The Turonian is, in the ICS ' geologic timescale , the second age in the Late Cretaceous Epoch , or a stage in the Upper Cretaceous Series . It spans the time between 93.9 ± 0.8 Ma and 89.8 ± 1 Ma (million years ago). The Turonian is preceded by the Cenomanian Stage and underlies the Coniacian Stage.
105-599: At the beginning of the Turonian an oceanic anoxic event (OAE 2) took place, also referred to as the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the "Bonarelli Event". Sea level fall took place in the latter part of the Turonian from the highstand at the beginning of the Turonian. The Turonian (French: Turonien ) was defined by the French paleontologist Alcide d'Orbigny (1802–1857) in 1842. Orbigny named it after
210-548: A derivation with which they all agree. Wilhelm Deecke said: "[…] its etymology is doubtful but some derive it from the Ligurian-Celtish Pen or Ben , which means mountain peak." A large number of place names seem to reflect pen : Penarrig, Penbrynn, Pencoid, Penmon, Pentir, etc. or ben : Beanach, Benmore, Benabuird, Benan, Bencruachan, etc. In one derivation Pen/Ben is cognate with Old Irish cenn , 'head', but an original *kwen- would be required, which
315-485: A humid equator and higher weathering rates, and terminated by extinction events—for example, the Ireviken and Lau events . The inverse is true for the warmer, oxic "S-episodes" ( secundo ), where deep ocean sediments are typically graptolitic black shales. A typical cycle of secundo-primo episodes and ensuing event typically lasts around 3 Ma. The duration of events is so long compared to their onset because
420-422: A major change in the fertility of the oceans that resulted in an increase in organic-walled plankton (including bacteria) at the expense of calcareous plankton such as coccoliths and foraminifera . Such an accelerated flux of organic matter would have expanded and intensified the oxygen minimum zone , further enhancing the amount of organic carbon entering the sedimentary record. Essentially this mechanism assumes
525-643: A major increase in the availability of dissolved nutrients such as nitrate, phosphate and possibly iron to the phytoplankton population living in the illuminated layers of the oceans. For such an increase to occur would have required an accelerated influx of land-derived nutrients coupled with vigorous upwelling , requiring major climate change on a global scale. Geochemical data from oxygen- isotope ratios in carbonate sediments and fossils, and magnesium/calcium ratios in fossils, indicate that all major oceanic anoxic events were associated with thermal maxima, making it likely that global weathering rates, and nutrient flux to
630-544: A picked corps) on special police duty with a detachment of twenty men from the Ravenna fleet. Snow lies on the highest peaks of the Apennines for almost the whole year. The range produces no minerals, but there are a considerable number of good mineral springs , some of which are thermal (such as Bagni di Lucca , Montecatini , Monsummano , Porretta, Telese), while others are cool (such as Nocera, Sangemini , Cinciano),
735-723: A role in that mass extinction event, and possibly other extinction events. The trigger for these mass extinctions appears to be a warming of the ocean caused by a rise of carbon dioxide levels to about 1000 parts per million. Reduced oxygen levels are expected to lead to increased seawater concentrations of redox-sensitive metals. The reductive dissolution of iron – manganese oxyhydroxides in seafloor sediments under low-oxygen conditions would release those metals and associated trace metals. Sulfate reduction in such sediments could release other metals such as barium . When heavy-metal-rich anoxic deep water entered continental shelves and encountered increased O 2 levels, precipitation of some of
840-715: A series of tunnels have been constructed to conduct "the Bologna-Florence rail line", which is neither a single line nor a single tunnel. The Porrettana Line went into service in 1864, the Direttissima in 1934 and the High Speed in 1996. A few dozen tunnels support the three of them, the longest on the High-Speed Line being the Voglia Tunnel at 16.757 km (10.412 mi). The longest is on
945-465: A singular with plural meaning; Italian : Appennini [appenˈniːni] ) are a mountain range consisting of parallel smaller chains extending c. 1,200 km (750 mi) the length of peninsular Italy . In the northwest they join the Ligurian Alps at Altare . In the southwest they end at Reggio di Calabria , the coastal city at the tip of the peninsula. Since 2000
1050-435: A solid precipitated combination of methane and water much like ice. Because the methane hydrates are unstable, except at cool temperatures and high (deep) pressures, scientists have observed smaller outgassing events due to tectonic events. Studies suggest the huge release of natural gas could be a major climatological trigger, methane itself being a greenhouse gas many times more powerful than carbon dioxide. However, anoxia
1155-701: A stone marks the top of the pass. In the vicinity are fragments of the old road and three ruins of former fortifications. At Carcare , the main roads connect with the upper Bormida valley (Bormida di Mallare) before turning west. The Scrivia , the Trebbia and the Taro , tributaries of the Po River , drain the northeast slopes. The range contains dozens of peaks. Toward the southern end the Aveto Natural Regional Park includes Monte Penna . Nearby
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#17327656124021260-510: A time of low global temperatures (although CO 2 levels were high), in the midst of a glaciation. Jeppsson (1990) proposes a mechanism whereby the temperature of polar waters determines the site of formation of downwelling water. If the high latitude waters are below 5 °C (41 °F), they will be dense enough to sink; as they are cool, oxygen is highly soluble in their waters, and the deep ocean will be oxygenated. If high latitude waters are warmer than 5 °C (41 °F), their density
1365-701: Is also referred to as Kump's hypothesis. The concept of the oceanic anoxic event (OAE) was first proposed in 1976 by Seymour Schlanger (1927–1990) and geologist Hugh Jenkyns and arose from discoveries made by the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) in the Pacific Ocean. The finding of black, carbon-rich shales in Cretaceous sediments that had accumulated on submarine volcanic plateaus (e.g. Shatsky Rise , Manihiki Plateau ), coupled with their identical age to similar, cored deposits from
1470-606: Is at about 3,200 m (10,500 ft), leaving the Apennines below it, except for the one remaining glacier. Snow may fall from October to May. Rainfall increases with latitude. The range's climates, depending on elevation and latitude, are the Oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate . The mammal fauna is mainly composed of Italian wolves (endemic), Corsican hare , badgers , weasels , foxes , marmots , Etruscan shrew , Crested porcupine , European snow vole and Apennine shrews (endemic), Marsican brown bears (endemic),
1575-629: Is deep and separates the Apennines on the left bank from a lesser range, the Tuscan Anti-Apennines (Sub-Apennines) on its right. The Apennine System forms an irregular arc with centers of curvature located in the Tyrrhenian Sea. The northern and southern segments comprise parallel chains that can be viewed as single overall mountain ridges, such as the Ligurian Mountains. The center, being thicker and more complex,
1680-663: Is geologically divided into an inner and an outer arc with regard to the centers of curvature. The geologic definition, however, is not the same as the geographic. Based on rock type and orogenic incidents, the northern segment of the arc is divided into the Outer Northern Apennines (ONA) and the Inner Northern Apennines (INA). The Central Apennines are divided into the Umbrian–Marchean ( Appennino umbro-marchigiano ) or Roman Apennines in
1785-470: Is mainly grasslands of the Montane grasslands and shrublands biome; with Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests, and Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub below it. The tree line in the Apennines can be found in the range 1,600 m (5,200 ft) to 2,000 m (6,600 ft). About 5% of the map area covered by the Apennines is at or above the tree line—or in the treeline ecotone. The snow line
1890-544: Is part of the Monti Sibillini , incorporated into Parco Nazionale dei Monti Sibillini . Further north is the parco naturale regionale della Gola della Rossa e di Frasassi [ it ] , in which are the Gola della Rossa ("Red Gorge") and Frasassi Caves . Still further north is Parco Sasso Simone e Simoncello. The Italian Park Service calls it the "green heart" of Italy. The region is heavily forested , such as
1995-566: Is the Bocca Serriola Pass in northern Umbria , which links Fano and Città di Castello . The Tiber River at Rome flows from Monte Fumaiolo in the Tuscan-Romagnol Apennine from northeast to southwest, projecting into the Tyrrhenian Sea at right angles to the shore. The upper Tiber, however, flows from northwest to southeast, gradually turning through one right angle clockwise. The northern Tiber Valley
2100-834: Is the Italian sparrow . The reasons for this choice are related to the fact that the Italian wolf, which inhabits the Apennine Mountains and the Western Alps , features prominently in Latin and Italian cultures, such as in the legend of the founding of Rome . In Italy the transhumance took place mainly starting from the Abruzzi Apennines, moving both towards the Tuscan and Lazio Maremma and above all towards
2205-467: Is the fact that the prevailing conditions in so many Mesozoic oceans has helped produce most of the world's petroleum and natural gas reserves. During an oceanic anoxic event, the accumulation and preservation of organic matter was much greater than normal, allowing the generation of potential petroleum source rocks in many environments across the globe. Consequently, some 70 percent of oil source rocks are Mesozoic in age, and another 15 percent date from
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#17327656124022310-421: Is the highest point of Ligurian Apennines, Monte Maggiorasca at 1,800 m (5,900 ft). The main and only feasible overland route connecting the coastal plain of Liguria to the north Italian plain runs through Bocchetta di Altare. It has always been of strategic importance. Defenders of north Italy have had to control it since ancient times, as the various fortifications placed there testify. Trenitalia ,
2415-419: Is too low for them to sink below the cooler deep waters. Therefore, thermohaline circulation can only be driven by salt-increased density, which tends to form in warm waters where evaporation is high. This warm water can dissolve less oxygen, and is produced in smaller quantities, producing a sluggish circulation with little deep water oxygen. The effect of this warm water propagates through the ocean, and reduces
2520-479: Is typologically not found in languages that feature labio-velars . Windisch and Brugmann reconstructed Indo-European *kwi- , deriving also the Greek Pindus Mountains from the same root, but *kwen- < *kwi- is not explained by any rule. By some, English pin , as well as pen and Latin pinna or penna , 'feather' (in the sense of the horn of the quill), have been connected to
2625-515: The Alpine system . Prior to the explosion of data on the topic from about the year 2000, many authors took the approach that the Apennines had the same origin as the Alps. Even today, some authors use the term Alpine-Apennine system. They are not, however, the same system and did not have the same origin. The Alps were millions of years old before the Apennines rose from the sea. The northward movement of
2730-696: The Archean , euxinia was largely absent because of low availability of sulfate in the oceans, but during the Proterozoic, it would become more common. Several anoxic events are known from the late Neoproterozoic , including one from the early Nama assemblage possibly coinciding with the first pulse of the end-Ediacaran extinction . Apennine Mountains The Apennines or Apennine Mountains ( / ˈ æ p ə n aɪ n / AP -ə-nyne ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Ἀπέννινα ὄρη or Ἀπέννινον ὄρος; Latin : Appenninus or Apenninus Mons –
2835-628: The Aterno from the north-west and the Gizio from the south-east, is more important; and so is the Sangro . The central Apennines are crossed by the railway from Rome to Pescara via Avezzano and Sulmona: the railway from Orte to Terni (and thence to Foligno ) follows the Nera valley; while from Terni a line ascends to the plain of Rieti, and thence crosses the central chain to Aquila, whence it follows
2940-555: The Cenomanian – Turonian boundary (~93 Ma), also called the Bonarelli Event (or OAE2 ) after the Italian geologist Guido Bonarelli (1871–1951). OAE1a lasted for ~1.0 to 1.3 Myr. The duration of OAE2 is estimated to be ~820 kyr based on a high-resolution study of the significantly expanded OAE2 interval in southern Tibet, China. More minor oceanic anoxic events have been proposed for other intervals in
3045-728: The Eurasian eagle-owl There are also numerous amphibians such as the Apennine yellow-bellied toad (endemic), the Italian cave salamander (endemic), the Italian newt (endemic), the Italian stream frog (endemic) and the Spectacled salamander (endemic), the Italian tree frog (endemic), the Agile frog , the Italian edible frog (endemic), the Common toad , the Balearic green toad ,
3150-684: The European fallow deer , the European mouflon and the Pyrenean chamois . There are also numerous birds such as the golden eagle , the Bonelli's eagle , the Eurasian goshawk , the hoopoe , the hawk , the European roller , the White-backed woodpecker , the European green woodpecker , the Alpine chough , the Egyptian vulture , the European nightjar , the Italian sparrow (endemic) and
3255-643: The Ligurian Sea in the Gulf of Genoa , from about Savona below the upper Bormida River valley to about La Spezia ( La Cisa pass ) below the upper Magra River valley. The range follows the Gulf of Genoa separating it from the upper Po Valley . The northwestern border follows the line of the Bormida River to Acqui Terme . There the river continues northeast to Alessandria in the Po Valley , but
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3360-703: The Majella Massif. Among them are two national parks: Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park and Majella National Park ; and the Regional Park of the Monti Simbruini. Gran Sasso contains Corno Grande , the highest peak of the Apennines (2912 m). Other features between the western and central ranges are the plain of Rieti , the valley of the Salto, and the Lago Fucino ; while between
3465-838: The Northern spectacled salamander (endemic), the Fire salamander , the Smooth newt , the Alpine newt , and the Italian crested newt . The reptile fauna is mainly composed of suc as the Italian Aesculapian snake (endemic), the Dice snake , the Green whip snake , the Aesculapian snake , the Smooth snake , the Vipera ursinii , the Vipera aspis , the Italian wall lizard (endemic),
3570-531: The Paleozoic and Mesozoic . The early Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian anoxic events correlate with the Toarcian and Cenomanian-Turonian extinction events of mostly marine life forms. Apart from possible atmospheric effects, many deeper-dwelling marine organisms could not adapt to an ocean where oxygen penetrated only the surface layers. An economically significant consequence of oceanic anoxic events
3675-486: The Po Valley in northern Italy. Compressional forces have been acting from north to south in the Alps and from south to north in the Apennines, but instead of being squeezed into mountains the valley has been subsiding at 1 to 4 mm (0.16 in) per year since about 25 mya , before the Apennines existed. It is now known to be not an erosional feature, but is a filled portion of the Adriatic Trench, called
3780-513: The Podarcis muralis , the European green lizard . Notable Apennine freshwater fishes are the Brook lamprey (endemic), Lombardy lamprey , Italian bleak (endemic), Horse barbel (endemic), Eurasian carp , Scardola scardafa (endemic), European perch , Chubius Chub , Tench and Northern pike . The Italian wolf is the national animal of Italy, while the national bird of the country
3885-1234: The Pollino National Park , the Vesuvius National Park , the Cilento, Vallo di Diano and Alburni National Park , the Appennino Lucano - Val d'Agri - Lagonegrese National Park , the Sila National Park , the Aspromonte National Park . Important rivers originate from the Apennines are the Panaro , the Secchia , the Reno , the Marecchia , the Rubicon , the Metauro , the Arno , the Tiber ,
3990-959: The Savio , the Nera , the Velino , the Tronto , the Aterno-Pescara , the Aniene , the Liri , the Sangro and the Volturno . Among the lakes of glacial origin of the Alpine type is Lago di Pilato . The Apennines were created in the Apennine orogeny beginning in the early Neogene (about 20 mya , the middle Miocene ) and continuing today. Geographically they are partially (or appear to be) continuous with
4095-399: The Tavoliere delle Puglie . The Apennines are to some extent covered with forests, though these were probably more extensive in classical times ( Pliny mentions especially pine , oak and beech woods, Hist. Nat . xvi. 177); they have indeed been greatly reduced in comparatively modern times by indiscriminate timber-felling, and though serious attempts at reforestation have been made by
4200-508: The geologic record shows that they happened many times in the past. Anoxic events coincided with several mass extinctions and may have contributed to them. These mass extinctions include some that geobiologists use as time markers in biostratigraphic dating. On the other hand, there are widespread, various black-shale beds from the mid-Cretaceous which indicate anoxic events but are not associated with mass extinctions. Many geologists believe oceanic anoxic events are strongly linked to
4305-469: The greenhouse effect ; global weathering rates and fluvial nutrient flux increase; organic productivity in the oceans increases; organic- carbon burial in the oceans increases (OAE begins); carbon dioxide is drawn down due to both burial of organic matter and weathering of silicate rocks (inverse greenhouse effect); global temperatures fall, and the ocean–atmosphere system returns to equilibrium (OAE ends). In this way, an oceanic anoxic event can be viewed as
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4410-409: The orogeny . These extend in a northwest–southeast direction from the River Tronto to the River Sangro , which drain into the Adriatic . The coastal hills of the east extend between San Benedetto del Tronto in the north and Torino di Sangro in the south. The eastern chain consists mainly of the southern part of the Monti Sibillini , the Monti della Laga , the Gran Sasso d'Italia Massif and
4515-421: The African Plate and its collision with the European Plate then caused the Alpine Orogeny , beginning in the late Mesozoic. The band of mountains created extends from Spain to Turkey in a roughly east–west direction and includes the Alps. The Apennines are much younger, extend from northwest to southeast, and are not a displacement of the Alpine chain. The key evidence of the difference is the geologic behavior of
4620-538: The Apennine range, and so are Cilento hills on the west. On the converse the promontory of Mount Gargano , on the east, is completely isolated, and so are the Campanian volcanic arc near Naples . The district is traversed from north-west to south-east by the railway from Sulmona to Benevento and on to Avellino , and from south-west to northeast by the railways from Caianello via Isernia to Campobasso and Termoli, from Caserta to Benevento and Foggia, and from Nocera Inferiore and Avellino to Rocchetta Sant'Antonio,
4725-442: The Atlantic Ocean and known outcrops in Europe—particularly in the geological record of the otherwise limestone-dominated Apennines chain in Italy—led to the observation that these widespread, similarly distinct strata recorded very unusual, oxygen-depleted conditions in the world's oceans spanning several discrete periods of geological time . Modern sedimentological investigations of these organic-rich sediments typically reveal
4830-435: The Calabrian southern Apennine Mountains extend along the northern coast of Sicily (the Sicilian Apennines, Italian Appennino siculo )— Pizzo Carbonara (6,493 feet (1,979 m)) being the highest peak. The number of vascular plant species in the Apennines has been estimated at 5,599. Of these, 728 (23.6%) are in the treeline ecotone . Hemicryptophytes predominate in the entire Apennine chain. The tree line ecotone
4935-423: The Cretaceous (in the Valanginian , Hauterivian , Albian and Coniacian – Santonian stages), but their sedimentary record, as represented by organic-rich black shales, appears more parochial, being dominantly represented in the Atlantic and neighbouring areas, and some researchers relate them to particular local conditions rather than being forced by global change. The only oceanic anoxic event documented from
5040-434: The Direttissima, the Great Apennine Tunnel, which at 18.5 kilometres (11.5 miles) is the longest entirely within Italy, although the Simplon Tunnel , which connects Italy and Switzerland, is longer. Automobile traffic is carried by the Autostrada del Sole, Route A1, which goes through numerous shorter tunnels, bypassing an old road, originally Roman, through Futa Pass. In December 2015, a new Route A1 called Variante di Valico
5145-471: The Earth's response to the injection of excess carbon dioxide into the atmosphere and hydrosphere . One test of this notion is to look at the age of large igneous provinces (LIPs), the extrusion of which would presumably have been accompanied by rapid effusion of vast quantities of volcanogenic gases such as carbon dioxide. The age of three LIPs ( Karoo-Ferrar flood basalt, Caribbean large igneous province , Ontong Java Plateau ) correlates well with that of
5250-429: The Environment Ministry of Italy, following the recommendations of the Apennines Park of Europe Project, has defined the Apennines System to include the mountains of north Sicily , a total distance of 1,500 kilometres (930 mi) . The system forms an arc enclosing the east of the Ligurian and Tyrrhenian seas. The Apennines conserve some intact ecosystems that have survived human intervention. In these are some of
5355-492: The French city of Tours in the region of Touraine (department Indre-et-Loire ), which is the original type locality . The base of the Turonian Stage is defined as the place where the ammonite species Watinoceras devonense first appears in the stratigraphic column . The official reference profile (the GSSP ) for the base of the Turonian is located in the Rock Canyon anticline near Pueblo, Colorado (United States, coordinates: 38° 16' 56" N, 104° 43' 39" W). The top of
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#17327656124025460-434: The Greeks and Sicilians with timber for shipbuilding. The railway from South Eufemia to Catanzaro and Catanzaro Marina crosses the isthmus, and an ancient road may have run from Squillace to Monteleone. The second group extends to the south end of the Italian Peninsula , culminating in the Aspromonte (1,960 metres (6,420 ft)) to the east of Reggio di Calabria . In both groups the rivers are quite unimportant. Finally,
5565-414: The Jurassic and Cretaceous are generally thought to have been relatively warm, and consequently dissolved oxygen levels in the ocean were lower than today—making anoxia easier to achieve. However, more specific conditions are required to explain the short-period (less than a million years) oceanic anoxic events. Two hypotheses, and variations upon them, have proved most durable. One hypothesis suggests that
5670-461: The Jurassic took place during the early Toarcian (~183 Ma). Since no DSDP ( Deep Sea Drilling Project ) or ODP ( Ocean Drilling Program ) cores have recovered black shales of this age—there being little or no Toarcian ocean crust remaining—the samples of black shale primarily come from outcrops on land. These outcrops, together with material from some commercial oil wells, are found on all major continents and this event seems similar in kind to
5775-411: The Late Bronze Age as it is defined in Greece and the Aegean. The people of the Apennine culture were alpine cattle herdsmen grazing their animals over the meadows and groves of mountainous central Italy. They lived in small hamlets located in defensible places. On the move between summer pastures they built temporary camps or lived in caves and rock shelters. Their range was not necessarily confined to
5880-414: The Ligurian Apennines are in Liguria . The etymology most frequently repeated, because of its semantic appropriateness, is that it derives from the Celtic penn , 'mountain', 'summit': A-penn-inus , which could have been assigned during the Celtic domination of north Italy in the 4th century BC or before. The name originally applied to the north Apennines. However historical linguists have never found
5985-487: The Riserva Naturale Statale Gola del Furlo, where Furlo Pass on the Via Flaminia is located. Both the Etruscans and the Romans constructed tunnels here. The Abruzzi Apennines, located in Abruzzo , Molise and southeastern Lazio , contain the highest peaks and most rugged terrain of the Apennines. They are known in history as the territory of the Italic peoples first defeated by the city of Rome . Coincidentally they exist in three parallel folds or chains surviving from
6090-410: The Romans used the Via Flaminia between Rome and Rimini . The montane distance between Florence in Tuscany and Bologna in Emilia-Romagna is shorter, but exploitation of it required the conquest of more rugged terrain, which was not feasible for the ancients. Railway lines were constructed over the mountains in the early 19th century but they were of low capacity and unimprovable. Since 1856,
6195-411: The Sele—joined by the Negro and Calore—on the west, and the Bradano , Basento , Agri, Sinni on the east, which flow into the gulf of Taranto; to the south of the last-named river there are only unimportant streams flowing into the sea east and west, inasmuch as here the width of the peninsula diminishes to some 64 kilometres (40 mi). The railway running south from Sicignano to Lagonegro, ascending
6300-402: The Turonian Stage (the base of the Coniacian) is defined as the place in the stratigraphic column where the inoceramid bivalve species Cremnoceramus rotundatus first appears. The Turonian is sometimes subdivided in Lower/Early, Middle and Upper/Late substages or subages. In the Tethys domain , it contains the following ammonite biozones : Other important index fossils are species of
6405-439: The Tuscan Apennines. They extend to the upper Tiber River . The highest point is Monte Cimone at 2,165 m (7,103 ft). A separate branch, the Apuan Alps , goes southwest, bordering the coast south of La Spezia . Whether they are to be considered part of the Apennines is a matter of opinion; certainly, they are part of the Apennine System. Topographically only the valley of the River Serchio , which running parallel to
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#17327656124026510-548: The amount of CO 2 that the oceans can hold in solution, which makes the oceans release large quantities of CO 2 into the atmosphere in a geologically short time (tens or thousands of years). The warm waters also initiate the release of clathrates , which further increases atmospheric temperature and basin anoxia. Similar positive feedbacks operate during cold-pole episodes, amplifying their cooling effects. The periods with cold poles are termed "P-episodes" (short for primo ), and are characterised by bioturbated deep oceans,
6615-426: The anomalous accumulation of organic matter relates to its enhanced preservation under restricted and poorly oxygenated conditions, which themselves were a function of the particular geometry of the ocean basin: such a hypothesis, although readily applicable to the young and relatively narrow Cretaceous Atlantic (which could be likened to a large-scale Black Sea, only poorly connected to the World Ocean), fails to explain
6720-399: The best-preserved forests and montane grasslands in Europe, now protected by national parks and, within them, a high diversity of flora and fauna. These mountains are one of the last refuges of the big European predators such as the Italian wolf and the Marsican brown bear , now extinct in the rest of Central Europe . The mountains lend their name to the Apennine peninsula that forms
6825-516: The buildup of CO 2 in the atmosphere and increased global temperatures, causing an accelerated hydrological cycle that introduced nutrients into the oceans (stimulating planktonic productivity). These processes potentially acted as a trigger for euxinia in restricted basins where water-column stratification could develop. Under anoxic to euxinic conditions, oceanic phosphate is not retained in sediment and could hence be released and recycled, aiding perpetual high productivity. Temperatures throughout
6930-461: The central and eastern ranges are the valleys of Aquila and Sulmona . The chief rivers on the west are the Nera , with its tributaries the Velino and Salto, and the Aniene , both of which fall into the Tiber. On the east there is at first a succession of small rivers which flow into the Adriatic , from which the highest points of the chain are some 20 km distant, such as the Tronto , Tordino, Vomano and others. The Pescara , which receives
7035-480: The coast turns and exits into the Tyrrhenian Sea north of Pisa , separates the Apuan Alps from the Apennines; geologically the rock is of a slightly different composition, marble . The Roman marble industry was centered at Luna , and is now active in Carrara . As the Tuscan Apennines divide the peninsula between the Po Valley and the plains and hills of Tuscany and Lazio , transportation over them has been used to achieve political and economic unity. Historically
7140-404: The current period , are just 13 °C (55 °F) in comparison. Such rises in carbon dioxide may have been in response to a great outgassing of the highly flammable natural gas (methane) that some call an "oceanic burp". Vast quantities of methane are normally locked into the Earth's crust on the continental plateaus in one of the many deposits consisting of compounds of methane hydrate ,
7245-423: The government, much remains to be done. They also furnish considerable summer pastures, especially in the Abruzzi : Pliny ( Hist. Nat . xi. 240) praises the cheese of the Apennines. In the forests Italian wolves were frequent, and still are found, the flocks being protected against them by large sheep-dogs; Marsican brown bears , however, which were known in Roman times, have almost entirely disappeared. Nor are
7350-429: The hills; their pottery has been found on the Capitoline Hill in Rome as well as on the islands mentioned above. The Apennines are divided into three sectors: northern ( Appennino settentrionale ), central ( Appennino centrale ), and southern ( Appennino meridionale ). A number of long hiking trails wind through the Apennines. Of note is European walking route E1 coming from northern Europe and traversing
7455-521: The hydrogen sulfide rose to the upper atmosphere and attacked the ozone layer , which normally blocks the deadly ultraviolet radiation of the Sun . The increased UV radiation caused by this ozone depletion would have amplified the destruction of plant and animal life. Fossil spores from strata recording the Permian–Triassic extinction event show deformities consistent with UV radiation. This evidence, combined with fossil biomarkers of green sulfur bacteria , indicates that this process could have played
7560-432: The inoceramid genus Inoceramus ( I. schloenbachi , I. lamarcki and I. labiatus ). Inoceramids are bivalve Mollusca related to today's mussels . Anoxic event An anoxic event describes a period wherein large expanses of Earth's oceans were depleted of dissolved oxygen (O 2 ) , creating toxic, euxinic ( anoxic and sulfidic ) waters. Although anoxic events have not happened for millions of years,
7665-645: The junction for Foggia, Spinazzola (for Barletta, Bari, and Taranto ) and Potenza. Roman roads followed the same lines as the railways: the Via Appia ran from Capua to Benevento, whence the older road went to Venosa and Taranto and so to Brindisi , while the Via Traiana ran nearly to Troia (near Foggia) and thence to Bari. The valley of the Ofanto , which runs into the Adriatic close to Barletta , marks
7770-526: The lengths of the northern and central Apennines. The Grand Italian Trail begins in Trieste and after winding through the Alpine arc traverses the entire Apennine system, Sicily and Sardinia. The northern Apennines consist of three subchains : the Ligurian ( Appennino ligure ), Tuscan-Emilian ( Appennino tosco-emiliano ), and Umbrian Apennines ( Appennino umbro ). The Ligurian Apennines border
7875-409: The major Jurassic (early Toarcian ) and Cretaceous (early Aptian and Cenomanian–Turonian ) oceanic anoxic events, indicating that a causal link is feasible. Oceanic anoxic events most commonly occurred during periods of very warm climate characterized by high levels of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and mean surface temperatures probably in excess of 25 °C (77 °F). The Quaternary levels,
7980-508: The major part of Italy. They are mostly verdant, although one side of the highest peak, Corno Grande , is partially covered by Calderone glacier , the only glacier in the Apennines. The eastern slopes down to the Adriatic Sea are steep, whilst the western slopes form foothills on which most of the towns of peninsular Italy are located. The mountains tend to be named after the province or provinces in which they are located; for example
8085-485: The metals, as well as poisoning of the local biota, would have occurred. In the late Silurian mid- Pridoli event, increases are seen in the Fe, Cu, As, Al, Pb, Ba, Mo and Mn levels in shallow-water sediment and microplankton; this is associated with a marked increase in the malformation rate in chitinozoans and other microplankton types, likely due to metal toxicity . Similar metal enrichment has been reported in sediments from
8190-584: The mid-Silurian Ireviken event . Sulfidic (or euxinic) conditions, which exist today in many water bodies from ponds to various land-surrounded mediterranean seas such as the Black Sea , were particularly prevalent in the Cretaceous Atlantic but also characterised other parts of the world ocean. In an ice-free sea of these supposed super-greenhouse worlds, oceanic waters were as much as 200 metres (660 ft) higher, in some eras. During
8295-649: The mountains bend away to the southeast. The upper Bormida can be reached by a number of roads proceeding inland at a right angle to the coast southwest of Savona , the chief one being the Autostrada Torino-Savona. They ascend to the Bocchetta di Altare , sometimes called Colle di Cadibona , 436 m (1,430 ft), the border between the Ligurian Alps along the coast to the west and the Ligurian Apennines. A bronze plaque fixed to
8400-605: The name. This view has the word originating in Latium inconsistently with the theory of the northern origin. None of these derivations is accepted unquestionably. The Apennine culture is a technology complex in central and southern Italy from the Italian Middle Bronze Age (15th–14th centuries BC). In the mid-20th century the Apennine was divided into Proto-, Early, Middle and Late sub- phases , but now archaeologists prefer to consider as "Apennine" only
8505-587: The north and the Abruzzi Apennines ( Appennino abruzzese ) in the south. It extends from Bocca Serriola pass in the north to Forlì pass in the south. The west border of the Umbria-Marche Apennines (or Appennino umbro-marchigiano )) runs through Cagli . They extend south to the Tronto River, the south border of the ONA. The highest peak, Monte Vettore , at 2,478 m (8,130 ft),
8610-649: The northern termination of the first range of the Lucanian Apennines (now Basilicata ), which runs from east to west, while south of the valleys of the Sele (on the west) and Basento (on the east)—which form the line followed by the railway from Battipaglia via Potenza to Metaponto —the second range begins to run due north and south as far as the plain of Sibari . The highest point is the Monte Pollino 2,233 metres (7,325 ft). The chief rivers are
8715-541: The occurrence of coeval black shales on open-ocean Pacific plateaus and shelf seas around the world. There are suggestions, again from the Atlantic, that a shift in oceanic circulation was responsible, where warm, salty waters at low latitudes became hypersaline and sank to form an intermediate layer, at 500 to 1,000 m (1,640 to 3,281 ft) depth, with a temperature of 20 to 25 °C (68 to 77 °F). The second hypothesis suggests that oceanic anoxic events record
8820-486: The oceans, were increased during these intervals. Indeed, the reduced solubility of oxygen would lead to phosphate release, further nourishing the ocean and fuelling high productivity, hence a high oxygen demand—sustaining the event through a positive feedback. Another way to explain anoxic events is that the Earth releases a huge volume of carbon dioxide during an interval of intense volcanism; global temperatures rise due to
8925-750: The ornamental pottery style of the later phase of Middle Bronze Age (BM3). This phase is preceded by the Grotta Nuova facies (central Italy) and by the Protoapennine B facies (southern Italy) and succeeded by the Subapennine facies of 13th-century ("Bronzo Recente"). Apennine pottery is a burnished ware incised with spirals, meanders and geometrical zones, filled with dots or transverse dashes. It has been found on Ischia island in association with LHII and LHIII pottery and on Lipari in association with LHIIIA pottery, which associations date it to
9030-477: The oxygenated upper layers. Detailed stratigraphic studies of Cretaceous black shales from many parts of the world have indicated that two oceanic anoxic events (OAEs) were particularly significant in terms of their impact on the chemistry of the oceans, one in the early Aptian (~120 Ma), sometimes called the Selli Event (or OAE 1a) after the Italian geologist Raimondo Selli (1916–1983), and another at
9135-479: The photic upper-water column. This is a recent understanding, the puzzle having been pieced slowly together in the last three decades. The handful of known and suspected anoxic events have been tied geologically to large-scale production of the world's oil reserves in worldwide bands of black shale in the geologic record . Anoxic events with euxinic (anoxic, sulfidic) conditions have been linked to extreme episodes of volcanic outgassing. Volcanism contributed to
9240-468: The positive feedbacks must be overwhelmed. Carbon content in the ocean-atmosphere system is affected by changes in weathering rates, which in turn is dominantly controlled by rainfall. Because this is inversely related to temperature in Silurian times, carbon is gradually drawn down during warm (high CO 2 ) S-episodes, while the reverse is true during P-episodes. On top of this gradual trend is overprinted
9345-529: The presence of fine laminations undisturbed by bottom-dwelling fauna, indicating anoxic conditions on the seafloor believed to coincide with a low-lying poisonous layer of hydrogen sulfide, H 2 S . Furthermore, detailed organic geochemical studies have recently revealed the presence of molecules (so-called biomarkers) that derive from both purple sulfur bacteria and green sulfur bacteria —organisms that required both light and free hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S), illustrating that anoxic conditions extended high into
9450-541: The sea, occurs on the east coast, extending halfway across the peninsula. Here the limestone Apennines proper cease and the granite mountains of Calabria begin. The first group extends as far as the isthmus formed by the gulfs of South Eufemia and Squillace; it is known as the Sila, and the highest point reached is 1,930 metres (6,330 ft) (the Botte Donato ). The forests which covered it in ancient times supplied
9555-703: The signal of Milankovic cycles , which ultimately trigger the switch between P- and S- episodes. These events become longer during the Devonian; the enlarging land plant biota probably acted as a large buffer to carbon dioxide concentrations. The end-Ordovician Hirnantian event may alternatively be a result of algal blooms, caused by sudden supply of nutrients through wind-driven upwelling or an influx of nutrient-rich meltwater from melting glaciers, which by virtue of its fresh nature would also slow down oceanic circulation. It has been thought that through most of Earth's history, oceans were largely oxygen-deficient. During
9660-635: The slowing of ocean circulation, climatic warming, and elevated levels of greenhouse gases . Researchers have proposed enhanced volcanism (the release of CO 2 ) as the "central external trigger for euxinia." Human activities in the Holocene epoch , such as the release of nutrients from farms and sewage, cause relatively small-scale dead zones around the world. British oceanologist and atmospheric scientist Andrew Watson says full-scale ocean anoxia would take "thousands of years to develop." The idea that modern climate change could lead to such an event
9765-568: The state railway system, highly developed on the coastal plain, now traverses the mountains routinely through a number of railway tunnels, such as the one at Giovi Pass . The southeastern border of the Ligurian Apennines is the Fiume Magra , which projects into the Tyrrhenian Sea south of La Spezia , and the Fiume Taro , which runs in the opposite direction to join the Po. The divide between
9870-679: The three parallel chains are broken up into smaller groups; among them may be named the Matese , the highest point of which is the Monte Miletto 2,050 metres (6,725 ft). The chief rivers on the south-west are the Liri or Garigliano with its tributary the Sacco, the Volturno , Sebeto, Sarno, on the north the Trigno, Biferno and Fortore . Daunian mountains , in Apulia , are connected with
9975-483: The timespans in question, the continental plates are believed to have been well separated, and the mountains as they are known today were (mostly) future tectonic events—meaning the overall landscapes were generally much lower— and even the half super-greenhouse climates would have been eras of highly expedited water erosion carrying massive amounts of nutrients into the world oceans fuelling an overall explosive population of microorganisms and their predator species in
10080-529: The two major Cretaceous examples. The Permian–Triassic extinction event , triggered by runaway CO 2 from the Siberian Traps, was marked by ocean deoxygenation . The boundary between the Ordovician and Silurian periods is marked by repetitive periods of anoxia, interspersed with normal, oxic conditions. In addition, anoxic periods are found during the Silurian. These anoxic periods occurred at
10185-794: The two upper river valleys is the Cisa Pass . Under it (in two tunnels) runs the Autostrada della Cisa between Spezia and Parma . Starting at Cisa Pass , the mountain chain turns further to the southeast, to cross the peninsula along the border between the Emilia-Romagna and Tuscany regions. They are named the Tuscan–Emilian Apennines west of the Futa Pass and the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines east of it, or just
10290-749: The valley of the Aterno to Sulmona. In ancient times the Via Salaria , Via Caecilia and Via Tiburtina all ran from Rome to the Adriatic coast . The volcanic mountains of the province of Rome are separated from the Apennines by the Tiber valley, and the Monti Lepini , part of the Volscian chain, by the valleys of the Sacco and Liri . In the southern Apennines, to the south of the Sangro valley,
10395-469: The valley of the Negro, is planned to extend to Cosenza, along the line followed by the ancient Via Popilia, which beyond Cosenza reached the west coast at Terina and thence followed it to Reggio. The Via Herculia [ it ] , a branch of the Via Traiana , ran from Aequum Tuticum to the ancient Nerulum . At the narrowest point the plain of Sibari, through which the rivers Coscile and Crati flow to
10500-533: The warm Paleogene: only rarely in colder periods were conditions favorable for the production of source rocks on anything other than a local scale. A model put forward by Lee Kump, Alexander Pavlov and Michael Arthur in 2005 suggests that oceanic anoxic events may have been characterized by upwelling of water rich in highly toxic hydrogen sulfide gas, which was then released into the atmosphere. This phenomenon would probably have poisoned plants and animals and caused mass extinctions. Furthermore, it has been proposed that
10605-851: The water of which is both drunk on the spot and sold as table water elsewhere. The Apennines are home to twelve Italian national parks : the Appennino Tosco-Emiliano National Park , the Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park , the Monti Sibillini National Park , the Gran Sasso e Monti della Laga National Park , the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park , the Maiella National Park ,
10710-556: The wild goats called rotae , spoken of by Marcus Terentius Varro ( Rerum rusticarum II. i. 5), which may have been either Pyrenean chamois or steinbock , to be found. Brigandage appears to have been prevalent in Roman times in the more remote parts of the Apennines, as it was until recently. An inscription found near the Furlo pass was set up in AD 246 by an evocatus Augusti (a member of
10815-496: Was also rife during the Hirnantian (late Ordovician) ice age. Oceanic anoxic events have been recognized primarily from the already warm Cretaceous and Jurassic Periods , when numerous examples have been documented, but earlier examples have been suggested to have occurred in the late Triassic , Permian , Devonian ( Kellwasser event ), Ordovician and Cambrian . The Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which
10920-414: Was characterized by a global rise in temperature and deposition of organic-rich shales in some shelf seas, shows many similarities to oceanic anoxic events. Typically, oceanic anoxic events lasted for less than a million years, before a full recovery. Oceanic anoxic events have had many important consequences. It is believed that they have been responsible for mass extinctions of marine organisms both in
11025-402: Was opened after many years of construction consisting of major tunnels (the longest being the new 8.6-kilometre (5.3-mile) 'Tunel Base') and new overpasses, shortening the traveling time between Florence and Bologna by road. The Foreste Casentinesi, Monte Falterona, Campigna National Park is in the southern part of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines. The southern limit of the Tuscan–Romagnol Apennines
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