different types of language immersion schools allocate different time to each language, but there

3479-415: The initial stage of foreign language education. Gauthier and Genesee have done research which mainly focuses on the second language acquisition of internationally adopted children and results show that early experiences of one language of children can affect their ability to acquire a second language, and usually children learn their second language slower and weaker even during the critical period. As for

3550-479: The lack of opportunities for use, such as historical links, media, conversation between people, and common vocabulary. Likewise, French would be considered a foreign language in Romania and Moldova , even though both French and Romanian are Romance languages , Romania's historical links to France, and all being members of la Francophonie . George H. J. Weber, a Swiss businessman and independent scholar, founder of

3621-583: The last century much advancement has been made in research on the correction of students' errors. In the 1950s and 60s, the viewpoint of the day was that all errors must be corrected at all costs. Little thought went to students' feelings or self-esteem in regards to this constant correction. In the 1970s, Dulay and Burt's studies showed that learners acquire grammar forms and structures in a pre-determined, inalterable order, and that teaching or correcting styles would not change that. In 1977, Terrell"s studies showing that there were more factors to be considered in

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3692-472: The latter is being learned for use in an area where that language is originally from another country and not spoken in the native country of the speakers. And in other words, foreign language is used from the perspective of countries; the second language is used from the perspective of individuals. For example, English in countries such as India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Bangladesh , the Philippines ,

3763-558: The low test scores may not have been caused by purely language-related factors. For example, there was initially a lack of curriculum material written in Hawaiian, and many of the teachers were inexperienced or unaccustomed to teaching in Hawaiian. Despite the initial drawbacks, the Hawaiian program was overall successful in preserving Hawaiian as a heritage language, with students in the program being able to speak Hawaiian fluently while they learned reading, writing, and math, which were taught in Hawaiian. Partial immersion programs do not have

3834-440: The majority of the surrounding population) and the minority language (the language that is not the majority language). Research has shown that such forms of bilingual education provide students with overall greater language comprehension and production of the L2 in a native-like manner, especially greater exposure to other cultures and the preservation of languages, particularly heritage languages . Bilingual education has taken on

3905-424: The meaning of words clearly. The emotional distinction between L1 and L2 indicates that the "effective valence" of words is processed less immediate in L2 because of the delayed vocabulary/lexical access to these two languages. Success in language learning can be measured in two ways: likelihood and quality. First language learners will be successful in both measurements. It is inevitable that all people will learn

3976-410: The neural system of hormone allocated for reproduction and sexual organ growth. As far as the relationship between age and eventual attainment in SLA is concerned, Krashen, Long, and Scarcella, say that people who encounter foreign language in early age, begin natural exposure to second languages and obtain better proficiency than those who learn the second language as an adult. However, when it comes to

4047-407: The opportunity to understand and communicate with people with different cultural backgrounds. However, a study done by Optiz and Degner in 2012 shows that sequential bilinguals (i.e. learn their L2 after L1) often relate themselves to the emotions more when they perceive these emotions by their first language/native language/L1, but feel less emotional when by their second language even though they know

4118-444: The relationship between age and rate SLA , "Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant)". Also, "older children acquire faster than younger children do (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant)". In other words, adults and older children are fast learners when it comes to

4189-501: The same level of fluency and comprehension in their second languages as in their first language. These views are closely associated with the critical period hypothesis . In acquiring an L2, Hyltenstam found that around the age of six or seven seemed to be a cut-off point for bilinguals to achieve native-like proficiency. After that age, L2 learners could get near-native-like-ness but their language would, while consisting of few actual errors, have enough errors to set them apart from

4260-563: The second language. For L2 pronunciation, there are two principles that have been put forth by Levis. The first is nativeness which means the speaker's ability to approximately reach the speaking pattern of the second language of speakers; and the second, understanding, refers to the speaker's ability to make themselves understood. Being successful in learning a second language is often found to be challenging for some individuals. Research has been done to look into why some students are more successful than others. Stern, Rubin and Reiss are just

4331-407: The speed of learning by adults who start to learn a second language later in their life. In the first language, children do not respond to systematic correction. Furthermore, children who have limited input still acquire the first language, which is a significant difference between input and output. Children are exposed to a language environment of errors and lack of correction but they end up having

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4402-405: The survey by CAL in 2011, there are over 528 immersion schools in the US. Besides, language immersion programs have spread to Australia, Mainland China, Saudi Arabia, Japan and Hong Kong, which altogether offer more than 20 languages. The survey also showed that Spanish is the most common immersion language in language immersion programs in US. There are over 239 Spanish-language immersion programs in

4473-459: The target language being taught as an instructional language, started in Quebec in 1965. Since the majority language in Quebec is French, English-speaking parents wanted to ensure that their children could achieve a high level of French as well as English in Quebec. Since then, French immersion has spread across the country and has led to the situation of French immersion becoming the most common form of language immersion in Canada so far. According to

4544-509: The target language positively, Celeste Kinginger notes, research about language learning during study abroad suggests "a need for language learners' broader engagement in local communicative practices, for mindfulness of their situation as peripheral participants, and for more nuanced awareness of language itself.” The task of organizing and creating such a program can be daunting and problematic, with everything from planning to district budget posing issues. One method of implementation proposed by

4615-418: The teacher repeating a student's incorrect utterance with the correct version, are not always the most useful because students do not notice the correction. His studies in 2002 showed that students learn better when teachers help students recognize and correct their own errors. Mackey, Gas and McDonough had similar findings in 2000 and attributed the success of this method to the student's active participation in

4686-404: The test results, the intrinsic part has been the main motivation for these student who learn English as their second language. However, students report themselves being strongly instrumentally motivated. In conclusion, learning a second language and being successful depend on every individual. In pedagogy and sociolinguistics , a distinction is made between second language and foreign language,

4757-440: The transfer of academic and conceptual knowledge across both languages, greater success in programs that emphasize biliteracy as well as bilingualism, and better developed second-language (L2) literary skills for minority students than if they received a monolingual education in the majority language. Language immersion programs with the goal of fostering bilingualism, Canada's French-English bilingual immersion program being one of

4828-472: The use of English in classroom instruction even though English is typically the students' L1. That has created challenges for educators because of the lack of tools and underdeveloped bilingual teaching strategy for Māori. A study by Williams (1996) looked at the effects bilingual education had on two different communities in Malawi and Zambia. In Malawi, Chichewa is the main language of instruction, and English

4899-410: The workplace, such as higher salary and a wider range of opportunities, since employers are increasingly seeking workers with knowledge of different languages and cultures. Bilingual immersion programs are intended to foster proficiency or fluency in multiple languages and therefore maximize these benefits. Even if fluency in the desired language is not fully attained, bilingual immersion programs provide

4970-528: Was introduced as the language of instruction for one hour per day. The Hawaiian Language immersion Program is still in effect today for K-12. With an emphasis on language revival, Hawaiian is the main medium of instruction until Grade 5, when English is introduced but does not usurp Hawaiian as the main medium of instruction. A study by Hamel (1995) highlights a school in Michoacan, Mexico, which focuses on two bilingual elementary schools in which teachers built

5041-469: Was relieving student stress and creating a warm environment for them. Stephen Krashen was a big proponent in this hands-off approach to error correction. The 1990s brought back the familiar idea that explicit grammar instruction and error correction was indeed useful for the SLA process. At this time, more research started to be undertaken to determine exactly which kinds of corrections are the most useful for students. In 1998, Lyster concluded that "recasts",

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