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55-609: Saxifragales ( colloquial /plural: the saxifrages ) is an order of angiosperms , or flowering plants, containing 15 botanical families and around 100 genera , with nearly 2,500 species . Of the 15 families, many are small, with eight of them being monotypic (having only a single genus). The largest family is the Crassulaceae (stonecrops), a diverse group of mostly succulent plants , with about 35 genera. Saxifragales are found worldwide, primarily in temperate to subtropical zones, rarely being encountered growing wild in

110-562: A sister group with the rest of Saxifragales. The two major ones are (Paeoniaceae + the woody clade of primarily woody families) and the "core" Saxifragales (i.e. the primarily herbaceous families), with the latter subdivided into two further subclades, (Haloragaceae sensu lato + Crassulaceae) and the Saxifragaceae alliance. In the clade Haloragaceae sensu lato (s.l.) + Crassulaceae the genera constituting Haloragaceae s.l. are all small, and APG II (2003) proposed merging them into

165-563: A herbaceous habit occurred in the ancestors of Crassulaceae, Saxifragaceae and the base of the Haloragaceae-Penthoraceae clade (the other two families in Haloragaceae s.l. remaining woody), while other taxa reverted to a woody habit, especially Crassulaceae. Most of Saxifragales have a superior ovary , but some families show frequent transition with inferior or subinferior position, particularly Saxifragaceae and to

220-439: A highly organic or nutrient-dense substrate to thrive. Globally, the saxifrages have a wide variety of uses by humans, ranging from textiles and timber to foodstuffs. Several families—such as the aforementioned Crassulaceae—and genera are of significant commercial importance in some countries and economies, being cultivated on a large scale for sale as ornamental plants . Apart from ornamentals, another highly-prized group are

275-535: A lesser extent Hamamelidaceae. Almost all Grossulariaceae have an inferior ovary. The ancestral carpel number is two, with transition to higher numbers, such as four in Haloragaceae s.l. and Peridiscaceae with five in Penthoraceae. The ancestral carpel number for Crassulaceae is five, decreasing to four in Kalanchoe , where it is synapomorphic for the genus, though the most frequent transition in this family

330-424: A matter of stylistic variation and diction , rather than of the standard and non-standard dichotomy. The term "colloquial" is also equated with "non-standard" at times, in certain contexts and terminological conventions. A colloquial name or familiar name is a name or term commonly used to identify a person or thing in non-specialist language, in place of another usually more formal or technical name. In

385-556: A narrower circumscription, Haloragaceae sensu stricto ( s.s. ), to give a total of 14 families. APG IV (2016) added the parasitic family Cynomoriaceae to provide a total of 15 families, although its placement within the order remained unclear. Of the 15 families included in APG IV, the basal divergence Peridiscaceae underwent radical shifting and recircumscription from 2003 to 2009. Originally, it consisted of two closely related genera, Peridiscus and Whittonia . The APG II system placed

440-438: A number of sections to produce a taxonomy of seven subgenera; Ribes (sections Ribes , Heretiera , Berisia ) Coreosma , Calobotrya (sections Calobotrya , Cerophyllum ), Symphocalyx , Grossularioides , Grossularia , Parilla . Taxonomy, according to Berger, modified by Sinnott (1985): Some authors continued to treat Hesperia and Lobbia as subgenera. Early molecular studies suggested that subgenus Grossularia

495-578: A single carpel), seeds with abundant endosperm surrounding the embryo and leaves with glandular teeth at their margins (glandular dentate, see image ). Within the Saxifragales, while the families of the woody clade are primarily woody, the primarily herbaceous families of Crassulaceae and Saxifragaceae exhibit woody features as a secondary transition. Saxifragales is a relatively small angiosperm order , having only 15 families , about 100 genera and about 2,470 species . Saxifragales

550-597: A single genus ( Paeonia ) with about 33 species of perennial herbs and small shrubs with showy flowers, found from the Mediterranean to Japan, but two species occur in western N America. They are commercially important as popular garden ornamentals, cultivated since antiquity, and have been used medicinally. The herbaceous varieties are derived from P. lactiflora , while the shrubs are derived from P. suffruticosa (tree peony), both Asian species. The botanical name comes from its Greek name, paionia , named in turn for

605-708: A single larger Haloragaceae s.l. , but transferred Aphanopetalum from Cunoniaceae to this group. The Saxifragaceae alliance represents Saxifragaceae together with a number of woody members of the traditional Saxifragaceae sensu Engler (1930). Within this, APG II (2003) proposed placing the two species of Pterostemon that constitute Pterostemonaceae within Iteaceae , and all subsequent versions have maintained this practice. Thus Saxifragales sensu APG II consisted of only 10 families. The third version (2009) added Peridiscaceae (from Malpighiales ), as sister to all other families, but re-expanded Haloragaceae to provide for

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660-570: A small tropical family of 4 genera and 11–12 species of small trees and shrubs found in the Guiana Shield of S America (2 genera, one of which, Whittonia , is thought to be extinct ) and West and Central Africa (2 genera). The majority of species occur in the African genus Soyauxia . The name comes from the Greek , peri (around) discos (ring). The Paeoniaceae (Peony family) consist of

715-452: A strongly monophyletic group. In the initial APG publication (1998), the Saxifragales were identified within the core eudicots clade but its relationship to other clades was uncertain. The core eudicots consist of the order Gunnerales and a large clade of Pentapetalae (so named for having a synapomorphy of pentamerous (5 part) perianths), the latter representing about 70% of all angiosperms, with eight major lineages. Later (2003),

770-501: Is 6–10, but only where stamen number is increased above five. Some Macaronesian taxa (Aeonieae) have 8–12, with up to 32 carpels for Aeonium . The ancestral petal number is five, with three major transitions; 5 to 0, 5 to 4, 5 to 6–10. Increased petal number is seen in Paeoniaceae and Crassulaceae, particularly where stamen number is also increased. Cercidiphyllum + Daphniphyllum, Chrysosplenium and Altingia are examples of

825-592: Is a barrier to communication for those people unfamiliar with the respective field. Grossulariaceae Ribes ( / ˈ r aɪ b iː z / ) is a genus of about 200 known species of flowering plants , most of them native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . The species may be known as various kinds of currants, such as redcurrants , blackcurrants , and whitecurrants , or as gooseberries , and some are cultivated for their edible fruit or as ornamental plants . Ribes

880-454: Is based on genetic studies, using molecular phylogenetics . There is an extensive fossil record from the Turonian - Campanian phase of the late Cretaceous , dating to about 90 million years ago ( Myr ). However, molecular studies may suggest an older origin, from the early Cretaceous (102–108 Myr), with rapid and early diversification to more modern forms. The order Saxifragales

935-472: Is derived from the Greek words dafne (laurel) and fyllon (leaf), from a supposed resemblance to the leaves of the former ( Laurus nobilis ). Colloquialism A specific instance of such language is termed a colloquialism. The most common term used in dictionaries to label such an expression is colloquial . Colloquialism or general parlance is distinct from formal speech or formal writing . It

990-1048: Is extremely morphologically diverse (hyper-diverse). It includes trees (e.g. witch hazel , witch alder in Hamamelidaceae ), fruit bearing shrubs (e.g. currants , gooseberries in Grossulariaceae ), lianas , annual and perennial herbs , rock garden plants (e.g. saxifrage in Saxifragaceae ), ornamental garden plants (e.g. peonies in Paeoniaceae ), succulents (e.g. stonecrop in Crassulaceae ) and aquatics (e.g. watermilfoil in Haloragaceae ). The flowers demonstrate major variations in sepal , petal , stamen , and carpel number, as well as ovary position ( see Biogeography and evolution ). This degree of diversity makes defining synapomorphy (derived common characteristics) for

1045-871: Is included in Saxifragales, but unplaced within it. Li et al. (2019) have slightly different relationships, and also place Cynomoriaceae as the first branch in the Crassulaceae+Haloragaceae s.l. tree, i.e. as sister to those two families. The number of genera in each family is shown in parentheses: Peridiscaceae (4) Paeonia (Paeoniaceae) Liquidambar (Altingiaceae) Hamamelidaceae (27) Cercidiphyllum (Cercidiphyllaceae) Daphniphyllum (Daphniphyllaceae) Crassulaceae (34) Aphanopetalum (Aphanopetalaceae) Tetracarpaea (Tetracarpaeaceae) Penthorum (Penthoraceae) Haloragaceae s.s. (8) Iteaceae (including Pterostemonaceae ) (2) Ribes (Grossulariaceae) Saxifragaceae (33) The Peridiscaceae (Ringflower family) are

1100-502: Is insufficient resolution to justify further taxonomic revision. There are around 200 species of Ribes . Selected species include: Ribes is widely distributed through the Northern Hemisphere, and also extending south in the mountainous areas of South America. Species can be found in meadows or near streams. Currants are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species. The genus Ribes includes

1155-423: Is most commonly used within specific occupations, industries, activities, or areas of interest. Colloquial language includes slang, along with abbreviations, contractions, idioms, turns-of-phrase, and other informal words and phrases known to most native speakers of a language or dialect. Jargon is terminology that is explicitly defined in relationship to a specific activity, profession, or group. The term refers to

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1210-508: Is named for the Greek hamamelis , the wych elm. The Cercidiphyllaceae (Caramel-tree family) are a small family of deciduous trees found in China and Japan, with a single genus, Cercidiphyllum and two species, C. japonicum and C. magnificum . The trees are valued for their wood ( katsura ) and as ornamentals. C. japonicum is the largest deciduous tree in Japan. The name is derived from

1265-540: Is often used in colloquial speech, but this particular register is restricted to particular in-groups, and it is not a necessary element of colloquialism. Other examples of colloquial usage in English include contractions or profanity . "Colloquial" should also be distinguished from "non-standard". The difference between standard and non-standard is not necessarily connected to the difference between formal and colloquial. Formal, colloquial, and vulgar language are more

1320-431: Is the form of language that speakers typically use when they are relaxed and not especially self-conscious. An expression is labeled colloq. for "colloquial" in dictionaries when a different expression is preferred in formal usage, but this does not mean that the colloquial expression is necessarily slang or non-standard . Some colloquial language contains a great deal of slang, but some contains no slang at all. Slang

1375-406: Is the only genus in the family Grossulariaceae . Ribes species are medium shrublike plants with marked diversity in strikingly diverse flowers and fruit. They have either palmately lobed or compound leaves, and some have thorns. The sepals of the flowers are larger than the petals, and fuse into a tube or saucer shape. The ovary is inferior, maturing into a berry with many seeds. Ribes

1430-585: Is the single genus in the Saxifragales family Grossulariaceae. Although once included in the broader circumscription of Saxifragaceae sensu lato , it is now positioned as a sister group to Saxifragaceae sensu stricto . First treated on a worldwide basis in 1907, the infrageneric classification has undergone many revisions, and even in the era of molecular phylogenetics there has been contradictory evidence. Although sometimes treated as two separate genera, Ribes and Grossularia (Berger 1924),

1485-486: The Grossulariaceae ( currants and gooseberries ), particularly blackcurrants , redcurrants and white currants . Overall, the order is extremely diverse , encompassing numerous trees , shrubs , perennial herbs and succulent plants , as well as aquatic and semi-aquatic species. The order's high degree of diversity, in terms of vegetative and reproductive traits (and sheer amount of species), can make it challenging to find any common or unifying features amongst

1540-462: The circumscription of Saxifragaceae has been much reduced and Pterostemonaceae submerged as Pterostemon in Iteaceae. Most of the families are monogeneric . Choristylis is now considered a synonym of Itea , but the addition of Pterostemon , gives Iteaceae two genera. Liquidambar and Semiliquidambar are also submerged into Altingia , making Altingiaceae monogeneric. About 95% of

1595-483: The philosophy of language , "colloquial language" is ordinary natural language , as distinct from specialized forms used in logic or other areas of philosophy. In the field of logical atomism , meaning is evaluated in a different way than with more formal propositions . Colloquialisms are distinct from slang or jargon . Slang refers to words used only by specific social groups, such as demographics based on region, age, or socio-economic identity. In contrast, jargon

1650-406: The tropics ; however, many species are now cultivated throughout the world as knowledge of plant husbandry has improved. They can be found in a wide variety of environments, from deserts to fully aquatic habitats , with species adapted to alpine , forested or fully- aquatic habitats. Many are epiphytic or lithophytic , growing on exposed cliff faces, on trees or on rocks, and not requiring

1705-617: The God Pan . The Altingiaceae (Sweetgum family) consist of a single genus ( Liquidambar ) with 15 species of trees with unisexual flowers found in Eurasia, but with one species in North and Central America, Liquidambar styraciflua (American sweetgum). Liquidambar is used for its resin and timber, as well being ornamental trees. The nominative genus and family are named after Willem Alting , and Liquidambar for liquid ambar , Arabic for

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1760-526: The Greek words kerkis ( poplar ) and fyllon (leaf), from a supposed similarity in leaves. The Daphniphyllaceae (Laurel-leaf family) consist of a single genus, Daphniphyllum , with about 30 species. They are evergreen unisexual trees and shrubs distributed in SE Asia and the Solomon Islands. The dried leaves of Daphniphyllum macropodum have been used for smoking in Japan and Siberia. The name

1815-412: The apex (partially fused bicarpellate gynoecium) and possess a hypanthium (cup shaped basal floral tube). In the androecium (male reproductive part), the stamen anthers are generally basifixed (attached at its base to the filament), sometimes dorsifixed (attached at centre) ( see Carlsward et al (2011) Figure 2 ). Other commonly occurring features are fruit that is generally follicular (formed from

1870-466: The complete loss of petals. The ancestral stamen:petal ratio is 1, with transitions characterising several clades, e.g. Paeonicaceae+woody clade >2, Crassulaceae 2 (but Crassula 1). Overall there has been a decrease over evolution, but independent of a decrease in petal number, so that it is the stamen number that has decreased. The ancestral habitat appears to be forests, followed by early diversification into desert and aquatic habitats, with shrubland

1925-461: The consensus has been to consider it as a single genus, divided into a number of subgenera , the main ones of which are subgenus Ribes (currants) and subgenus Grossularia (gooseberries), further subdivided into sections. Janczewski (1907) considered six subgenera and eleven sections. Berger's twelve subgenera based on two distinct genera (see Senters & Soltis (2003) Table 1) have subsequently been demoted to sections. Weigend (2007) elevated

1980-499: The early Cretaceous, for the crown and stem groups respectively. Within the order Saxifragales, the molecular data imply a very rapid initial diversification time of about 6–8 Myr, between 112 and 120 Myr, with major lineages appearing within 3–6 Myr. The ancestral state appears to be woody, as in Peridiscaceae and the woody clade, but is also ancestral to Grossulariaceae. A number of independent transitions to

2035-535: The edible currants: blackcurrant , redcurrant , and white currant , as well as the European gooseberry, Ribes uva-crispa , and several hybrid varieties. It should not be confused with the dried currants used in cakes and puddings, which are from the Zante currant , a small-fruited cultivar of the grape Vitis vinifera . Ribes gives its name to the popular blackcurrant cordial Ribena . The genus also includes

2090-518: The family in Malpighiales , based on a DNA sequence for the rbcL gene from Whittonia . This sequence turned out to be not from Whittonia , but from other plants whose DNA had contaminated the sample. After placement in Saxifragales, it was expanded to include Soyauxia in 2007, and Medusandra in 2009. In the first of the subclades of the remaining Saxifragales, Paeoniaceae possesses many unique features and its taxonomic position

2145-478: The group extremely difficult, the order being defined on the basis of molecular affinity rather than morphology. However, some characteristics that are prevalent (common traits) represent potential or putative synapomorphies based on ancestral states. These include flowers that are usually radially symmetric and petals that are free. The gynoecium (female reproductive part) generally consists of two carpels (ovary, style and stigma) that are free, at least toward

2200-419: The group of ornamental plants collectively known as the flowering currants, for instance, R. sanguineum . There are restrictions on growing some Ribes species in some U.S. states, as they are the main alternate host for white pine blister rust . Blackfoot people used blackcurrant root ( Ribes hudsonianum ) for the treatment of kidney diseases and menstrual and menopausal problems. The Cree used

2255-419: The language used by people who work in a particular area or who have a common interest. Similar to slang, it is shorthand used to express ideas, people, and things that are frequently discussed between members of a group. Unlike slang, it is often developed deliberately. While a standard term may be given a more precise or unique usage amongst practitioners of relevant disciplines, it is often reported that jargon

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2310-491: The most recent colonization. Species diversification was rapid following a transition from a warmer, wetter Earth in the Eocene (56–40 Myr) to early Miocene (23–16 Myr), to the cooler drier conditions of the mid-Miocene (16–12 Myr). However, this appears to not have coincided with ecological and phenotypic evolution, which are themselves correlated. There is a clear lag, whereby increase in species diversification

2365-510: The name superrosids (Superrosidae), representing part of an early diversification of the angiosperms . Among the rosids, they share a number of similarities with the Rosales , particularly Rosaceae , including a hypanthium, five part flowers and free floral parts. As circumscribed, Saxifragales account for 1.3% of eudicot diversity. Gunnerales superasterids Dilleniales rosids Saxifragales Diversification among Saxifragales

2420-479: The order was described as "one of the major surprises of molecular phylogenetic analyses of the angiosperms", having elements previously placed in three or four separate subclasses based on morphology. This was eventually resolved in the third APG system (2009) placing Saxifragales as a sister group to the rosids (Rosidae), within the Pentapetalae clade. This large combination has subsequently been given

2475-628: The resin. The Hamamelidaceae (Witch-hazel family) consists of trees and shrubs with a widespread distribution, but main centres in East Asia and Malaysia. They are found in wet woodlands and forested slopes. The family has 26 genera and about 80–100 species, in five subfamilies, of which the nominative, Hamamelidoideae, contains over 75% of the genera. The species have uses as medicaments, timber and ornamental plants for their flowers, such as Hamamelis (witch hazel) or leaves, such as Parrotia persica (Persian ironwood). The family and nominative genus

2530-692: The respective genera. In the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification system, the Saxifragales are placed within the major division of flowering plants referred to as eudicots , specifically the core eudicots . This subgroup consists of the Dilleniaceae , superasterids and superrosids . The superrosids, in turn, have two components, rosids and Saxifragales. The Saxifragales order has undergone considerable revision since its original classification , which had been based purely on plant characteristics . The modern classification

2585-527: The species are in five families: Crassulaceae (1400), Saxifragaceae (500), Grossulariaceae (150–200), Haloragaceae (150), and Hamamelidaceae (100). The relationships of the Saxifragales families to each other is shown in the following cladogram . The phylogeny in this cladogram still has some uncertainty as to the exact relationships, and the phylogenetic tree is subject to further revision. Cynomoriaceae , previously placed in Santales or Rosales

2640-444: The term Saxifragales was in use, which Lindley called an Alliance, containing five families. Later, the Saxifragales were placed in the angiosperm class Dicotyledons , also called Magnoliopsida . The order Saxifragales has undergone considerable revision in both placement and composition, since the use of molecular phylogenetics , and the use of the modern Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) classification. They are identified as

2695-489: Was actually embedded within subgenus Ribes . Analysis of combined molecular datasets confirms subgenus Grossularia as a monophyletic group, with two main lineages, sect. Grossularia and another clade consisting of glabrous gooseberies, including Hesperia , Lobbia and Robsonia . Other monophyletic groups identified were Calobotrya , Parilla , Symphocalyx and Berisia . However sections Ribes , Coreosma and Heritiera were not well supported. Consequently, there

2750-570: Was controversial for a long time, and Paeonia was placed in Ranunculales , close to Glaucidium , prior to transfer to Saxifragales as sister to the woody clade. In the woody clade, the genus Liquidambar was included in Hamamelidaceae until molecular phylogenetic studies showed that its inclusion might make Hamamelidaceae paraphyletic , and was segregated as a separate monotypic family, Altingiaceae in 2008. Cercidiphyllaceae

2805-417: Was first described in 1820 by Berchtold and Presl in 1820 as a group of plants, Saxifrageae, with five genera, including Saxifraga , lending their names as the botanical authority (Bercht. & J.Presl). At times, that authority has also been given to Dumortier , due to a later publication (1829). Dumortier first used the word Saxifragaceae. By the time of John Lindley 's The Vegetable Kingdom (1853),

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2860-401: Was followed later by increases in niche and phenotypic lability. The first APG classification (1998) placed 13 families within the order Saxifragales: This was subsequently revised to 15, in the fourth version (2016). The Saxifragales families have been grouped into a number of informally named suprafamilial subclades, with the exception of the basal split of Peridiscaceae, which thus forms

2915-610: Was for a long time associated with Hamamelidaceae and Trochodendraceae and was often thought to be closer to the latter, which is now in the basal eudicot order Trochodendrales . Daphniphyllum was always thought to have an anomalous combination of characters and was placed in several different orders before molecular phylogenetic analysis showed it to belong to Saxifragales. In the core Saxifragales, Crassulaceae and Tetracarpaeaceae have been associated with Saxifragaceae, while Penthorum has been associated both with Crassulaceae and Saxifragaceae, before being placed here. Aphanopetalum

2970-612: Was often placed in Cunoniaceae , a family in Oxalidales , even though there were good reasons to put it in Saxifragales, and it was subsequently transferred. Haloragaceae was included in Myrtales , before being placed in Saxifragales. The other "core" group, the Saxifragaceae alliance comprises four families: Pterostemonaceae, Iteaceae, Grossulariaceae, and Saxifragaceae, which have long been known to be related to each other, but

3025-454: Was rapid, with the extensive fossil record indicating that the order was more diverse and more widespread than an examination of the extant members suggests, with considerable phenotypic diversity occurring early. The earliest fossil evidence is found in the Turonian - Campanian (late Cretaceous), suggesting a minimum age of 89.5  Myr . However, molecular divergence time estimation suggest an earlier time of 102–108 Myr, into

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