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84-680: Modern ethnicities Diaspora Performing arts Government agencies Television Radio Newspapers The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic ( SPN ; formerly known as the Stone Bowl Culture ) is a collection of ancient societies that appeared in the Rift Valley of East Africa and surrounding areas during a time period known as the Pastoral Neolithic . They were South Cushitic speaking pastoralists who tended to bury their dead in cairns , whilst their toolkit

168-474: A 10-million-year-old ape called Chororapithecus abyssinicus , found in the Afar rift in eastern Ethiopia, and Nakalipithecus nakayamai , which is also 10 million years old. 3°00′S 35°30′E  /  3.0°S 35.5°E  / -3.0; 35.5 Dinka people They number around 4.5 million, according to the 2008 Sudan census, constituting about 40% of the population of that country and

252-567: A chain of lesser shrines in the former Nyarruweng Dinka region in what has now become the territory of the Gaweir Nuer. Around the shrine and within a few miles of it reside a small section of Rut Dinka who have settled back and live there by agreement with the Nuer to tend the shrine. Luak Deng has become a shrine of great significance for both the Dinka and Nuer people. The pyramid of Pwom Ayuel

336-572: A cultural heritage influenced by Nubian practices. Additionally, 13th-century accounts by Ibn Sa'id al-Andalusi describe the Damadim, who were engaged in conflict with the Alodians, highlighting interactions between Nilotic groups and Nubian territories. Archaeological evidence, including the tradition of king-killing, links the Dinka to later groups who lived in Alodia's successor state Fazughli where

420-442: A day. Adults also eat two meals a day. In Dinka territory there exist a number of mounds, described by the Dinka as “pyramids,” which have religious significance to those who tend them. These mounds were built in the form of a cone and the material used was cattle ashes, cow dung, cotton soil, clay, and debris. In all cases the history of the origin of each mound is connected to a prominent Dinka priest who ordered its construction by

504-414: A feedback with one another, controlled by oblique rifting conditions. According to this theory, lithospheric thinning generates volcanic activity, further increasing magmatic processes such as intrusions and numerous small plumes. These processes further thin the lithosphere in saturated areas, making the thinning lithosphere behave like a mid-ocean ridge . According to marine geologist Kathleen Crane ,

588-561: A mean height of 176.4 cm (5 ft 9.4 in). Southern Sudan is "a large basin gently sloping northward", through which flow the Bahr el Jebel River, the White Nile , the Bahr el Ghazal (Nam) River and its tributaries, and the Sobat, all merging into a vast barrier swamp . Vast oil areas are present to the south and east on the flood plain, a basin in southern Sudan into which

672-649: A number of active and dormant volcanoes, among them: Mount Kilimanjaro , Mount Kenya , Mount Longonot , Menengai Crater, Mount Karisimbi , Mount Nyiragongo , Mount Meru and Mount Elgon , as well as the Crater Highlands in Tanzania. Although most of these mountains lie outside of the rift valley, the EAR created them. Notable active examples of EAR volcanism include Erta Ale , Dalaffilla (also called Gabuli, Alu-Dalafilla), and Ol Doinyo Lengai . Erta Ale

756-401: A pre-Cambrian weakness in the crust, a suture zone of multiple cratons , displacement along large boundary faults, and the development of deep asymmetric basins. The second stage of rifting was characterized by the deactivation of large boundary faults, the development of internal fault segments, and the concentration of magmatic activity towards the rifts. Today, the narrow rift segments of

840-469: A west-facing scarp (east-plunging arch) along the southern half of its length that rises to 2,300 m (7,500 ft) above the sea floor. Its movement is concurrent with the EAR. Over time, many theories have tried to clarify the evolution of the East African Rift. In 1972 it was proposed that the EAR was not caused by tectonic activity, but rather by differences in crustal density. Since

924-586: Is Narosura pottery, and some scholars group Akira (TIP), Maringishu (trellis motif), and herringbone-motif wares in with the SPN as well. Regarding funerary tradition, the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic peoples erected stone cairns in open spaces, rock shelters, crevices or against walls. The deceased were buried with several items, including stone bowls, pestle rubbers and ochre palettes. Large obsidian blades and other tools were occasionally among

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1008-795: Is a basaltic shield volcano in the Afar Region of northeastern Ethiopia, active continuously since at least 1967, with a summit lava lake documented since at least 1906. The 2008 eruption of Dalafilla, its only documented activity since the start of the Holocene , is the largest recorded eruption in Ethiopian history. Ol Doinyo Lengai is currently the only active natrocarbonatite volcano on Earth. Its magma contains almost no silica; typical lava flows have viscosities of less than 100 Pa⋅s, comparable to olive oil at 26 °C (79 °F). EAR-related volcanic structures with dated activity since

1092-447: Is a suitable tool to investigate Earth's subsurface structures deeper than the crust. It is an inverse problem technique that models which are the velocities of the inner Earth that reproduce the seismographic data recorded all around the world. Recent improvements of tomographic Earth models of P wave and S wave velocities suggest that a superplume upwelling from the lower mantle at the northeastern EAR feeds plumes of smaller scale into

1176-445: Is acquired when a man and his family produce a small surplus of crops which they convert into a more stable and valuable resource, cattle. In turn, this enables a man to acquire more wives, more children, and thus more economic and political power. In Dinka society cattle acquired by the wealth yielded from agriculture are considered a more stable form of "property." If a Dinka couple divorce the cows given as bridewealth may be returned to

1260-578: Is generally cool and strong. Many cratons are found throughout the EAR, such as the Tanzania and Kaapvaal cratons . The cratons are thick, and have survived for billions of years with little tectonic activity. They are characterized by greenstone belts , tonalites , and other high-grade metamorphic lithologies. The cratons are of significant importance in terms of mineral resources , with major deposits of gold, antimony, iron, chromium and nickel. A large volume of continental flood basalts erupted during

1344-695: Is located north of the Paliang region in the Bahr el-Ghazal, and local Dinka estimate that it pre-dates the Egyptian colonial period (1821) and hence is at least over 200 years old. In Padang territory in northern Dinka territory east of the Nile among the Dunghol Dinka and north of the city of Malakal, the pyramid of a great ancestor and prominent priest, Ayuong Dit, is located at the holy village of Rukcuk. It

1428-400: Is more honored. However, no one has all cattle that are free of ties." Because of the link between agriculture, wealth, and marriage the Dinka grow a wide variety of crops. During their migrations, the Dinka introduced a new variety of sorghum into southern Sudan. Caudatum sorghum is drought resistant and produces well with very little care. This variety of Sorghum was not grown by tribes in

1512-729: Is rotating anti-clockwise with respect to the African plate. Its rotation is caused by the configuration of mechanically weaker and stronger lithospheric regions in the EARS. Many of the African Great Lakes lie within the Rift Valley. A series of distinct rift basins, the East African Rift System extends over thousands of kilometers. North of the Afar triple junction, the rift follows two paths: west to

1596-400: Is said to be the burial place of Ayuel , the culture hero of the Dinka. It is found in what has now become Nuer territory on the southern part of an island formed by the Bahr el-Zeraf and Bahr el-Jebel Rivers (Zeraf Island). Some Dinka myths suggest that Ayuel was killed by external forces beyond his control. Aliab Dinka Parmena Awerial Aluong recounts a different oral history that suggests that

1680-603: Is subdivided into Aguok , Kuac , and many other things, but they speak the same language; only the pronunciation is slightly different. The number of Dinka sub-divisions is contested, as the border between groups, sub-divisions, and sections is blurred and often difficult to determine. The Atuot people can be divided into Apaak and Reel, Bor, Twic, Nyarweng and Hol and Panaruu into Awet and Kuel and Jieng into Ador and Lou. The Dinka people have no centralised political authority. Instead their clans are independent but interlinked. Some traditionally provide ritual chiefs, known as

1764-677: The Albertine Rift , and farther south, the valley of Lake Malawi . The rift also continues offshore from the coast of Mozambique along the Kerimba and Lacerda grabens , which are joined by the Davie Ridge, a 2,200 km-long (1,400 mi) relic fracture zone that cuts across the West Somali basin, straddling the boundary between Tanzania and Mozambique. The Davie Ridge ranges between 30–120 km (19–75 mi) wide, with

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1848-558: The Ethiopian Highlands and the Kenya Highlands are hotspots of higher rainfall amid the semi-arid to arid lowlands of East Africa. Lakes which form within the rift, including Lake Victoria , have a large effect on regional climate. They are a source of water vapour, and also lead to the formation of lake breeze systems , which affect weather across large areas of East Africa. The east to west river valleys within

1932-456: The Gezira , reinforcing the significance of their interactions with Nubian cultures. Collectively, these factors support the argument that the ancestors of the Dinka were closely connected to the kingdom of Alwa, shaping their cultural practices and historical trajectory. The Damadim, a group of Africans mentioned by various medieval Arab writers during the 13th century, may have been ancestors of

2016-563: The Nubian traditions of medieval Alodia. These conflicts between the Dinka and the Funj are well-documented in Dinka oral histories, with stories of fierce battles where the Dinka eventually forced the Funj northward, allowing them to establish their sultanate as Sennār , which the Dinka would also raid in the following centuries. Over time, however, the Dinka and Funj developed more complex relations, with Dinka warriors serving as mercenaries in

2100-641: The Oligocene , with the majority of the volcanism coinciding with the opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden approximately 30 Ma. The composition of the volcanics are a continuum of ultra-alkaline to tholeiitic and felsic rocks. It has been suggested that the diversity of the compositions could be partially explained by different mantle source regions. The EAR also cuts through old sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient basins. The East African Rift Zone includes

2184-806: The Pre-Pottery Neolithic culture of the Levant , similar to that borne by modern Afroasiatic -speaking populations inhabiting the Horn of Africa . This suggests that the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture bearers may have been Cushitic speakers. Further research has shown that the Pastoral Neolithic people, supported the previously identified three-component model: Chalcolithic and Bronze Age Levantine groups, Stone Age East African foragers, and individuals related to present-day Dinka . The SPN peoples are believed to have spoken languages from

2268-837: The Red Sea Rift and east to the Aden Ridge in the Gulf of Aden . Southward from the Afar triple junction , the EAR consists of two main branches. The Eastern Rift Valley (also known as Gregory Rift ) includes the Main Ethiopian Rift , runs southward from the Afar triple junction, and continues south as the Kenyan Rift Valley, then transects Congo DR , Uganda , Rwanda , Burundi , Zambia , Tanzania , Malawi and Mozambique . The Western Rift Valley includes

2352-667: The South Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic . According to Christopher Ehret , linguistic research suggests that these Savanna Pastoral Neolithic populations were the first Afroasiatic speakers to settle in the Central Rift Valley and surrounding areas. The region was at the time of their arrival inhabited by Khoisan hunter-gatherers who spoke Khoisan languages and practiced an Eburran blade industry. Recent genetic analysis of ancient remains has proven that

2436-634: The Tutsi of Rwanda , they are the tallest group in Africa. Roberts and Bainbridge reported an average height of 182.6 cm (5 ft 11.9 in) in a sample of 52 Dinka Agaar and 181.3 cm (5 ft 11.4 in) in 227 Dinka Ruweng measured in 1953–1954. However, the stature of Dinka males later declined, possibly as a consequence of undernutrition and conflicts. An anthropometric survey of Dinka men, war refugees in Ethiopia , published in 1995, found

2520-482: The upper mantle . Parallel to geological and geophysical measures (e.g. isotope ratios and seismic velocities) it is constructive to test hypotheses on computer based geodynamical models. A 3D numerical geodynamic model of the plume-crust coupling was capable of reproducing the lateral asymmetry of the EAR around the Tanzania craton . Numerical modeling of plume-induced continental break-up shows two distinct stages, crustal rifting followed by lithospheric breakup, and

2604-465: The "Anag", a term used by Spaulding to describe eastern sudanic speaking peoples who were a part of the kingdom of Alodia. Linguistic studies support the idea that the Dinka resided in the Gezira , which was under Alwa's influence before their migration southward, likely due to political upheaval and increased slavery following Alwa's decline in the 13th century. Shared Nilotic traditions, such as human sacrifice and ceremonial regicide, further indicate

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2688-451: The 13th century, with the disintegration of Alodia, the Dinka began to migrate out of Gezira, fleeing slave raids, military conflict, and droughts. Conflict over pastures and cattle raids has been happening between Dinka and Nuer as they battled for grazing land. Dinka migration from Gezira & Alodia The Dinka presence in Alwa suggests a significant historical connection between

2772-459: The 1990s, evidence has been found in favor of mantle plumes beneath the EAR. Others proposed an African superplume causing mantle deformation. Although the effects of deep-rooted mantle plumes are an important hypothesis, their location and dynamics are poorly understood, and a matter of active research. The question is still debated. The most recent and accepted view is the theory put forth in 2009: that magmatism and plate tectonics have

2856-583: The Christian Kingdom of Alodia's capital, Soba , around 1220 A.D. During this period, they were referred to as the "Tatars of the Sudan" due to their simultaneous raids with the Mongol invasions of Persia . Archaeological evidence from Soba indicates significant destruction, including the looting of burial sites and the destruction of two major churches, possibly tied to the Damadim conquest. Despite

2940-570: The Dinka a large advantage when they introduced them in their southern migration. There was a long series of droughts that plagued Southern Sudan during this time period intensified the reliance on cattle for the people of the region, since livestock are indispensable in bad years when crop failure occurs. The introduction of this new breed by the Dinka was a significant causative factor in the spread of modern patterns of Nilotic pastoralism in Southern Sudan. Eventually these cattle replaced all of

3024-530: The Dinka and other Western Nilotic groups like the Luo peoples . They were reported to live southwest of Alodia, possibly in the Southern Gezira or around the Bahr al-Ghazal and Sobat regions of South Sudan. Stephanie Beswick suggests that the Dinka's ancestors could have been based along the White Nile in the Gezira plains . The Damadim were known for their raids and conquests, notably their sacking of

3108-574: The Dinka and the Kingdom of Alwa . Cultural practices, such as beer-drinking rituals during sowing and harvesting dhurra , reflect similarities to Nubian traditions noted by Ibn Selim el-Assouani, indicating a continuity of influence from Alwa. Historical accounts, including manuscripts from the 18th century, reference the Dinka's ancestral ties to the Alwan Nubians , with early modern Sudanese manuscript writers noting that they are derived from

3192-403: The Dinka are often seen as only pastoralists, they are actually agro-pastoralists. Agriculture plays a very big part in their livelihood, with Sorghum being their most important crop grown. The Dinka also grow okra, sesame, pumpkin, cow peas, maize, cassava, ground nuts, different types of beans, water melons, tobacco and millet. In Dinka society, both genders engage in cultivation, and on big farms

3276-426: The Dinka. The adoption of Sanga and Zebu hump backed cattle was invaluable to the expansion of the Dinka throughout South Sudan. Hump backed cattle were considerably stronger than the previous humpless breeds in southern Sudan and are capable of withstanding long-distance transhumance patterns. Even more importantly, they were less affected by drought. The tribes of south Sudan did not possess these cattle, which gave

3360-472: The East African Rift system form zones of localized strain. These rifts are the result of the actions of numerous normal faults which are typical of all tectonic rift zones. As aforementioned, voluminous magmatism and continental flood basalts characterize some of the rift segments, while other segments, such as the Western branch, have only very small volumes of volcanic rock. The African continental crust

3444-592: The Funj provinces, and Dinka merchants engaging in the regional slave trade . Despite these evolving relations, the Dinka continued to expand into western and southern territories, solidifying their presence and dominance in much of modern South Sudan . The Dinka's religions, beliefs, and lifestyle have led to conflict with the Arab Islamic government in Khartoum . The Sudan People's Liberation Army , led by Dinka Dr. John Garang De Mabior , took arms against

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3528-667: The Lost Boys include The Lost Boys of Sudan by Mark Bixler, God Grew Tired of Us by John Bul Dau , They Poured Fire On Us From The Sky by Alephonsion Deng, Benson Deng, and Benjamin Ajak and A Long Walk to Water by Linda Sue Park . In 2004 the first volume of the graphic novel Echoes of the Lost Boys of Sudan was released in Dallas, Texas . This list of Dinka tribal grouping by region. Note that these divisions are further divided into several subdivisions; for example, Dinka Rek

3612-475: The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic. The transformations seem to have been fostered by both environmental change and population movements. Among these changes was the apparent abandonment of the stone bowls at around 1,300 years before present. Ancient DNA analysis of a Savanna Pastoral Neolithic bone excavated at the Luxmanda site in Tanzania found that the specimen carried a large proportion of ancestry related to

3696-614: The Somali Jet) in the western Indian Ocean . The Somali Jet supplies water vapour for the high rainfall during the Indian Monsoon and is responsible for roughly half the global cross-equatorial atmospheric mass flux in the lower-branch of Hadley Circulation . The Rift Valley in East Africa has been a rich source of hominid fossils that allow the study of human evolution. The rapidly eroding highlands quickly filled

3780-516: The aged, ill, and nursing mothers migrates to semi-permanent dwellings in the toic for cattle grazing. The cultivation of sorghum , millet , and other crops begins in the highlands in the early rainy season, and the harvest begins when the rains are heavy in June–August. Cattle are driven to the toic in September and November when the rainfall drops off and graze on crop remnants. While

3864-418: The carbonized layers were not. She consequently suggests that the latter were instead used for grinding grain . Other scholars have argued that there is no direct archaeological evidence that SPN peoples cultivated grains or other plant domesticates. Although detailed information on this segment of African prehistory is not abundant, data so far available reveal a succession of cultural transformations within

3948-603: The cities to rural areas. Some were Christians who had been converted by the Church Missionary Society . Among them were ordained clergymen who began preaching in the villages. Songs and praise were used to teach the mostly illiterate Dinka about the faith. Most Dinka converted to Christianity and are learning to adapt traditional religious practices to Christian teachings. The conversion took place in rural villages and among Dinka refugees country. The Lost Boys of Sudan were converted in significant numbers in

4032-633: The collapse of the Alodian Kingdom and the establishment of the Funj Sultanate in 1504 by Sultan Amara Dunqas, the Dinka, alongside other Nilotic groups like the Shilluk , moved further south, clashing with the Funj and other local populations. Oral traditions and archaeological evidence suggest that the Dinka displaced and absorbed various groups in their path, including the remnants of the Funj people, who were themselves possibly linked to

4116-498: The custom persisted into the 19th century. The political instability of Alwa coincided with the rise of slave raiding , creating social pressures that may have prompted Dinka migration south. Linguistically , the divergence of the Dinka language from other Western Nilotic languages at the end of the first millennium suggests an established presence in the region prior to major migrations. Lastly, Dinka oral traditions recounting southward migrations align with their historical narrative in

4200-439: The forehead with a sharp object. During this ceremony, they acquire a second cow-color name. The Dinka believe they derive religious power from nature and the world around them rather than from scripture. Men and women eat separately. When milk supply is low, children get priority. Children are fed milk from 9–12 months. After about one year, children start eating solid food (porridge). After children turn three, they eat two meals

4284-488: The former husband. However, those Dinka male members of a clan who possess animals bought with grain, rather than acquired by way of marriage payments, are more honored and given more respect because their wealth is perceived as being more stable. Thus: "this cattle is not returnable and does not have external links and cannot be taken back easily, for example, by divorce. It therefore represents ‘pure property’ derived from labor and this kind of man has much more stable wealth and

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4368-475: The government in 1983. During the subsequent 21-year civil war , many thousands of Dinka, along with non-Dinka southerners, were massacred by government forces. Since the independence of South Sudan, the Dinka, led by Salva Kiir Mayardit , engaged in a civil war with the Nuer and other groups, who accuse them of monopolising power. In 1983, due to Sudan's second civil war , many educated Dinka were forced to flee

4452-509: The land of their non-Dinka neighbors. According to the Balanda Bviri politician Bandindi Pascal Uru: "The Dinka are good cultivators; they cultivate slowly but surely for hours. When the Dinka leave the business of cattle they take the hoe very seriously." The connection of agriculture and economics to Dinka marriage is important. Grain as well as cattle have been and continue to be used in both bartering and bridewealth payments. Wealth

4536-610: The largest ethnic tribe in South Sudan . The Dinka refer to themselves as Muonyjang (singular) and jieng (plural). The Dinka originated from the Gezira in what became Sudan . In medieval times this region was ruled by the kingdom of Alodia , a Christian , multi-ethnic empire in Nubia . Living in its southern periphery and interacting with the Nubians, the Dinka absorbed a sizable amount of Nubian vocabulary . From

4620-406: The limited sources, the Damadim's movements and activities provide a potential link to the later (western) Nilotic migrations into South Sudan that would occur post-1000 A.D. and are linked with the introduction of humped cattle . The Dinka migrations southward during the 15th to 18th centuries played a crucial role in shaping their territorial dominance in what is now South Sudan . Following

4704-718: The lowlands of Kenya between 5,200 and 3,300 ybp, a phase referred to as the Lowland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic . They subsequently spread to the highlands of Kenya and Tanzania around 3,300 ybp, which is consequently known as the Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic phase. Excavations in the area indicate that the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic peoples were primarily cattle pastoralists. They milked this livestock, and also possessed goats , sheep , and donkeys. They typically buried their deceased in cairns . Their toolkit

4788-563: The mortuary objects. Incisor removal was not a common feature of this population. East African Rift The East African Rift ( EAR ) or East African Rift System ( EARS ) is an active continental rift zone in East Africa . The EAR began developing around the onset of the Miocene , 22–25 million years ago. It was formerly considered to be part of a larger Great Rift Valley that extended north to Asia Minor . A narrow zone,

4872-535: The mound remains a center of great sanctity, but is no longer attended with communal gatherings and ritual operations." Dinka refugees were portrayed in works such as Lost Boys of Sudan by Megan Mylan and Jon Shenk and God Grew Tired Of Us , Joan Hechts' book The Journey of the Lost Boys and the fictionalized autobiography of a Dinka refugee, Dave Eggers ' What Is the What: The Autobiography of Valentino Achak Deng . Other books on and by

4956-410: The mound was built on the orders of Ayuel Longar himself. According to historical accounts there were many years of toil in the early days during which Ayuel, who had reached the Nile and Sobat Rivers, ordered his people to construct a large monument. Some people died in the building of this structure, their bodies adding to the rising edifice. Some Dinka say this mound was built after Ayued's death. Today

5040-615: The now extinct Tale and Bisha languages, which were identified on the basis of loanwords . These early Cushitic speakers in the region largely disappeared following the Bantu Expansion . The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture was initially distributed at elevations below 1100 m in lowland northern Kenya (Lowland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic). Its range later extended to the highlands between central Kenya and northern Tanzania , at elevations above 1,500 m (Highland Savanna Pastoral Neolithic). The preferred settlement location for SPN sites

5124-671: The onset of the Holocene include approximately 50 in Ethiopia, 17 in Kenya , and 9 in Tanzania . The EAR is the largest seismically active rift system on Earth today. The majority of earthquakes occur near the Afar Depression, with the largest typically occurring along or near major border faults. Seismic events in the past century are estimated to have reached a maximum moment magnitude of 7.0. The seismicity trends parallel to

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5208-444: The people as a monument to his name. A pyramid of stones known as Alel exists in the territory of Western Luaic Dinka in the town of Makuac. This pyramid entombs the body of a prominent Eastern Twic Dinka priest named Kuol Alel who led his people across from the banks of the eastern Nile and in the process of migrating west died in this region. Every year there is a celebration held ar Aled in honor of this prominent leader. The pyramid

5292-454: The periodic flooding and dryness of their surroundings. They begin moving around May–June, at the onset of the rainy season, migrating to their settlements of mud and thatch housing situated above flood level, where they plant their crops of millet and other grains. These rainy season settlements feature other permanent structures such as cattle byres ( luak ) and granaries. During the dry season (beginning about December–January), everyone except

5376-456: The population of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic were also responsible for the pastoralist Elmenteitan culture that lived in the Rift Valley during the same period. The linguistic chronology of the historic population movements into the Central Rift Valley as well as the present and past distribution of Afro-Asiatic speakers further suggests that SPN peoples likely spoke South Cushitic languages . Ehret (1998) proposes that among these idioms were

5460-437: The previous humpless breeds. The domestication of caudatum sorghum along with the more durable breeds of cattle introduced into this region of Southern Sudan an economic system of the greatest efficiency in Sudan and East Africa, giving the Dinka a military and political advantage over all other tribes in the region. These integrated systems were able to support population increases in the Bahr el-Ghazal and later expansions towards

5544-426: The refugee camps of Ethiopia . Forces led by the breakaway Riek Machar faction deliberately killed an estimated 2,000 civilians from Hol, Nyarweng, Twic east and Bor and wounded several thousand more over two months. Much of their wealth was destroyed, which led to mass starvation deaths. It is estimated that 100,000 people left the area following the attack. Dinka are noted for their height, and, along with

5628-421: The region and during the 1300s to 1600s great droughts were occurring all over east and southern Africa which caused many former tribes of south Sudan like the Luo to migrate southwards (this drought is recorded in Luo oral history as the "Nyarubanga" famine). The tribes that did not migrate had only the option (if their crops completely died) to be in service of their incoming wealthier Agro-pastoral neighbours like

5712-530: The region. The makers of the Savanna Pastoral Neolithic culture are believed to have arrived in the Rift Valley sometime during the Pastoral Neolithic period (c. 3,000 BC-700 AD). Through a series of migrations from Horn of Africa , these early Cushitic -speaking pastoralists brought cattle and caprines southward from the Sudan and/or Ethiopia into northern Kenya , probably using donkeys for transportation. According to archaeological dating of associated artifacts and skeletal material, they first settled in

5796-488: The rift could eventually cause eastern Africa to separate from the mainland, although this potential event could take tens of millions of years. Studies that contribute to the broader understanding on the evolution of rifts can be grouped into the techniques of isotope geochemistry, seismic tomography and geodynamical modeling. The varying geochemical signatures of a suite of Ethiopian lavas suggest multiple plume sources: at least one of deep mantle origin, and one from within

5880-418: The rift is a developing divergent tectonic plate boundary where the African plate is in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali plate and the Nubian plate , at a rate of 6–7 mm (0.24–0.28 in) per year. The rift system consists of three microplates, the Victoria microplate to the north, and the Rovuma and Lwandle microplates to the south. The Victoria microplate

5964-513: The rift system, including the Turkana Channel in northern Kenya and the Zambezi river valley, concentrate low-level easterly winds and accelerate them towards Central Africa . This leaves East Africa drier than it otherwise would be, and also supports the high rainfall in the Congo Basin rainforest . The formation of the east–west valleys could in turn be important for the aridification of East Africa over millions of years. The barrier presented by EARS concentrates monsoonal winds (known as

6048-451: The rift system, with a shallow focal depth of 12–15 km (7.5–9.3 mi) beneath the rift axis. Further away from the rift axis, focal depths can be below 30 km (19 mi). Focal mechanism solutions strike NE and frequently demonstrate normal dip-slip faulting, although left-lateral motion is also observed. The East African Rift system affects regional, continental and even global climate. Regions of higher elevation, including

6132-411: The rivers of Congo , Uganda , Kenya , and Ethiopia drain from an ironstone plateau that belts the regions of Bahr El Ghazal and Upper Nile . The terrain can be divided into four land classes: The ecology of the large basin is unique; until recently, wild animals and birds flourished, rarely hunted by the agro-pastoralists. The climate determines the Dinka's migration patterns, responding to

6216-411: The subcontinental lithosphere. In accordance, a 2014 study compares the geochemical signature of rare earth isotopes from xenoliths and lava samples collected in the EAR. The results corroborate the coexistence of a superplume "common to the entire rift" with another mantle material source being either of subcontinental type or of mid-ocean ridge type. The geophysical method of seismic tomography

6300-464: The upwelling between stages of an upper mantle plume. Prior to the rift's formation, enormous continental flood basalts erupted, uplifting the Ethiopian , Somali, and East African plateaus. The first stage of rifting of the EAR was characterized by rift localization and magmatism along the entire rift zone. Periods of extension alternated with relative inactivity. There was also the reactivation of

6384-455: The valley with sediments, creating a favorable environment for the preservation of remains. The bones of several hominid ancestors of modern humans have been found here, including those of " Lucy ", a partial australopithecine skeleton discovered by anthropologist Donald Johanson dating back over 3 million years. Richard and Mary Leakey have also done significant work in this region. In 2008, two other hominid ancestors were discovered here:

6468-491: The west. Dinka religious beliefs and practices also reflect their lifestyle. The Dinka religion, like most other Nilotic faiths, is polytheistic , but has one creator, Nhialic , who leads the Dinka pantheon of gods and spirits. He is generally distant from humans and does not directly interact with them. The sacrificing of oxen by the "masters of the fishing spear" is central to Dinka religious practice. Young men become adults through an initiation ritual that includes marking

6552-612: The women brew beer and everyone is involved. Before the Sudanese civil wars each household cultivated an average of two acres of sorghum around their homestead along with other crops. An estimated 87% of total calories and 76% of protein by weight are provided by crop production compared with 13% of calories and 24% of protein derived from livestock produce. Today, 83% of all available labor is estimated to be employed in agricultural activities compared with only 17% in livestock husbandry. In recent times, some poor or cattleless Dinka have farmed

6636-456: The women." Today this mound is known as Yik Ayuong. The pyramid of Luak Deng is said to be the "Mecca" of the Dinka and Nuer people and contains the shrine of their deity (and possibly real historical figure) Deng Dit (Deng the Great). It comprises a palisade standing on higher ground near a picturesque pool of water surrounded by ardeiba and suba trees. This pyramid is connected in mythology with

6720-537: Was characterized by a blade and bladelet-based lithic industry, earthenware pots, stone bowls and pestles , and occasional grindstones . The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic peoples sometimes hunted medium and large game on the plains, and during the culture's lowland phase, they likewise fished in Lake Turkana . Sonia Mary Cole (1954) indicates that certain pestles and grindstones that she excavated from ochreous levels were stained with ochre , while others from

6804-408: Was characterized by stone bowls, pestles, grindstones and earthenware pots. Through archaeology, historical linguistics and archaeogenetics , they conventionally have been identified with the area's first Afroasiatic -speaking settlers. Archaeological dating of livestock bones and burial cairns has also established the cultural complex as the earliest centre of pastoralism and stone construction in

6888-458: Was cleared of grass, more earth was added to it, and the surface smoothed by women who made stripes along the pyramid with large quantities of durra (flour). This was in preparation for the annual ceremony yairunka baiet, which took place at the pyramid. During the celebrations the people gathered together for communal offerings to the spirit of Ayuong Dit and a “new fire” ceremony was performed in which eight bulls were sacrificed to bring fertility to

6972-474: Was constructed on the site of this priest's luak. The mound was built over the body of this priest who, with his wife and eight bulls, was locked up in their cattle byre by his express orders. District Commissioner Ibrahim Bedri who served during the British colonial period noted that the pyramid "was seventy-five paces in circumference and twenty-six paces along the slope. During the harvest season of each year it

7056-546: Was open wooded grassland on well-drained, gentle slopes of between 1,500 m to 2,050 m. The Savanna Pastoral Neolithic makers' characteristic stone bowls have been recovered from their occupation sites and burial cairns . Their material culture was typified by several pottery styles, up to three of which may be found at a single site. Early SPN herders in the Turkana Basin produced nderit pottery (previously known as Gumban A). The most diagnostic SPN pottery farther south

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