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131-449: ^ b. Estimate for entire area covered by modern Sudan. The Funj Sultanate , also known as Funjistan , Sultanate of Sennar (after its capital Sennar ) or Blue Sultanate (due to the traditional Sudanese convention of referring to black people as blue) ( Arabic : السلطنة الزرقاء , romanized :  al-Sulṭanah al-Zarqāʼ ), was a monarchy in what is now Sudan , northwestern Eritrea and western Ethiopia . Founded in 1504 by

262-422: A Christian document describing Sultan Badlay relates: "And the robes [of the sultan] and those of his leaders were adorned with silver and shone on all sides. And the dagger which he [the sultan] carried at his side was richly adorned with gold and precious stones; and his amulet was adorned with drops of gold; and the inscriptions on the amulet were of gold paint. And his parasol came from the land of Syria and it

393-693: A Christian principality was mentioned in the region as late as 1773. The Tigre in north-western Eritrea, who were part of the Beni Amer confederation, remained Christians until the 19th century. Rituals stemming from Christian traditions outlived the conversion to Islam and were still practiced as late as the 20th century. From the 17th century foreign Christian groups, mostly merchants, were present in Sennar, including Copts , Ethiopians , Greeks , Armenians and Portuguese . The sultanate also served as interstation for Ethiopian Christians travelling to Egypt and

524-520: A conquest of Abyssinia, he soon met the Abyssinians at the Battle of Shimbra Kure where he would win a decisive victory. But his nomads where unreliable and difficult to control, to Ahmad's frustration some of his Somali warriors would disperse back to their homelands after acquiring much plunder. At the same time, he faced opposition from his Harari troops who dreaded the potential consequences of

655-565: A cultural unit interconnected with several important trade routes upon which the economy and the welfare of the whole area depended. The nobility of Adal also apparently had a fair taste for luxury, the commercial relations that existed between the Adal Sultanate and the rulers of the Arab peninsula allowed Muslims to obtain luxury items that Christian Ethiopians, whose relations with the outside world were still blocked, could not acquire,

786-513: A full-fledged war in 1618 and 1619, resulting in the devastation of many of the Funj eastern provinces. A pitched battle was also fought, claimed by the Ethiopian sources to have been a victory, albeit this is posed doubtful by the fact that the Ethiopian troops retreated immediately afterwards. After the war, the two countries remained at peace for over a century. The Funj sultan who ruled during

917-452: A great store of millet, barley and fruits; all of which was exported to Aden. The port city was so well supplied with victuals that it exported it's surplus to Aden , Jeddah , Mecca and "All Arabia" which then was dependent on the supplies/produce from the city which they favoured above all. Zeila was described as a "Port of much provisions for Aden, and all parts of Arabia and many countries and Kingdoms". The Principal exports, according

1048-456: A green standard and brought in arms and trained men from Yemen. In 1516, Emir Mahfuz would then launch an invasion of Fatagar , Lebna Dengel was prepared and organized a successful ambush, the Adalites were defeated and Mahfuz was killed in battle. Lebna Dengel then moved into Adal where he sacked the city of Dakkar . Around the same time a Portuguese fleet surprised Zeila whilst its garrison

1179-400: A heap of ruins. On 14 June they received the official submission of Badi VII. The sultans of Sennar were powerful, but not absolutely so, as a council of 20 elders also had a say in state decisions. Below the king stood the chief minister, the amin , and the jundi , who supervised the market and acted as commander of the state police and intelligence service. Another high court official was

1310-808: A large army, branded the Muslims of the surrounding area "enemies of the Lord", and invaded Adal. After much war, Adal's troops were defeated in 1403 or 1410 (under Emperor Dawit I or Emperor Yeshaq I , respectively), during which the Walashma ruler, Sa'ad ad-Din II , was captured and executed in Zeila, which was sacked. His children and the remainder of the Walashma dynasty would flee to Yemen where they would live in exile until 1415. According to Harari tradition numerous Argobba had fled Ifat and settled around Harar in

1441-617: A plot near Sennar in early 1821. One of the murderers, a man named Daf'Allah, rode back to the capital to prepare Sultan Badi VII 's submission ceremony to the Turks. The Turks reached the Nile confluence in May 1821. Afterwards, they travelled upstream the Blue Nile until reaching Sennar. They were disappointed to learn that Sennar, once enjoying a reputation of wealth and splendour, was now reduced to

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1572-483: A poem, both written in Arabic script; the numerals are clearly Kanuri , while the language used for the poem remains unidentified. Russegger stated that a Fungi language, sounding similar to Nubian and having absorbed many Arabic words, was spoken as far north as Khartoum, albeit already reduced to a secondary role compared to Arabic. In Kordofan, Nubian was still spoken as primary or at least secondary language as late as

1703-433: A powerful Emir who governed from the palace of a nominal Sultan. Usman would route emperor Baeda Maryam's troops in battle. Historian Mohammed Hassen states Adal Sultans had lost control of the state to Harar's aristocracy. Emperor Na'od and Sultan Muhammad ibn Azhar ad-Din tried to remain at peace, but their efforts were nullified by the raids which Emir Mahfuz constantly made into Christian territory. Na'od who

1834-723: A social class. In the 14th century a Muslim Funj trader named al-Hajj Faraj al-Funi was involved in the Red Sea trade. According to oral traditions the Dinka , who migrated upstream the White and Blue Nile since the 13th-century disintegration of Alodia, came in conflict with the Funj, who the Dinka defeated. In the late 15th/early 16th century the Shilluk arrived at the junction of the Sobat and

1965-478: A tribal federation and to have subsequently destroyed what was left of Alodia. In the early 16th century Abdallah's federation came under attack from an invader to the south, the Funj . The ethnic affiliation of the Funj is still disputed. The first and second of the three most prominent theories suggest that they were either Nubians or Shilluk, while, according to the third theory, the Funj were not an ethnic group, but

2096-583: A tribe or clan. Reading the Futūḥ al-Ḥabaša, the Malasāy appear as the basic unit of the army of the imām. Unlike the other groups that make up this army, the Malasāy were a group social and not a tribe or a clan. Unlike the Balaw, Somali or Ḥarla, a man Malasāy is not born. He obtained this title after demonstrating his military capabilities. ‘Arab Faqīh gives a relatively precise definition of what he means by "malasāy: And

2227-574: A war of conquest. On the banks of the Dinder river the two states fought a pitched battle , which went in favour of Sennar. Traveller James Bruce noted that Iyasu II, plundered his way back to Ethiopia, allowing him to display his campaign as a success. Meanwhile, Badi IV's repulsion of the Ethiopian invasion made him a national hero. Hostilities between the two states continued until the end of Iyasu II's reign in 1755, tensions caused by this war were still recorded in 1773. Trade, however, soon resumed after

2358-488: A warlord of that period, was able to put an end to these wars and managed to stabilize the kingdom for another 13 years. In 1820, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali , the general and son of the nominally Ottoman vassal Muhammad Ali Pasha , began the conquest of Sudan. Realizing that the Turks were about to conquer his domain, Muhammad Adlan prepared to resist and ordered to muster the army at the Nile confluence, but he fell to

2489-469: Is the matter with you that you haven't become Muslims when the whole country was Islamized?" They replied "We don't want to become Muslims." The Imam said "Our judgment on you is that your heads be cut off." The two Christians replied "Very well!" The Imam was surprised at their reply and ordered them to be executed. In 1541 a small Portuguese contingent landed in Massawa and soon all of Tigray declared for

2620-476: Is where the Emperor Yeshaq died in battle. The young Sultan Jamal ad-Din II at the end of his reign had outperformed his brothers and forefathers in the war arena and became the most successful ruler of Adal to date. Within a few years, however, Jamal was assassinated by either disloyal friends or cousins around 1432 or 1433, and was succeeded by his brother Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din . Sultan Badlay continued

2751-737: The Adal Empire or Bar Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling Adel Sultanate , Adal Sultanate ) ( Arabic : سلطنة عدل ), was a medieval Sunni Muslim Empire which was located in the Horn of Africa . It was founded by Sabr ad-Din III on the Harar plateau in Adal after the fall of the Sultanate of Ifat . The kingdom flourished c.  1415 to 1577. At its height, the polity under Sultan Badlay controlled

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2882-726: The Afro-Asiatic family were spoken in the vast Adal Sultanate. Arabic served as a lingua franca, and was used by the ruling Walashma dynasty. According to the 19th-century Ethiopian historian Asma Giyorgis suggests that the Walashma dynasty themselves spoke Arabic . According to Robert Ferry, Adal's aristocracy in the Walasma era which consisted of imams, emirs and sultans spoke a language resembling modern Harari language . British historian John Fage states Walasma leaders moving their capital from Ifat region to Adal set in motion

3013-656: The Aw Abdal lowlands during their conflict with Abyssinia in the fifteenth century, a gate was thus named after them called the gate of Argobba . In 1415, Sabr ad-Din III , the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II , would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne. He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to the Harar plateau and established his new capital at Dakkar . Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore

3144-614: The Awash River towards Lake Abbe as well as the territory between Shewa and Zeila on the coast of Somaliland . According to Ewald Wagner, Adal region was historically the area stretching from Zeila to Harar . In 1288, the region of Adal was conquered by the Ifat Sultanate . Despite being incorporated into the Ifat Sultanate, Adal managed to maintain a source of independence under Walashma rule, alongside

3275-481: The Battle of Gomit and pursued the retreating Adalites all the way to the Awash River . Following the defeat and death of Badlay ibn Sa'ad ad-Din at the Battle of Gomit , the next Sultan of Adal, Muhammad ibn Badlay , submitted to Emperor Baeda Maryam I and started paying annual tribute to the Ethiopian Empire with which he secure peace. Adal's Emirs , who administered the provinces, interpreted

3406-647: The Ethiopian Empire . One year later the Ottomans occupied Sawakin , which beforehand was associated with Sennar. It seems that to counter the Ottoman expansion in the Red Sea region, the Funj engaged in an alliance with Ethiopia. Besides camels the Funj are known to have exported horses to Ethiopia, which were then used in war against the Adal Sultanate . The borders of Funj were raided by Ahmed Gurey during

3537-410: The Funj people , it quickly converted to Islam , although this conversion was only nominal. Until a more orthodox form of Islam took hold in the 18th century, the state remained an "African empire with a Muslim façade ". It reached its peak in the late 17th century, but declined and eventually fell apart in the 18th and 19th centuries. In 1821, the last sultan , greatly reduced in power, surrendered to

3668-568: The Holy Land as well as European missionaries travelling to Ethiopia. In the Christian period , Nubian languages had been spoken between the region from Aswan in the north to an undetermined point south of the confluence of the Blue and White Nile. They remained important during the Funj period, but were gradually superseded by Arabic. This process was largely accomplished in central Sudan by

3799-598: The Library of Congress still presented maps indicating that Sennar was the capital of Sennar state , but more recent works indicate that the capital is at Sinja . Despite receiving over 400 millimetres or 16 inches of rainfall per year, the extreme heat and high evaporation means Sennar still has a borderline hot arid climate ( Köppen BWh ) a little below a hot semi-arid climate ( BSh ). [REDACTED] Media related to Sennar (town) at Wikimedia Commons Adal Sultanate The Adal Sultanate , also known as

3930-489: The Ottoman Egyptian invasion without a fight. Christian Nubia , represented by the two medieval kingdoms of Makuria and Alodia , began to decline from the 12th century. By 1365 Makuria had virtually collapsed and was reduced to a rump state restricted to Lower Nubia , until finally disappearing c. 150 years later. The fate of Alodia is less clear. It has been suggested that it had collapsed as early as

4061-497: The aqid or qa’id . The weaponry of the Funj warriors consisted of thrusting lances , throwing knives , javelins , hide shields and, most importantly, long broadswords which could be wielded with two hands. Body armour consisted of leather or quilts and additionally mail, while the hands were protected by leather gloves. On the heads, there were worn iron or copper helmets. The horses were also armoured, wearing thick quilts , copper headgear and breast plates . While armour

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4192-463: The infantry consisting of swordsmen , archers and lancers that were commanded by various generals and lieutenants . These forces were complemented by a cavalry force and eventually, later in the empire's history, by matchlock - technology and cannons during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The various divisions were symbolised with a distinct flag. Under Imam Ahmed's leadership, the military

4323-418: The sid al-qum , a royal bodyguard and executioner. Only he was allowed to shed royal blood, as he was tasked to kill all brothers of a freshly elected king to prevent civil wars. The state was divided into several provinces governed by a manjil . Each of these province was again divided into sub-provinces governed by a makk , each of them subordinated to their respective manjil . The most important manjil

4454-523: The "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave the order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians. The Emperor of Ethiopia Tewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa. Sabr ad-Din III died a natural death and was succeeded by his brother Mansur ad-Din who invaded

4585-774: The "primitive southern swamps". In 1504 the Funj defeated Abdallah Jammah and founded the Funj Sultanate. In 1523 the kingdom was visited by Jewish traveller David Reubeni , who disguised himself as a Sharif . Sultan Amara Dunqas , Reubeni wrote, was continuously travelling through his kingdom. He, who "ruled over black people and white" between the region south of the Nile confluence to as far north as Dongola, owned large herds of various types of animals and commanded many captains on horseback. Two years later, Ottoman admiral Selman Reis mentioned Amara Dunqas and his kingdom, calling it weak and easily conquerable. He also stated that Amara paid an annual tribute of 9,000 camels to

4716-414: The 12th century or shortly after, as archaeology suggests that in this period, Soba ceased to be used as its capital. By the 13th century central Sudan seemed to have disintegrated into various petty states. Between the 14th and 15th centuries Sudan was overran by Bedouin tribes. In the 15th century one of these Bedouins, whom Sudanese traditions refer to as Abdallah Jammah , is recorded to have created

4847-402: The 14th century, trading in slaves, ivory and other commodities with Abyssinia and kingdoms in Arabia through its chief port of Zeila. The cities of the empire imported intricately coloured glass bracelets and Chinese celadon for palace and home decoration. Adal also used imported currency such as Egyptian dinars and dirhems. The Military of Adal was divided into several sections such as

4978-540: The 17th century, estimated the town had a population of 100,000 inhabitants. However, when the Dutch explorer Juan Maria Schuver travelled through the town in April 1881, he doubted it had "anything like 100,000 inhabitants, when Khartoum, the centre and capital of a tenfold larger country is not able to muster more than a quarter of that number, if we exclude the garrison." He observed that Sennar had declined as trade had over

5109-473: The 1820s and 1830s. During the reign of sultan Badi III in the late 17th and early 18th century the prosperous and cosmopolitan capital of Sennar was described as "close to being the greatest trading city" in all Africa. The wealth and power of the sultans had long rested on the control of the economy. All caravans were controlled by the monarch, as was the gold supply that functioned as the state's main currency. Important revenues came from customs dues levied on

5240-402: The 19th century, although even then there were limited reports of Nubian still being spoken as far south as the 5th cataract, if not Shendi. After the Funj conversion to Islam, Arabic grew to become the lingua franca of administration and trade while also being employed as language of religion. While the royal court would continue to speak their pre-Arabic language for some time by c. 1700,

5371-595: The Adalites. In this period Adal Sultanate occupied a territory stretching from Zeila to Massawa as well as the Abyssinian inlands. The Adalites were passionately interested in converting newly occupied territories. The impression given in the Muslim chronicles is that almost all of the Christian Abyssinians had embraced Islam out of expediency. Among them was the governor of Ifat who wrote to

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5502-458: The Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state. These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II , son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha , married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for

5633-495: The Imam: I was once a Muslim, the son of a Muslim, but the polytheists captured me and made me a Christian. Yet at heart I remain steadfast in the religion and now I seek the protection of Allah, His prophet, and yourself. If you accept my repentance and do not punish for what I have done I will return to Allah whilst these armies that are under my command I will deceive them so that they will come to you and embrace Islam. However, in

5764-570: The Isāq only the Habar Magādle clan seem to have been involved and their distribution is not recorded. Finally, several Dir clans also took part. Ethnic Somalis are stated to be the majority of the army according to the Oxford History of Islam : The sultanate of Adal, which emerged as the major Muslim principality from 1420 to 1560, seems to have recruited its military force mainly from among

5895-593: The Makurian kingdom, was recorded to have been largely Islamized by the turn of the 16th century, although a Franciscan letter confirms the existence of a community immediately south of Dongola practicing a "debased Christianity" as late as 1742. According to the 1699 account of Poncet, Muslims reacted to meeting Christians in the streets of Sennar by reciting the Shahada . The Fazughli region seems to have been Christian at least for one generation after its conquest in 1685;

6026-596: The Malasāy troop, who are people of raids and ğihād, worthy men of confidence, who could be trusted during the fighting, of the army chiefs who not only do not flee from the battlefield but who protect the retreat of his family. The imām was with them. The second wing consisted entirely of Somalis, commanded by the Imam's brother-in-law Matan . The third wing comprised troops from the Afar, Harla, Harari, and Argobba people, with each led by their hereditary leader. During each battle,

6157-431: The Muslim base relocating to Abyssinia. He then returned to Harar to reconstruct his forces and eliminate the tribal allegiances in his army, two years later he was able to organize a definite and permeant occupation of Abyssinia. From then the story of the conquest is a succession of victories, burnings and massacres. In 1531 Dawaro and Shewa were occupied, Bete Amhara and Lasta in 1533. In 1535 Ahmad, in control of

6288-520: The Muslim chronicler of the period, writing between 1540 and 1560, mentions them frequently (Futūḥ al-Ḥabasha, ed. And trs. R. Besset Paris, 1897). The most prominent Somali groups in the campaigns were the Geri, Marrehān, and Harti – all Dārod clans. Shihāb ad-Dīn is very vague as to their distribution and grazing areas, but describes the Harti as at the time in possession of the ancient eastern port of Mait. Of

6419-526: The Ottomans had established themselves in Qasr Ibrim in Lower Nubia , most likely a preemptive move to secure Upper Egypt from Funj aggression. Fourteen years later they had pushed as far south as the third cataract of the Nile and subsequently attempted to conquer Dongola , but, in 1585, were crushed by the Funj at the battle of Hannik . Afterwards, the battlefield, which was located just south of

6550-499: The Portuguese writer Corsali, were gold, ivory and slaves. A "great number" of the latter was captured from the Ethiopian Empire , then were exported through the port of Zeila to Persia, Arabia, Egypt and India. As a result of this flourishing trade, the citizens of Zeila accordingly lived "extremely well" and the city was well built guarded by many soldiers on both foot and horses. The kingdoms agricultural and other produce

6681-599: The Solomonic forces and inflicted heavy casualties in what was reportedly the largest Adalite army ever fielded. As a result, Yeshaq and his men fled to the Blue Nile region over the next five months, while Jamal ad Din's forces pursued them and looted much gold on the way, although no engagement ensued. After returning home, Jamal sent his brother Ahmad with the Christian battle-expert Harb Jaush to successfully attack

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6812-499: The Solomonids. Mansur was immediately succeeded by the youngest brother of the family Jamal ad-Din II . Sultan Jamal reorganized the army into a formidable force and defeated the Solomonic armies at Bale , Yedeya and Jazja. Emperor Yeshaq I responded by gathering a large army and invaded the cities of Yedeya and Jazja, but was repulsed by the soldiers of Jamal. Following this success, Jamal organized another successful attack against

6943-607: The Somali, who are still known by them as Tumur. Hence, it is most probable that the mention of the Somali and the Simur in relation to Yishaq refers to the king's military campaigns against Adal, where the Somali seem to have constituted a major section of the population." According to Leo Africanus (1526) and George Sale (1760), the Adelites were of a tawny brown or olive complexion on the northern littoral, and grew swarthier towards

7074-593: The Sultan Sa'ad ad-Din II , who was killed in Zeila while fighting the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I . Adal (also Awdal , Adl , or Adel ) was situated east of the province of Ifat and was a general term for a region of lowlands inhabited by Muslims. It was used ambiguously in the medieval era to indicate the Muslim inhabited low land portion east of the Ethiopian Empire . Including north of

7205-527: The Sultan had "not one musket in his whole army". 40 years later Johann Ludwig Burckhardt noted that Mek Nimr , the now independent lord of Shendi , maintained a small force of slaves armed with muskets bought or stolen from Egyptian merchants. While they were in bad shape their mere display was enough to cause terror among Nimr's enemies. In 1820 the Shaiqiya were said to have a few pistols and guns, although

7336-560: The White Nile, where they encountered a sedentary people Shilluk traditions refer to as Apfuny , Obwongo and/or Dongo , a people now equated with the Funj. Said to be more sophisticated than the Shilluk, they were defeated in a series of brutal wars and either assimilated or pushed north. Anti-Funj propaganda from the later period of the kingdom referred to the Funj as "pagans from the White Nile" and "barbarians" who had originated from

7467-409: The agreement as a betrayal of their independence and a retreat from the polity's long-standing policy of resistance to Abyssinian incursions. Emir Laday Usman of Harar subsequently marched to Dakkar and seized power in 1471. However, Usman did not dismiss the Sultan from office, but instead gave him a ceremonial position while retaining the real power for himself. Adal now came under the leadership of

7598-520: The army left Harar the Oromo ravaged the countryside, up to the walls of the city. Muhammad ibn Nasir was also defeated and killed at the Battle of Webi River , thus permanently ending Adal aggression towards Ethiopia. Muhammad's successor, Mansur ibn Muhammad , fought a fierce war against the Oromos, but was unable to defeat them. Mansur would also successfully reconquer Aussa and Zeila . The tension

7729-774: The assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire. The later 18th century saw a rapid disintegration of the Funj state. In 1785/1786 the Fur Sultanate conquered Kordofan which it managed to hold until the Egyptian invasion of 1821. In the second half of the 18th century Sennar lost the Tigre in what is now Eritrea to the rising naib ("deputy") of Massawa , while after 1791 Taka around the Sudanese Mareb River made itself independent. The Shukriya became

7860-429: The campaigns of his younger brother and began several successful expeditions against the Christian empire. He reconquered Bali and began preparations of a major Adalite offensive into the Ethiopian Highlands . He successfully collected funding from surrounding Muslim kingdoms as far away as the Sultanate of Mogadishu . However, this ambitious campaign ended in disaster when Emperor Zara Yaqob defeated Sultan Badlay at

7991-402: The capital and royal seat of the Solomonic Empire and drove Emperor Dawit I to Yedaya where according to al-Maqrizi , Sultan Mansur destroyed a Solomonic army and killed the Emperor. He then advanced to the mountains of Mokha, where he encountered a 30,000 strong Solomonic army. The Adalite soldiers surrounded their enemies and for two months besieged the trapped Solomonic soldiers until a truce

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8122-455: The capital to the oasis of Aussa in 1577, establishing the Imamate of Aussa . The Imamate of Aussa declined gradually in the next century and was destroyed by the neighboring Afar nomads who made Aussa their capital. In the seventeenth century the induction of Harla people and Doba populations into Afar identity would lead to the emergence of Aussa Sultanate . Enrico Cerulli 's verdict on this "sad condition" of Adal's decadence

8253-428: The caravan routers leading to Egypt and the Red Sea ports and on the pilgrimage traffic from the Western Sudan. In the late 17th century the Funj had opened up trading with the Ottoman Empire. In the late 17th century with the introduction of coinage, an unregulated market system took hold, and the sultans lost control of the market to a new merchant middle class. Foreign currencies became widely used by merchants breaking

8384-410: The coastal cities such as Zeila and Berbera . The trade from the interior was also important for the reason that included gold from the Ethiopian territories in the west, including Damot and an unidentified district called Siham. The rare metal sold for 80 to 120 dirhems per ounce. The whole empire and the wider region was interdependent on each other and formed a single economy and at the same time

8515-446: The conflict, although on reduced scale. It has been suggested that it was Badi's victory over the Ethiopians that strengthened his power; in 1743/1744 he is known to have had his vizier executed and to have taken the reins. He attempted to create a new power base by purging the previous ruling clan, stripping the nobility of their land and instead empowering clients from the western and southern periphery of his realm. One of these clients

8646-443: The confluence of Blue and White Nile, which they would rule as vassal kings of Sennar. Therefore, the Funj lost direct control over much of their kingdom. In 1618-1619 Bahr Negash Gebre Mariam, ruler of the Medri Bahri, helped Emperor Susneyos in a military campaign against the Sennar Sultanate. Emperor Susneyos sent Bahr Gebre to attack Mandara whose queen, Fatima, controlled a strategic caravan road from Suakin . The Bahr Negash

8777-512: The contemporary Harari people are heirs to the ancient Semitic speaking peoples of the Adal region. Historians state the language spoken by the people of Adal as well as its rulers the Imams and Sultans would closely resemble contemporary Harari language . Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde and others state the Walasma led Sultanates of Ifat and Adal primarily included the Ethiopian Semitic speaking Argobba and Harari people , it later expanded to comprise Afar and Somali peoples. Between

8908-404: The death of Imam Ahmad, the Adal Sultanate lost most of its territory in Abyssinian lands. In 1550 Nur ibn Mujahid became the Emir of Harar and the de facto ruler of Adal. He then departed on a jihad (holy war) to the eastern Ethiopian lowlands of Bale and Dawaro . This venture was unsuccessful, Nur was defeated and the Abyssinians then advanced into Adalite territory where upon they ravaged

9039-470: The east and center of Abyssinia invaded Tigray where he encountered fierce resistance and suffered some reserves, but his advance was not stopped, his armies reached the coasts of Medri Bahri and Kassala where they made contact with the Muslim Beja tribes of the north that had formerly paid tribute to the Ethiopian Empire . Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel) became a hunted fugitive, and harried from Tigray to Begemder to Gojjam , constantly pursued by

9170-399: The evolution of Harari and Argobba language within Harar and its environs. According to Jeffrey M. Shaw, the main inhabitants of the Adal Sultanate spoke East Cushitic languages. In Zeila , the port city of Adal Sultanate, the Somali language was mainly spoken. One of the empire's most wealthy provinces was Ifat it was well watered, by the large river Awash . Additionally, besides

9301-409: The eyes, and breastplates on their body, while they harnessed their horses in a similar fashion. In siege warfare , ladders were employed to scale buildings and other high positions such as hills and mountains. M. Hassan states: Arab Faqih makes it very clear that the sedentary agriculturalists population of Harar provided both the leadership in the jihadic war and that they were the majority of

9432-481: The fighters at least during the early days of the jihad. All the four Wazirs appointed by Imam Ahmad were members of the landed Adare (Harari) and Harla hereditary nobility. Of the fifty or so Amirs appointed by Imam Ahmad between 1527 and 1537, the overwhelming majority were members of the hereditary landed Adare or Harla aristocracy. M. Lewis writes: Somali forces contributed much to the Imām’s victories. Shihāb ad-Dīn,

9563-404: The force of a young rebel named Ahmad ibn Ibrahim , who claimed revenge for Garad Abogn. Ahmad did not immediately attempt conclusions with Sultan Abu Bakr, but retired to Hubat to build up his strength. Ahmad ibn Ibrahim would eventually kill Sultan Abu Bakr in battle, and replaced him with Abu Bakr's younger brother Umar Din as his puppet. Once in complete control, he then could then turn to

9694-413: The founding of the sultanate, and played a significant role in the subsequent wars with Abyssinia. According to Patrick Gikes and Mohammed Hassen, Adal in the sixteenth century was primarily inhabited by the sedentary Harla people and the pastoral Somali people. Marriage alliances between Argobba, Harari and Somali people were also common within the Adal Sultanate. According to Professor Lapiso Delebo,

9825-565: The integral regions of the Ethiopian Empire , such as Bete Amhara , Tigray and Shewa , the local population bitterly resisted the Adalite occupation. Some preferred death over denying their faith, among them were two Amhara chiefs who were brought before the Imam in Debre Berhan . Arab Faqīh describes the encounter: They captured two Christian chiefs and sent them to the Imam's encampment and presented them before him. He said "What

9956-409: The lands and enslaved many of its inhabitants. However, this defeat was not mortal and Adal soon recovered. At around this time, Nur began to strength the defenses' of Harar , building a wall that still encircles the city to this day. In 1559, urged on by his wife, Nur once again took the offensive and invaded the Ethiopian Empire , killing Ethiopian Emperor Gelawdewos in the Battle of Fatagar . At

10087-427: The language of communication at the court had become Arabic. In the 18th century, Arabic became the written language of state administration. As late as 1821, when the kingdom fell, some provincial noblemen were still not capable of speaking Arabic. Evliya Çelebi (17th century) and Joseph Russegger (mid 19th century) described a pre-Arabic language in the Funj heartland. Çelebi provided a listing of numerals as well as

10218-405: The late 1400s to mid 1500s there was a large scale migration of Hadhrami people into Adal. Among the earliest mentions of the Somali by name has come through a victory poem written by Emperor Yeshaq I of Abyssinia against the king of Adal, as the Simur are said to have submitted and paid tribute. As Taddesse Tamrat writes: "Dr Enrico Cerulli has shown that Simur was an old Harari name for

10349-463: The late 17th century the Funj Sultanate was still recorded to not follow the "laws of the Turks ”, i. e. Islam. Thus, until the 18th century Islam was not much more than a facade. Despite this, the Funj acted as sponsors of Islam from the very beginning, encouraging the settlement of Muslim holy men in their domain. In the later period civil wars forced the peasants to look to the holy men for protection;

10480-473: The lowlands outside the city of Harar is named. In the thirteenth century, the Arab writer al-Dimashqi refers to the city of Zeila , by its Somali name "Awdal" ( Somali : "Awdal" ). The modern Awdal region of Somaliland , which was part of the Adal Sultanate, bears the kingdom's name. Locally the empire was known to the Muslims as Bar Sa'ad ad-din meaning "The country of Sa'ad ad-din" in reference to

10611-733: The monarchy, the Imam was defeated in several major engagements by the Portuguese and was forced to flee to Raya Kobo with his heavily demoralized followers. He sent a request to the Ottoman Empire for reinforcements of Turkish, Albanian and Arab musketeers to stabilize his troops. He then took the offensive attacking the Portuguese camp at Wolfa where he killed their commander, Cristóvão da Gama , and 200 of their rank and file. The Imam then dismissed most of his foreign contingent and returned to his headquarters at Lake Tana . The surviving Portuguese were able to meet up with Gelawdewos and his army at Siemen . The Emperor did not hesitate to take

10742-494: The new Funj sultan, Adlan I , managed to turn the tide of war against Ajib, eventually killing him in 1611 or 1612. While chasing the remnants of Ajib's army to the north, Adlan II himself was deposed and succeeded by a son of the former sultan Abd al-Qadir II, Badi I . He issued a peace treaty with the sons of Ajib, agreeing to factually split the Funj state. The successors of Ajib, the Abdallab , would receive everything north of

10873-522: The new dominant power in the Butana. The long isolated province of Dongola finally fell to the Shaiqiya in around 1782, who installed a loyal puppet dynasty. After 1802, the authority of the sultanate was limited to the Gezira for good. In the early years of the 19th century the kingdom was plagued by excessive civil wars. Regent Muhammad Adlan, who rose to power in 1808 and whose father had been assassinated by

11004-572: The northern half of the Shilluk Kingdom . Under his rule the Funj defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler his vassal. Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 17th century, but during the 18th century, it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king were the merchant funded Ulama who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice. In about 1718

11135-412: The offensive and won a major victory at the Battle of Wayna Daga when the fate of Abyssinia was decided by the death of the Imam and the flight of his army. The invasion force collapsed like a house of cards and all the Abyssinians who had been cowed by the invaders returned to their former allegiance, the reconquest of Christian territories proceeded without encountering any effective opposition. After

11266-406: The overwhelming majority still used traditional weapons. The Funj made use of Shilluk and Dinka mercenaries. By the time of the visit by David Reubeni in 1523, the Funj, originally Pagans or syncretic Christians, had converted to Islam. They probably converted to ease their rule over their Muslim subjects and to facilitate trade with neighbouring countries like Egypt. Their embracement of Islam

11397-408: The pestilence which spread during the famine. Nur was succeeded by Uthman the Abyssinian , who relaxed his predecessor's pro-Islamic policy and signed an infamous and humiliating peace treaty with the Oromos. The treaty stated that the Oromos can freely enter to the Muslim markets and purchase goods at less than the current market price. This angered many Muslims and led to a rebellion, in which he

11528-473: The populace even the basics of Islamic faith were not widely known. Pork and beer were consumed as staple food throughout much of the kingdom, the death of an important individual would be mourned by "communal dancing, self-mutilation and rolling in the ashes of the feast-fire". At least in some regions, elderly, crippled and others who believed to be a burden for their relatives and friends were expected to request to be buried alive or otherwise disposed. As late as

11659-417: The power of the monarch to closely control the economy. The thriving trade created a wealthy class of educated and literate merchants, who read widely about Islam and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom. The Sultanate also did their best to monopolize the slave trade to Egypt , most notably through the annual caravan of up to one thousand slaves. This monopoly was most successful in

11790-500: The previous dynasty, the Unsab , was overthrown in a coup and replaced by Nul , who, although related to the previous Sultan, effectively founded a dynasty on his own. In 1741 and 1743 the young Ethiopian emperor Iyasu II conducted raids westwards, attempting to acquire quick military fame. In March 1744 he assembled an army of 30,000–100,000 men for a new expedition, which was initially intended as yet another raid, but soon turned into

11921-423: The province of Dawaro. Despite his losses, Emperor Yeshaq was still able to continue field armies against Jamal. Sultan Jamal continued to advance further into the Abyssinian heartland. However, Jamal on hearing of Yeshaq's plan to send several large armies to attack three different areas of Adal (including the capital), returned to Adal, where he fought the Solomonic forces at Harjai and, according to al-Maqrizi, this

12052-513: The provinces of Gidaya , Dawaro , Sawans, Bali , and Fatagar . In 1332, Adal was invaded by the Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I . His soldiers were said to have ravaged the province. In the fourteenth century Haqq ad-Din II transferred Ifat's capital to the Harar plateau thus he is regarded by some to be the true founder of the Adal Sultanate. In the late 14th century, the Ethiopian Emperor Dawit I collected

12183-423: The same time another Ethiopian army led by Dejazmatch Hamalmal attacked the capital of Adal, Harar . Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din attempted to defend the city but was defeated and killed, thus ending the Walashma dynasty . Not long after this, Barentu Oromos who had been migrating north invaded the Adal Sultanate. This struggle, which was mentioned by Bahrey , led to the devastation of many regions and Nur's army

12314-402: The seventeenth century, although it still worked to some extent in the eighteenth. The rulers of Sennar held the title of Mek (sultan). Their regnal numbers vary from source to source. 15°39′26″N 32°20′53″E  /  15.6572°N 32.3480°E  / 15.6572; 32.3480 Sennar The French traveler Charles-Jacques Poncet , who visited Sennar near the end of

12445-459: The southern interior. They generally had long, lank hair. Most wore a cotton sarong but no headpiece or sandals, with many glass and amber trinkets around their necks, wrists, arms and ankles. The king and other aristocrats often donned instead a body-length garment topped with a headdress. All were Muslims. In the southern hinterland, the Adelites lived beside pagan " Negroes ", with whom they bartered various commodities. Various languages from

12576-485: The stateless non-Muslims in the Nuba mountains pejoratively referred to as Fartit . The army was divided infantry, represented by an official called muqaddam al-qawawid , and cavalry, represented by the muqaddam al-khayl . The Sultan rarely led armies into battle and instead appointed a commander for the duration of the campaign, called amin jaysh al-sultan . Nomadic warriors fighting for the Funj had an own appointed leader,

12707-518: The sultans lost the peasant population to the Ulama . The collapse of the Christian Nubian states went hand in hand with the collapse of the Christian institutions. The Christian faith, however, would continue to exist, although gradually declining. By the sixteenth century large portions of Nubia's population would still have been Christian. Dongola, the former capital and Christian center of

12838-586: The surviving Awash River , at least five other rivers in the area between Harar and Shawa plateau existed. The general area was well cultivated, densely populated with numerous villages adjoining each other. Agricultural produce included three main cereals, wheat, sorghum and teff, as well as beans, aubergines, melons, cucumbers, marrows, cauliflowers and mustard. Many different types of fruit were grown, among them bananas, lemons, limes, pomegranates, apricots, peaces, citrons mulberries and grapes. Other plants included sycamore tree, sugar cane, from which kandi, or sugar

12969-536: The task he felt himself was divinely appoint to undertake, the conquest of Abyssinia. Fervor for the jihad had not yet overcome the forces inherent in nomadic life, Ahmad had to undertake several campaigns to restore order in the Somali territory which would constitute his manpower reserve. He then organized a heterogenous mass of tribes into a powerful army, inflamed by the fanatical zeal of jihad. According to sixteenth century Adal writer Arab Faqīh , in 1529 Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi finally decided to embark on

13100-568: The territory stretching from Cape Guardafui in Somalia to the port city of Suakin in Sudan . The Adal Empire maintained a robust commercial and political relationship with the Ottoman Empire . Sultanate of Adal was alternatively known as the federation of Zeila . Adal is believed to be an abbreviation of Havilah . Eidal or Aw Abdal, was the Emir of Harar in the eleventh century which

13231-556: The third Nile cataract, would mark the border between the two kingdoms. In the late 16th century the Funj pushed towards the Habesh Eyalet, conquering north-western Eritrea . Failing to make progress against both the Funj Sultanate and Ethiopia, the Ottomans abandoned their policy of expansion. Thus, from the 1590s onwards, the Ottoman threat vanished, rendering the Funj-Ethiopian alliance unnecessary, and relations between

13362-641: The two states were about to turn into open hostility. As late as 1597, however, the relations were still described as friendly, with trade flourishing. In the meantime, the rule of sultan Dakin (1568–1585) saw the rise of Ajib , a minor king of northern Nubia. When Dakin returned from a failed campaign in the Ethiopian–Sudanese borderlands Ajib had acquired enough power to demand and receive greater political autonomy. A few years later he forced sultan Tayyib to marry his daughter, effectively making Tayyib and his offspring and successor, Unsa , his vassals. Unsa

13493-476: The upper hand until 1755, when Abu Likayik finally managed to overrun Kordofan and turn it into his new powerbase. In the meantime, Sultan Badi grew increasingly unpopular due to his repressive measures. Eventually, Abu Likayik was convinced by disaffected Funj noblemen, many of them residing in Kordofan, to march on the capital. In 1760/1761 he reached Alays at the White Nile, where a council was held in which Badi

13624-523: The war taking many slaves before stopping near the Taka mountain range near modern-day Kassala . Before the Ottomans gained a foothold in Ethiopia, in 1555, Özdemir Pasha was appointed Beylerbey of the (yet to be conquered) Habesh Eyalet . He attempted to march upstream along the Nile to conquer the Funj, but his troops revolted when they approached the first cataract of the Nile . Until 1570, however,

13755-427: The war, Rabat I , was the first in a series of three monarchs under whom the sultanate entered a period of prosperity, expansion and increased contacts with the outside world, but was also confronted with several new problems. In the 17th century, the Shilluk and Sennar were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka . After the alliance had run its cause, in 1650, Sultan Badi II occupied

13886-473: The wings were separated with one on the right and left, while the Malassay were positioned in the middle. At crucial moments, the Malassay supported both wings and prevented troops from abandoning the field. The Adal soldiers donned elaborate helmets and steel armour made up of chain-mail with overlapping tiers. The Horsemen of Adal wore protective helmets that covered the entire face except for

14017-592: The years shifted to Karkoj , "much more advantageously situated as the terminus of regular navigation, as the natural outlet of the Takruri country between Kassala and Galabat ." The modern town lies SSE of the ruins of the ancient capital of the Funj Kingdom , 300 kilometres (186 miles) southeast of Khartoum , the Capital of Sudan . The city is home to Sinnar University , established in 1977. In 2011,

14148-486: Was Muhammad Abu Likayik , a Hamaj (a generic Sudannese term applied to the pre-Funj, non-Arabic or semi-Arabized people of the Gezira and Ethiopian-Sudanese borderlands) from east of Fazughli who was granted land immediately south of Sennar in 1747/1748. He was a cavalry commander tasked to pacify Kordofan , which had become a battlefield between the Funj and the Musabb’at, refugees from the Sultanate of Darfur . The Fur had

14279-434: Was able to take matters into his own hands. A rich present by Susenyos, which he perhaps sent in the belief that the successors of Abd al-Qadir II would honour the submission of the latter, was rudely answered with two lame horses and first raids of Ethiopian posts. Susenyos, occupied elsewhere, would not respond to that act of aggression until 1617 when he raided several Funj provinces. This mutual raiding finally escalated into

14410-421: Was all the greater after the death of Nur Ibn Mujahid, the disappearance of the last of the Walashma monarch also opened a tough competition for power between emirs and descendants of Ahmed Ibn Ibrahim . Ultimately, they won in April 1576, Muhammad b. Ibrâhîm Gasa took the title of Imam , thus combining the political power of the Sultan and the religious responsibility of guiding the community, he then relocated

14541-412: Was also manufactured locally, it was at times imported as well. During the late 17th century Sultan Badi III attempted to modernize the army by importing firearms and even cannons , but they were quickly disregarded after his death not only because the import was expensive and unreliable, but also because the traditionally armed elites feared for their power. In the early 1770s James Bruce remarked that

14672-539: Was assassinated in 1518 and Adal was torn apart by intestinal struggles in which five sultans succeeded each other in two years. But at last, a matured and powerful leader called Garad Abun Adashe assumed power and brought order out of chaos. However, Sultan Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad , who had transferred the capital from Dakkar to Harar in 1520, profiting off the prestige that the hereditary monarchy still held, recruited bands of Somali nomads, ambushed Abun Adashe at Zeila and killed him in 1525. Many people went to join

14803-486: Was away with Mahfuz, the Portuguese then burnt down the port city. After the victory of Lebna Dengel, the internal weaknesses of the Adal Sultanate soon revealed themselves. The older generation of the Muslims headed by the Walashma , indifferent to religion and ready to come to terms with Abyssinia , were staunchly opposed by the Harari and Harla religious aristocracy led by fanatic warlike emirs. The Sultan Muhammad

14934-528: Was declared in Mansur's favour. During this period, Adal emerged as a centre of Muslim resistance against the expanding Christian Abyssinian kingdom. Adal would thereafter govern all of the territory formerly ruled by the Ifat Sultanate, as well as the land further east all the way to Cape Guardafui, according to Leo Africanus. Later on in the campaign, the Adalites were struck by a catastrophe when Sultan Mansur and his brother Muhammad were captured in battle by

15065-426: Was defeated at the Battle of Hazalo . The defensive walls managed to protect Harar from the invaders, preserving it as a kind of Muslim island in an Oromo sea. However, the city then experienced a severe famine as grain and salt prices rose to unpreceded levels. According to a contemporary source, the hunger became so bad that people began to resort to eating their own children and spouses. Nur himself died in 1567 of

15196-493: Was determined to eliminate this threat, organized a large army and led it against the Emir, although the Emperor was victorious he was eventually killed in battle against the Adalites. Emperor Dawit II (Lebna Dengel) would soon succeed the throne, Mahfuz having recovered from his defeat renewed raids against the frontier provinces. He was stimulated by emissaries from Arabia who proclaimed the jihad (holy war), presented him with

15327-636: Was distinguished by its ethnic variety which included Somalis , Afars , Argobba , and Hararis . Ethiopian historian Taddesse Tamrat states that Adal's central authority in the fourteenth century consisted of the Argobba, Harari and Silt'e people . Professor Donald N. Levine , an important figure in Ethiopian Studies , described the Adal Sultanate as consisting of many ethnic groups, but primarily Somalis and Afars. Somali scholar Abdurahman Abdullahi Baadiyow notes that Somalis were integral to

15458-486: Was eventually deposed in 1603/1604 by Abd al-Qadir II , triggering Ajib to invade the Funj heartland. His armies pushed the Funj king to the south-east. Thus, Ajib effectively ruled over an empire reaching from Dongola to Ethiopia. Abd el-Qadir II, eventually deposed in December 1606, fled to Ethiopia and submitted to emperor Susenyos , providing Susenyos with an opportunity to intervene in the sultanate's affairs. However,

15589-408: Was extracted and inedible wild figs. The province also grew the stimulant plant Khat. Which was exported to Yemen . Adal was abundant in large numbers of cattle, sheep, and some goats. There was also chickens. Both buffaloes and wild fowl were sometimes hunted. The province had a great reputation for producing butter and honey. Whereas provinces such as Bale , surrounding regions of Webi Shabelle

15720-496: Was formally deposed. Afterwards, he besieged Sennar, which he entered on 27 March 1762. Badi fled to Ethiopia but was murdered in 1763. Thus began the Hamaj Regency , where the Funj monarchs became puppets of the Hamaj. Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began a long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and

15851-457: Was known for it cotton cultivation and an age old weaving industry, while the El Kere region produced salt which was an important trading item. Zeila was a wealthy city and abundantly supplied with provisions. It possessed grain, meat, oil, honey and wax. Furthermore, the citizens had many horses and reared cattle of all kinds, as a result they had plenty of butter, milk and flesh, as well as

15982-404: Was not allowed to be seen eating. On the rare occasion he appeared in public he did so only with a veil and accompanied by much pomp. The Sultan was judged regularly and, if found wanting, could be executed. All Funj, but especially the Sultan, were believed to be able to detect sorcery. Islamic talismans written in Sennar were believed to have special powers due to the proximity to the Sultan. Among

16113-466: Was not only abundant but also very cheap according to Maqrizi thirty pounds of meat sold for only half a dirhem, while for only four dirhems you could purchase a bunch of about 100 Damascus grapes. Trade on the upland river valleys themselves connected with the coast to the interior markets. Created a lucrative caravan trade route between Ethiopian interior, the Hararghe highlands, Eastern Lowlands and

16244-483: Was only nominal and, in fact, the Funj effectively even delayed the Islamization of Nubia, as they temporarily strengthened African sacral traditions instead. The monarchy they established was divine , similar to that of many other African states: The Funj Sultan had hundreds of wives and spent most of his reign within the palace, secluded from his subjects and maintaining contact only with a handful of officials. He

16375-408: Was overthrown and replaced by Tahla Abbas in 1569. Tahla would rule for only three years before being overthrown by some of his very fanatic subjects who were intent on another jihad or holy war against the Christians. He was replaced by Uthman's grandson Muhammad ibn Nasir who soon carried out an expedition against the Ethiopian Empire , however this campaign would end in total disaster. As soon as

16506-541: Was reorganized into three flexible units, giving Adal a strategic advantage. This superior organization contrasted sharply with the rigid and poorly commanded Abyssinian forces. The first group was the Malassay , the elite unit of military warriors in the Adal army. The title Malassay or Malachai (Portuguese spelling) often became synonymous with Muslims in Ethiopia to outsiders, but contrary to popular beliefs it did not denote

16637-456: Was successful in capturing Queen Fatima, which he sent back to Emperor Susenyos' palace in Danqaz ( Gorgora ) and she renewed submission to the Ethiopian Empire . The submission of Abd al-Qadir II to the Ethiopian emperor and the possibility of a consequential invasion remained a problem for the Funj sultans. Adlan I had apparently been too weak to do something against this situation, but Badi I

16768-607: Was such beautiful work that those who looked at it marveled, and winged serpents were painted on it." During its existence, Adal had relations and engaged in trade with other polities in Northeast Africa , the Near East , Europe and South Asia . Many of the historic cities in the Horn of Africa such as Abasa , Amud , Awbare and Berbera flourished under its reign with courtyard houses , mosques , shrines , walled enclosures and cisterns . Adal attained its peak in

16899-514: Was that whereas the Ethiopian Empire under Sarsa Dengel was able to reorganize and withstand the Oromo migrations , the Sultanate of Adal was too newly established to transcend tribal differences. The result he claims was that the nomadic people instinctively return to their "eternal disintegrating struggles" of people against people and tribe against tribe. Ulrich Braukämper mentions that Adal

17030-517: Was the one of the Abdallabs, followed by Alays at the White Nile, the kings of the Blue Nile region and finally the rest. The king of Sennar exercised his influence among the manjils forcing them to marry a woman from the royal clan, which acted as royal spies. A member of the royal clan also always sat at their side, observing their behaviour. Furthermore, the manjils had to travel to Sennar every year to pay tribute and account for their deeds. It

17161-503: Was under king Badi II when Sennar became the fixed capital of the state and when written documents concerning administrative matters appeared, with the oldest known one dating to 1654. The army of Sennar was feudal. Each noble house could field a military unit measured in its power by its horsemen. Subjects, although generally armed, were only rarely called to war, in cases of uttermost need. Most Funj warriors were slaves traditionally captured in annual slave raids called salatiya , targeting

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