121-603: The Sabarimala Sree Dharma Sastha Temple ( Malayalam pronunciation: [ʃabəɾimala] ) is a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Ayyappan , who is also known as Dharma Shasta and is the son of the deities Shiva and Mohini (female avatar of the god Vishnu ). The temple is situated atop the Sabarimala hill in the village of Ranni-Perunad, within the Ranni Taluk of the Pathanamthitta district in
242-444: A Vishnu temple, Krishna temple, Rama temple, Narayana temple, Shiva temple, Lakshmi temple, Ganesha temple, Durga temple, Hanuman temple, Surya temple, etc. It is this garbha-griya which devotees seek for darsana (literally, a sight of knowledge, or vision ). Above the vastu-purusha-mandala is a superstructure with a dome called Shikhara in north India, and Vimana in south India, that stretches towards
363-413: A Vratham (a 41-day austerity period) prior to the pilgrimage. This begins with wearing a special Mala (a neck chain made of Rudraksha or Tulasi beads is commonly used, although other types of chains are also available). During the 41 days of Vratham, the devotee who has taken the vow is required to strictly follow the rules that include following only a lacto-vegetarian diet (In India, vegetarianism
484-422: A Hindu temple project would start with a Yajamana (patron), and include a Sthapaka (guru, spiritual guide and architect-priest), a Sthapati (architect) who would design the building, a Sutragrahin (surveyor), and many Vardhakins (workers, masons, painters, plasterers, overseers) and Taksakas (sculptors). While the temple is under construction, all those working on the temple were revered and considered sacerdotal by
605-619: A Hindu yogin, states Gopinath Rao, one who has realised the Self and the Universal Principle within himself, there is no need for any temple or divine image for worship. However, for those who have yet to reach this height of realization, various symbolic manifestations through images, murtis and icons as well as mental modes of worship are offered as one of the spiritual paths in the Hindu way of life. Some ancient Hindu scriptures like
726-500: A UNESCO World Heritage site. The Indian rock-cut architecture evolved in Maharashtran temple style in the 1st millennium CE. The temples are carved from a single piece of rock as a complete temple or carved in a cave to look like the interior of a temple. Ellora Temple is an example of the former, while The Elephanta Caves are representative of the latter style. The Elephanta Caves consist of two groups of caves—the first
847-511: A bed and meal to pilgrims. They relied on any voluntary donation the visitor may leave and to land grants from local rulers. Some temples have operated their kitchens on a daily basis to serve the visitor and the needy, while others during major community gatherings or festivals. Examples include the major kitchens run by Hindu temples in Udupi (Karnataka), Puri (Odisha) and Tirupati (Andhra Pradesh). The tradition of sharing food in smaller temple
968-488: A brief introduction to 12 types of Hindu temples. Other texts, such as Pancaratra Prasada Prasadhana compiled by Daniel Smith and Silpa Ratnakara compiled by Narmada Sankara provide a more extensive list of Hindu temple types. Ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple construction discovered in Rajasthan, in northwestern region of India, include Sutradhara Mandana's Prasadamandana (literally, manual for planning and building
1089-501: A devotee lives in a palace or humble hut, whether he is erudite or ignorant (...) neither see caste nor color. You will only see the true bhakti (...) I do not have anything to offer other than my heart, but here are some berries. May it please you, my Lord." Shabari offered the fruits which she had meticulously collected. As Rama tasted them, Lakshmana raised the concern that Shabari had already tasted them and they were, therefore, unworthy of eating . To this, Rama responded that, of
1210-593: A half feet tall. Neelakanta Panicker and his younger brother, Ayyappa Panicker, who are members of the Thattavila Vishwakarma family in Chengannur, Kerala, created the Panchaloha idol to replace the original stone statue of the deity. Edavankadan T.N. Padmanabhan Achari from Mavaelikkara was appointed the supervisor in charge of the new idol by Maharaja Sree Chithira Tirunaal Balarama Varma. In
1331-502: A house or a palace. A house-themed temple is a simple shelter that serves as a deity's home. The temple is a place where the devotee visits, just like he or she would visit a friend or relative. The use of moveable and immoveable images is mentioned by Pāṇini . In the Bhakti school of Hinduism, temples are venues for puja , which is a hospitality ritual, where the deity is honored, and where devotee calls upon, attends to and connects with
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#17327719247451452-446: A main temple surrounded by smaller temples and shrines, but these are still arranged by principles of symmetry, grids and mathematical precision. An important principle found in the layout of Hindu temples is mirroring and repeating fractal-like design structure, each unique yet also repeating the central common principle, one which Susan Lewandowski refers to as "an organism of repeating cells". The ancient texts on Hindu temple design,
1573-527: A million devotees flow to Sabarimala every year to have a darshan (vision) of this ritual this day. This is a star that appears at the moment of Makar Sankranti, before the holy arti and the lighting of the Makaravilakku at Ponnambalamedu. It is the custom that after seeing the Makarajyoti star, the lighting of the Makaravilakku shall begin. The most important message written at the temple facade
1694-460: A mosque in Erumely dedicated to Vavar , a Muslim saint who according to tradition was devotee of Ayyappan. Millions of devotees still follow the traditional mountainous forest path (approximately 61 km) from Erumely , 12.8 km from Vandiperiyar and 8 km from Chalakayam, believed to be taken by Ayyappa himself. The Erumely route starts from Erumely to Aludha river, then crosses
1815-601: A natural source of water is not present. Here too, they recommend that a pond be built preferably in front or to the left of the temple with water gardens. If water is neither present naturally nor by design, water is symbolically present at the consecration of the temple or the deity. Temples may also be built, suggests Visnudharmottara in Part III of Chapter 93, inside caves and carved stones, on hill tops affording peaceful views, on mountain slopes overlooking beautiful valleys, inside forests and hermitages, next to gardens, or at
1936-455: A number of ways. For example, one method of classification is the dimensionality of completion: Another way of classification is by the expressive state of the image: A Hindu temple may or may not include a murti or images, but larger temples usually do. Personal Hindu temples at home or a hermitage may have a pada for yoga or meditation, but be devoid of anthropomorphic representations of god. Nature or others arts may surround him or her. To
2057-452: A sacred space. It represents the triple-knowledge (trayi- vidya ) of the Vedic vision by mapping the relationships between the cosmos ( brahmaṇḍa ) and the cell (pinda) by a unique plan based on astronomical numbers. Subhash Kak sees the temple form and its iconography to be a natural expansion of Vedic ideology related to recursion, change and equivalence. In ancient Indian texts, a temple
2178-437: A social meaning. Some temples have served as a venue to mark festivals, to celebrate arts through dance and music, to get married or commemorate marriages, the birth of a child, other significant life events or the death of a loved one. In political and economic life, Hindu temples have served as a venue for succession within dynasties and landmarks around which economic activity thrived. Almost all Hindu temples take two forms:
2299-400: A symbolic product of knowledge and human thought, while the circle is considered earthly, human and observed in everyday life (moon, sun, horizon, water drop, rainbow). Each supports the other. The square is divided into perfect 64 (or in some cases 81) sub-squares called padas. Each pada is conceptually assigned to a symbolic element, sometimes in the form of a deity. The central square(s) of
2420-500: A temple). Manasara , a text of South Indian origin, estimated to be in circulation by the 7th century CE, is a guidebook on South Indian temple design and construction. Isanasivagurudeva paddhati is another Sanskrit text from the 9th century describing the art of temple building in India in south and central India. In north India, Brihat-samhita by Varāhamihira is the widely cited ancient Sanskrit manual from 6th century describing
2541-693: Is Shasta . All these can be seen merged into the beliefs of pilgrims to Sabarimala. The chain the pilgrims wear comes from the Rudraksha chain of the Shaivites. The strict fasting, penance and continence is taken out of the beliefs of the Vaishnavites. The offering of tobacco to Kaduthaswamy can be considered to be taken from the Shaktists. The duration of the pilgrimage to the Sabarimala temple
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#17327719247452662-416: Is a yantra , a design laying out a Hindu temple in a symmetrical, self-repeating structure derived from central beliefs, myths, cardinality and mathematical principles. The four cardinal directions help create the axis of a Hindu temple, around which is formed a perfect square in the space available. The circle of the mandala circumscribes the square. The square is considered divine for its perfection and as
2783-560: Is a large group of five Hindu caves and the second is a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The Hindu caves contain rock-cut stone sculptures, representing the Shaiva Hindu sect, dedicated to the god Shiva. A typical, ancient Hindu temple has a profusion of arts—from paintings to sculpture, from symbolic icons to engravings, from thoughtful layout of space to fusion of mathematical principles with Hindu sense of time and cardinality. Ancient Sanskrit texts classify murtis and images in
2904-457: Is a place of pilgrimage, known in India as a Tirtha . It is a sacred site whose ambience and design attempts to symbolically condense the ideal tenets of the Hindu way of life. In a Hindu temple, all the cosmic components that produce and maintain life are there, from fire to water, from depictions of the natural world to gods, from genders that are feminine or masculine to those that are everlasting and universal. Susan Lewandowski states that
3025-478: Is a sacred place where Hindus worship and show their devotion to deities through worship, sacrifice, and prayers. It is considered the house of the god to whom it is dedicated. Hindu temple architecture, which makes extensive use of squares and circles, has its roots in Vedic traditions, which also influence the temples' construction and symbolism. Through astronomical numbers and particular alignments connected to
3146-791: Is a spiritual destination for many Hindus, as well as landmarks around which ancient arts, community celebrations and the economy have flourished. Hindu temple architecture are presented in many styles, are situated in diverse locations, deploy different construction methods, are adapted to different deities and regional beliefs, and share certain core ideas, symbolism and themes. They are found in South Asia, particularly India and Nepal , Bangladesh , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , in Southeast Asian countries such as Cambodia , Vietnam , Malaysia , and Indonesia , and countries such as Canada , Fiji , France , Guyana , Kenya , Mauritius ,
3267-439: Is almost on par with that of Ayyappan, is located a few yards from Sannidhanam. It is believed that Ayyappan had specific instructions that he wanted Malikappurath Amma on his left side. Prior to the fire disaster, there was only a Peeda Prathishta (holy seat) at Malikappuram. Brahmasree Kandararu Maheswararu Thanthri installed the idol of Malikappurath Amma. Maalikapurathamma holds a Sankh , Chakram and Varada Abhya Mudra . Now
3388-610: Is an ancient noble Ezhava family renowned for its Kalari in Muhamma , Alappuzha District . According to legend, Ayyappan was send by the Pandalam king to Muhamma to learn Kalaripayattu. Malikapurathamma is the patron deity of the Pandalam dynasty to which Ayyappa's foster-parents belonged. Thus, the goddess is regarded as Ayyappa's mother and believed to shower her motherly affection not only on Ayyappa but also his devotees. The Cheerappanchira family to this day holds many rights in
3509-503: Is everywhere in a Hindu temple. Life principles such as the pursuit of joy, connection and emotional pleasure (kama) are fused into mystical, erotic and architectural forms in Hindu temples. These motifs and principles of human life are part of the sacred texts of the Hindus, such as its Upanishads; the temples express these same principles in a different form, through art and spaces. For example, Brihadaranyaka Upanisad (4.3.21) recites: In
3630-445: Is expressed in nine ways. First is satsang or association with love-intoxicated devotees and righteous people. The second is to develop a taste for hearing My nectar-like stories. The third is service to the guru (...) Fourth is to sing My kirtana (communal chorus) (...) Japa or repetition of My Holy name and chanting My bhajanas are the fifth expression (...) To follow scriptural injunctions always, to practice control of
3751-432: Is grand. In Hindu tradition, this is discarded in favor of an open and diffusive architecture, where the secular world was not separated from the sacred, but transitioned and flowed into the sacred. The Hindu temple has structural walls, which were patterned usually within the 64-grid, or other geometric layouts. Yet the layout was open on all sides, except for the core space with a single opening for darsana. The temple space
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3872-405: Is laid out in a series of courts ( mandapas ). The outermost regions may incorporate the negative and suffering side of life with the symbolism of evil, asuras and rakshashas ; but in small temples this layer is dispensed with. When present, this outer region diffuse into the next inner layer that bridges as human space, followed by another inner Devika padas space and symbolic arts incorporating
3993-605: Is one of the four Mahāvākyas of Advaita or the non-dualistic school of philosophy. Tat Tvam Asi , the 3rd of four Mahavakyas which in sanskrit translates to "Thou Art That" is the principal philosophy that governs the temple and pilgrimage. As the pilgrimage is symbolic for the journey to self-realization that all living beings possess the part and parcel of parabrahman (lord), pilgrims refer to each other as Swami , acknowledging their divinity with lord seated in everyone heart as bramhan. The oneness of jIva and Ishvara are qualitatively but not quantitatively described by enquiry into
4114-508: Is predetermined. Furthermore, the pilgrims are required to undergo various stages of the pilgrimage in an ordered manner. The pilgrimage to Sabarimala starts on the first day of Vrischika month of the Malayalam year (the month of Scorpio) and ends on the 11th day of Dhanu month (the Month of Sagittarius). This season of the 41-day pilgrimage is known as the mandala (season). The season is in
4235-524: Is shown sitting on a horse and holding a sword, along with his wives, Pushkala and Poorna. The Sabarimala temple is associated with the deity's Vanaprastha , and in the Ponnambalmedu or Kantamala temple, the deity is shown as the greatest Yogi . Sage Suta told his followers the story of how Ayyappa was born, according to Bhutnathopakhyanam , a text for Ayyappan followers. After Chamundi killed Mahisasura, his sister Mahisi arrived to take revenge on
4356-427: Is synonymous with lacto-vegetarianism), following celibacy , follow teetotalism , not using any profanity , control anger, and allow the hair and nails to grow without cutting. They must try to help others, and see everything around them as Ayyappa. They are expected to bath twice a day and visit the local temples regularly and only wear plain black or blue coloured traditional clothing. Many Hindu pilgrims also visit
4477-417: Is the name of six methods or alternate viewpoints of understanding truth. These are Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Yoga, Mimamsa and Vedanta —which flowered into individual schools of Hinduism, each of which is considered a valid, alternate path to understanding truth and achieving self-realization in the Hindu way of life. From names to forms, from images to stories carved into the walls of a temple, symbolism
4598-415: Is typically called prasada . Hindu temples are found in diverse locations each incorporating different methods of construction and styles: In arid western parts of India, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat, Hindu communities built large walk-in wells that served as the only source of water in dry months but also served as social meeting places and carried religious significance. These monuments went down into
4719-564: The Central Food Technological Research Institute , Mysore, as a consultant for providing technical guidance to ensure the quality of Aravana, Appam, and other prasadam preparations at Sabarimala temple. Vadakkathillathu Eswaran Namoothiri, who held the position of melsanthi , a chief priest, started the tradition of singing keerthan in the year 1950. Following the Athazhapooja , he performed
4840-781: The Memoir of the Survey of the Travancore and Cochin States , which was published in two volumes by the Madras government in the 19th century, women of menstruating age were denied entry into the Sabarimala temple two centuries ago. Though the authors, lieutenants of the Madras Infantry, completed the survey by the end of the year 1820 after nearly five years of research, it was published in two volumes only in 1893 and 1901. According to
4961-609: The Netherlands , South Africa , Suriname , Tanzania , Trinidad and Tobago , Uganda , the United Kingdom , the United States , Australia , New Zealand , and other countries with a significant Hindu population. The current state and outer appearance of Hindu temples reflect arts, materials and designs as they evolved over two millennia; they also reflect the effect of conflicts between Hinduism and Islam since
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5082-564: The Telika Mandir in Gwalior , built in the 8th century CE, is not a square but a rectangle in 2:3 proportion. Further, the temple explores a number of structures and shrines in 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 2:5, 3:5 and 4:5 ratios. These ratios are exact, suggesting that the architect intended to use these harmonic ratios, and the rectangle pattern was not a mistake, nor an arbitrary approximation. Other examples of non-square harmonic ratios are found at
5203-523: The Vāstu-puruṣa-mandala and Vastu Śāstras , do not limit themselves to the design of a Hindu temple. They describe the temple as a holistic part of its community, and lay out various principles and a diversity of alternate designs for home, village and city layout along with the temple, gardens, water bodies and nature. A predominant number of Hindu temples exhibit the perfect-square grid principle. However, there are some exceptions. For example,
5324-589: The devas (gods). Brahma gave Mahishi a boon that made her invincible, and only a human born of two males could kill her. The devas were afraid and helpless, so they sought assistance from Vishnu. The union of Shiva and Vishnu, who took the avatar of Mohini, produced a son named Manikandan. Manikandan was abandoned on the banks of the Pampa River in southern India. The emperor Rajasekhara of the Panthalam dynasty, who didn't have any children, found this child. In
5445-495: The donas , or bowls, of handmade leaves in which she had offered the fruits and is impressed by the hard work Shabari has gone through to make them and, hence, blesses the tree so that the leaves naturally grow in the shape of a bowl. Shabari also tells Rama to take help from Sugriva and where to find him. The Ramayana says that Shabari was a very bright and knowledgeable saint. Rama delivers his discourse on nava-vidha bhakti (ninefold devotion) to Shabari, Such pure devotion
5566-419: The garbha-griya (literally, "womb house")—a small, perfect square, windowless, enclosed space without ornamentation that represents universal essence. In or near this space is typically a cult image—which, though many Indians may refer to casually as an idol, is more formally known as a murti, or the main worshippable deity, who varies with each temple. Often this murti gives the temple a local name, such as
5687-514: The 10th-century attached medical care along with their religious and educational roles. This is evidenced by various inscriptions found in Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. An inscription dated to about 930 CE states the provision of a physician to two matha to care for the sick and destitute. Another inscription dated to 1069 at a Vishnu temple in Tamil Nadu describes a hospital attached to
5808-585: The 12th century. The Swaminarayanan Akshardham in Robbinsville, New Jersey , between the New York and Philadelphia metropolitan areas, was inaugurated in 2014 as one of the world's largest Hindu temples. A Hindu temple reflects a synthesis of arts, the ideals of dharma , beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. It is a link between man, deities, and the Universal Puruṣa in
5929-515: The 4th century CE suggest the existence of schools around Hindu temples, called Ghatikas or Mathas , where the Vedas were studied. In south India, 9th century Vedic schools attached to Hindu temples were called Calai or Salai , and these provided free boarding and lodging to students and scholars. The temples linked to Bhakti movement in the early 2nd millennium, were dominated by non-Brahmins. These assumed many educational functions, including
6050-638: The 64- or 81-grid is dedicated to Brahman (not to be confused with brahmin, the scholarly and priestly class in India), and are called Brahma padas . The 49-grid design is called Sthandila and is of great importance in creative expressions of Hindu temples in South India, particularly in Prakaras . The symmetric Vastu-purusa-mandala grids are sometimes combined to form a temple superstructure with two or more attached squares. The temples face sunrise, and
6171-408: The 6th century CE. Vastu-Sastra manuals included chapters on home construction, town planning, and how efficient villages, towns and kingdoms integrated temples, water bodies and gardens within them to achieve harmony with nature. While it is unclear, states Barnett, as to whether these temple and town planning texts were theoretical studies and if or when they were properly implemented in practice,
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#17327719247456292-619: The Aludha mountain to reach Karivilam thodu. Now comes the sacred Karimala crossing, from there to Cheriyanavattom, Valliyanavattom and finally Pamba River . Then they have to climb Neelimala and enter into the Ganesha-Bettam, Shreerama-Betta Padam. Then comes the Aranmula kottaram , which is one of the stops of holy journey Thiruvabharana Ghoshayatra (the grand procession of the divine jewelry). These days people use vehicles to reach
6413-530: The Jabaladarshana Upanishad appear to endorse this idea Shabari Shabari ( Sanskrit : शबरी , IAST : Śabarī ), also known as Shramana , is an elderly woman ascetic in the Hindu epic Ramayana . She is described as an ardently devoted woman who received Rama 's blessing due to her bhakti towards him. Shabari was a woman from a village. According to Krishna Dutt, she
6534-623: The Naresar temple site of Madhya Pradesh and at the Nakti-Mata temple near Jaipur , Rajasthan. Michael Meister suggests that these exceptions mean that the ancient Sanskrit manuals for temple building were guidelines, and Hinduism permitted its artisans flexibility in expression and aesthetic independence. A Hindu temple is a symbolic reconstruction of the universe and the universal principles that enable everything in it to function. The temples reflect Hindu philosophy and its diverse views on
6655-475: The Pamba River by an alternate route. From Pamba, all the pilgrims begin trekking the steep mountain path of Neeli Mala till Sabari Mala. This route is now highly developed, with emergency shops and medical aid by the sides, and supporting aid is provided to the pilgrims while climbing the steep slope, which used to be a mere trail through dense jungle. The elderly pilgrims are lifted by men on bamboo chairs to
6776-545: The Sabarimala temple, such as to conduct fireworks, to light Nilavilak and ceremonial lamps at the Malikapurathamma temple, collect half the coconuts given by devotees at the Malikapurathamma temple. There is a small Mukkalvetti Ayyappa temple at Cheerappanchira, near Kollam which hold 3/4 power of Ayyappa and rest in Sabarimala. The Sabarimala temple does not have any ancient or medieval references. Nevertheless, there are extant late medieval references pertaining to
6897-479: The age of 25. Apart from specialist technical competence, the manuals suggest that best Silpins for building a Hindu temple are those who know the essence of Vedas and Agamas, consider themselves as students, keep well verse with principles of traditional sciences and mathematics, painting and geography. Further they are kind, free from jealousy, righteous, have their sense under control, of happy disposition, and ardent in everything they do. According to Silparatna,
7018-409: The ancient Sanskrit texts of India (for example, the Vedas and Upanishads ), while their structural rules are described in various ancient Sanskrit treatises on architecture ( Bṛhat Saṃhitā , Vāstu Śāstras ). The layout, the motifs, the plan and the building process recite ancient rituals, geometric symbolisms, and reflect beliefs and values innate within various schools of Hinduism. A Hindu temple
7139-469: The appearance of a tiger, which Manikandan used to return to the kingdom. He flung an arrow into the forest to mark the location of a temple, directed them to construct a temple, and then departed for Devaloka (the devas' abode). Shabari was a tribal devotee of Rama who is mentioned in the Ramayana . Sabarimala literally translates to "the hill of Sabari." As per legend, Sabari met Sage Matanga near
7260-617: The artworks and sculptures within them, were considered by the ancient Sanskrit texts to deploy arts whose number are unlimited, Kala (techniques) that were 64 in number, and Vidya (science) that were of 32 types. The Hindu manuals of temple construction describe the education, characteristics of good artists and architects. The general education of a Hindu Shilpin in ancient India included Lekha or Lipi (alphabet, reading and writing), Rupa (drawing and geometry), Ganana (arithmetic). These were imparted from age 5 to 12. The advanced students would continue in higher stages of Shilpa Sastra studies till
7381-625: The bitter ones. She wanted to give the good berries to Rama. She didn't know that offerings must not be tasted. Thus, collecting a few berries, Shabari would return to the ashram and eagerly await Rama's arrival. According to the scriptural account, even though hundreds of other yogis were waiting to receive Rama in their ashrams , Rama went only to Shabari's ashram because of her sincere devotion. On seeing Rama, Shabari became ecstatic and said, "There were so many exalted yogis waiting for your darshan , but you came to this unworthy devotee (...) This clearly shows that you will neither see whether
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#17327719247457502-606: The central space typically is surrounded by an ambulatory for the devotee to walk around and ritually circumambulate the Purusa, the universal essence. Often this space is visually decorated with carvings, paintings or images meant to inspire the devotee. In some temples, these images may be stories from Hindu Epics; in others, they may be Vedic tales about right and wrong or virtues and vice; in yet others, they may be murtis of locally worshipped deities. The pillars, walls and ceilings typically also have highly ornate carvings or images of
7623-468: The centre of the temple, typically below and sometimes above or next to the deity , is mere hollow space with no decoration, symbolically representing Purusa , the Supreme Principle, the sacred Universal, one without form, which is omnipresent, connects everything, and is the essence of everyone. A Hindu temple is meant to encourage reflection, facilitate purification of one's mind, and trigger
7744-574: The cosmos and on truth. Hinduism has no traditional ecclesiastical order, no centralized religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet nor any binding holy book save the Vedas; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic , pantheistic , monistic , or atheistic . Within this diffuse and open structure, spirituality in Hindu philosophy is an individual experience, and referred to as kṣaitrajña ( Sanskrit : क्षैत्रज्ञ ) ). It defines spiritual practice as one's journey towards moksha , awareness of self,
7865-521: The deity. In other schools of Hinduism, the person may simply perform japa , or meditation, or yoga , or introspection in his or her temple. Palace-themed temples often incorporate more elaborate and monumental architecture. The appropriate site for a temple, suggests ancient Sanskrit texts, is near water and gardens, where lotus and flowers bloom, where swans, ducks and other birds are heard, and where animals rest without fear of injury or harm. These harmonious places were recommended in these texts with
7986-404: The design and construction of Nagara style of Hindu temples. A Hindu temple design follows a geometrical design called vastu-purusha-mandala . The name is a composite Sanskrit word with three of the most important components of the plan. Mandala means circle, Purusha is universal essence at the core of Hindu tradition, while Vastu means the dwelling structure. The Vastu-purusha-mandala
8107-432: The discovery of higher truths, true nature of reality, and a consciousness that is liberated and content. A Hindu temple reflects these core beliefs. The central core of almost all Hindu temples is not a large communal space; the temple is designed for the individual, a couple or a family—a small, private space to allow visitors to experience darsana . Darsana is itself a symbolic word. In ancient Hindu scripts, darsana
8228-936: The donations (melvarum) they collected from devotees. According to James Heitzman, these donations came from a wide spectrum of the Indian society, ranging from kings, queens, officials in the kingdom to merchants, priests and shepherds. Temples also managed lands endowed to it by its devotees upon their death. They would provide employment to the poorest. Some temples had large treasury, with gold and silver coins, and these temples served as banks. Hindu temples over time became wealthy from grants and donations from royal patrons as well as private individuals. Major temples became employers and patrons of economic activity. They sponsored land reclamation and infrastructure improvements, states Michell, including building facilities such as water tanks, irrigation canals and new roads. A very detailed early record from 1101 lists over 600 employees (excluding
8349-401: The early 1950s, through P. T. Rajan efforts, the present panchaloha idol of Ayyappan was installed at Sabarimalai, and a procession was taken all over Madras state. In 1969, the flagstaff ( dhwajastambha ) was installed. The Sannidhanam (main temple) is built on a plateau about 40 feet high. The temple consists of a sanctum sanctorum with a gold-plated roof and four golden finials at
8470-714: The earth towards subterranean water, up to seven storeys, and were part of a temple complex. These vav (literally, stepwells) had intricate art reliefs on the walls, with numerous murtis and images of Hindu deities, water spirits and erotic symbolism. The step wells were named after Hindu deities; for example, Mata Bhavani's Stepwell , Ankol Mata Vav, Sikotari Vav and others. The temple ranged from being small single pada (cell) structure to large nearby complexes. These stepwells and their temple compounds have been variously dated from late 1st millennium BCE through 11th century CE. Of these, Rani ki vav , with hundreds of art reliefs including many of Vishnu deity avatars , has been declared
8591-565: The eastern states of India. Other ancient texts found expand these architectural principles, suggesting that different parts of India developed, invented and added their own interpretations. For example, in the Saurastra tradition of temple building found in western states of India, the feminine form, expressions and emotions are depicted in 32 types of Nataka-stri compared to 16 types described in Silpa Prakasa . Silpa Prakasa provides
8712-410: The embrace of the beloved, one forgets the whole world, everything both within and without; in the same way, one who embraces the Self knows neither within nor without. The architecture of Hindu temples is also symbolic. The whole structure fuses the daily life and its surroundings with the divine concepts, through a structure that is open yet raised on a terrace, transitioning from the secular towards
8833-400: The entrance for the devotee is typically this east side. The mandala pada facing sunrise is dedicated to Surya , the sun-god. The Surya pada is flanked by the padas of Satya, the deity of Truth, on one side and Indra , the king of the demigods, on other. The east and north faces of most temples feature a mix of gods and demigods; while the west and south feature demons and demigods related to
8954-406: The explanation that such are the places where gods play, and thus the best site for Hindu temples. The gods always play where lakes are, where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters, and where clear waterpaths are made by swans whose breasts toss the white lotus hither and thither, where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy birds are heard, and animals rest nearby in
9075-558: The exposition, recitation and public discourses of Sanskrit and Vedic texts. Some temple schools offered wide range of studies, ranging from Hindu scriptures to Buddhist texts, grammar, philosophy, martial arts, music and painting. By the 8th century, Hindu temples also served as the social venue for tests, debates, team competition and Vedic recitals called Anyonyam . According to Kenneth G. Zysk—a professor specializing in Indology and ancient medicine, Hindu mathas and temples had by
9196-480: The first five days of each Malayalam month . The Sabarimala Temple serves as a prime example of the amalgamation of several religious traditions within the Indian context. The temple practises encompassed the prohibition of women between the ages of 10 and 50 years from accessing the temple premises. In 2018, the Supreme Court of India rendered a decision to invalidate the prohibition on female entry inside
9317-451: The foot of Mount Rishyamukha. He became her guru, and she devotedly served him for years. When Matanga was on his deathbed, he foretold that Rama would come to grant her darshan. He told her to wait for the arrival of Rama. Since that time, Sabari has only left her ashram each day to gather berries for Rama. She would pick one, taste it, and place it in her basket if it was sweet, discarding the bitter berries because she wanted Rama to have only
9438-424: The four just and necessary pursuits of life—kama, artha, dharma and moksa. This walk around is called pradakshina . Large temples also have pillared halls, called mandapa —one of which, on the east side, serves as the waiting room for pilgrims and devotees. The mandapa may be a separate structure in older temples, but in newer temples this space is integrated into the temple superstructure. Mega-temple sites have
9559-520: The globe. Five Shasta temples, namely those in Kulathupuzha , Aryankavu , Achankovil , Sabarimala, and Ponnambalmedu , are said to be linked to Parashurama , an avatar of Vishnu. In Kulathupuzha, Shasta is venerated as a child deity. In the Aryankavu temple, he is worshipped as an adolescent Brahmachari . The Achankovil temple is connected to the deity's Grihastha (household), where he
9680-428: The god Rama would give her darshana . He told her to await Rama's arrival. Then, while sitting in lotus posture, the sage attained Mahasamadhi . Following her guru's advice, Shabari awaited Rama's arrival. Every day, Shabari would go out of her ashram , with the help of a walking stick, and pluck berries for Rama. She would pluck one, taste it and, if it was sweet, she would put it in her basket, discarding
9801-661: The head of a town street. Ancient builders of Hindu temples created manuals of architecture, called Vastu-Sastra (literally "science" of dwelling; vas-tu is a composite Sanskrit word; vas means "reside", tu means "you"); these contain Vastu-Vidya (literally, knowledge of dwelling) and Sastra meaning system or knowledge in Sanskrit. There exist many Vastu-Sastras on the art of building temples, such as one by Thakkura Pheru , describing where and how temples should be built. Sanskrit manuals have been found in India since
9922-401: The holy 18 sacred steps. The northern gate is open for those who do not carry an "Irumudikkettu", as observed in the 1991 Kerala High Court judgement. Ayyappan's half-brother Ganesha 's shrine is southwest of the sanctum. Devotees offer part of the broken coconut (Neythenga) to the fireplace (Azhi). Ganapati homam is the main offering. The temple of Maalikapurathamma , whose importance
10043-408: The idol from the first Ganesha temple is worshipped. Sabari Peedam has a temple for Rama and Hanuman as well. The prasadam at Sabarimala temple are Aravana payasam and Appam . An 'Appam' is a sweet ball composed of rice, kadalippazham, and ghee, whereas 'Arvana' refers to a dense and sweet dessert. The Chief Commissioner, Travancore Devaswom Board, said that the board has been appointed by
10164-552: The idol is covered with a gold golaka. The temple was also reconstructed in the last decade, and now the conical roof and sopanam are covered with gold. The shrine of the king of the snakes, Nagaraja, is placed adjacent to the Malikappurathamma temple. Pilgrims, after the Darsan of Ayyappa and Kannimoola Ganapathi, make their darshan and give offerings to Nagaraja. Manimandapam is the place where Ayyappan vanished into
10285-482: The inner meaning of the statement ‘tat tvam asi’as follows: The customs of the pilgrims to Sabarimala are based on five worshipping methods; those of Shaivites, Shaktists and Vaishnavites. At first, there were three sections of devotees – the devotees of Shakti worship their deity by way of yajna, literally sacrifice, the devotees of Vishnu who followed the strict penance and continence, and the devotees of Shiva who partly followed these two methods. Another name of Ayyappa
10406-532: The manuals suggest that town planning and Hindu temples were conceived as ideals of art and integral part of Hindu social and spiritual life. The Silpa Prakasa of Odisha, authored by Ramacandra Bhattaraka Kaulacara in the 9th or 10th centuries CE, is another Sanskrit treatise on Temple Architecture. Silpa Prakasa describes the geometric principles in every aspect of the temple and symbolism such as 16 emotions of human beings carved as 16 types of female figures. These styles were perfected in Hindu temples prevalent in
10527-432: The many types of food he had tasted, "nothing could equal these berries, offered with such devotion. You taste them, then alone will you know. Whomsoever offers a fruit, leaf, flower or some water with love, I partake in it with great joy." Traditional writers use this narrative to indicate that in bhakti , faults are not seen by the deities. Pleased with Shabari's devotion, Rama blesses her with his vision. Rama notices
10648-417: The meantime, the queen delivered a baby. The queen disliked Manikandan and devised a scheme to eliminate him. She lied about her sickness, claiming that she could only be treated by consuming tiger's milk. Twelve-year-old Manikandan ventured into the wilderness in search of tiger's milk for her mother. On his journey through the forest, he destroyed Mahisi. The devas were pleased at Mahishi's death. Indra assumed
10769-504: The months of December and January. The nearest railway station is Chengannur railway station is known as the Gateway of Sabarimala because devotees from Andhra, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and the rest of India alight at Chengannur railway station for their pilgrimage about 70% of devotees alight here so railway is going to create a new railway line from chengannur to pamba (Distance 75 km). The devotees are expected to follow
10890-602: The offerings for Sabarimala Temple carried on their heads) on the idol of Ayyappan. It symbolically means the merging of Jeevatma with the Paramatma . Makaravilakku is an annual festival held on Makara Sankranti in Kerala, India at the shrine of Sabarimala. The festival includes the Thiruvabharanam (sacred ornaments of the deity Ayyappan) procession and a congregation at the hill shrine of Sabarimala. An estimated half
11011-452: The patron as well as others witnessing the construction. Further, it was a tradition that all tools and materials used in temple building and all creative work had the sanction of a sacrament. For example, if a carpenter or sculptor needed to fell a tree or cut a rock from a hill, he would propitiate the tree or rock with prayers, seeking forgiveness for cutting it from its surroundings, and explaining his intent and purpose. The axe used to cut
11132-495: The police force to ensure that restriction was complied with. The high court also stated that "since there is no restriction between one section and another section or between one class and another class among the Hindus in the matter of entry to a temple (Sabarimala), whereas the prohibition is only in respect of women of a particular age group and not women as a class." Hindu temple Traditional A Hindu temple , also known as Mandir , Devasthanam , Pura , or Kovil ,
11253-554: The positive and joyful side of life about the good and the gods. This divine space then concentrically diffuses inwards and lifts the guest to the core of the temple, where resides the main murti , as well as the space for the Purusa, and ideas held to be most sacred principles in Hindu tradition. The symbolism in the arts and temples of Hinduism, suggests Edmund Leach, is similar to those in Christianity and other major religions of
11374-529: The priests) of the Brihadisvara Temple, Thanjavur , still one of the largest temples in Tamil Nadu . Most worked part-time and received the use of temple farmland as reward. For those thus employed by the temple, according to Michell, "some gratuitous services were usually considered obligatory, such as dragging the temple chariots on festival occasions and helping when a large building project
11495-503: The process of inner realization within the devotee. The specific process is left to the devotee's school of belief. The primary deity of different Hindu temples varies to reflect this spiritual spectrum. In Hindu tradition, there is no dividing line between the secular and the lonely sacred. In the same spirit, Hindu temples are not just sacred spaces; they are also secular spaces. Their meaning and purpose have extended beyond spiritual life to social rituals and daily life, offering thus
11616-597: The recitation of Harivarasanam . Harivarasanam is a Sanskrit Urakkupattu, a lullaby. The recitation takes place nightly before the closure of the temple entrance. The keerthan can be found in the Sasthasthuti kadambam, a publication authored by Kambankudi Sundaram Kulathu Ayyer. The song depicts Ayappa as Hariharaputhra, a deity revered in the Vedas. This significant ritual involves pouring sacred ghee brought by pilgrims in their Pallikettu or Irumudi (a two-compartment bag made of handwoven cotton cloth used to carry
11737-463: The report, individuals who have reached puberty or a specific age are prohibited from approaching the temple, while elderly women and young girls are permitted to do so. This is due to the deity's (Ayyappan) aversion to any sexual activity in the vicinity. Up until 1991, women visited the temple, though in small numbers. Women pilgrims below the age of 50 would visit the temple to conduct the first rice-feeding ceremony of their children ( Chorroonu ) in
11858-418: The restoration of the Sabarimala temple, which had suffered damage as a result of a fire incident. Kochu Thomman, a Mavelikkara resident of Christian faith, funded and carried out the reconstruction contract. In the year 1950, the temple was rebuilt after an arson attack. No charges were brought, and the earlier stone image of the deity was replaced by a panchaloha (an alloy of five metals) idol, about one and
11979-452: The sacred, inviting the visitor inwards and upwards towards the Brahma pada, the temple's central core, a symbolic space marked by its spire ( shikhara, vimana ). The ancient temples had grand, intricately carved entrances but no doors, and they lacked a boundary wall. In most cultures, suggests Edmund Leach , a boundary and gateway separates the secular and the sacred, and this gateway door
12100-584: The senses, nobility of character and selfless service, these are expressions of the sixth mode of bhakti . Seeing Me manifested everywhere in this world and worshipping My saints more than myself is the seventh mode of bhakti . To find no fault with anyone and to be contented with one's lot is the eighth mode of bhakti . Unreserved surrender with total faith in My strength is the ninth and highest stage. Shabari, anyone who practices one of these nine modes of My bhakti pleases Me most and reaches Me without fail. That which
12221-674: The shade of Nicula trees on the river banks. The gods always play where rivers have for their braclets the sound of curleys and the voice of swans for their speech, water as their garment, carps for their zone, the flowering trees on their banks as earrings, the confluence of rivers as their hips, raised sand banks as breasts and plumage of swans their mantle. The gods always play where groves are near, rivers, mountains and springs, and in towns with pleasure gardens. While major Hindu temples are recommended at sangams (confluence of rivers), river banks, lakes and seashore, Brhat Samhita and Puranas suggest temples may also be built where
12342-696: The sick and needy in the 1st millennium, but with the destruction of Buddhist centers after the 12th century, the Hindu religious institutions assumed these social responsibilities. According to George Michell, Hindu temples in South India were active charity centers and they provided free meal for wayfarers, pilgrims and devotees, as well as boarding facilities for students and hospitals for the sick. The 15th and 16th century Hindu temples at Hampi featured storage spaces (temple granary, kottara ), water tanks and kitchens. Many major pilgrimage sites have featured dharmashalas since early times. These were attached to Hindu temples, particularly in South India, providing
12463-459: The sky. Sometimes, in makeshift temples, the dome may be replaced with symbolic bamboo with few leaves at the top. The vertical dimension's cupola or dome is designed as a pyramid, a cone or other mountain-like shape, once again using the principle of concentric circles and squares. Scholars suggest that this shape is inspired by the cosmic mountain of Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of the gods, according to Vedic mythology. In larger temples,
12584-522: The state of Kerala , India. The temple is surrounded by 18 hills in the Periyar Tiger Reserve . It is one of the largest annual pilgrimage sites in the world, with an estimate of over 10 to 15 million devotees visiting every year. The temple is open for worship only during the days of Mandala Pooja (approximately 15 November to 26 December), Makaravilakku or Makara Sankranti (14 January), and Maha Thirumal Sankranti (14 April), and
12705-510: The sweet berries. While in his search for Sita, Rama visits the Sabari at her ashram. Sabari fed Rama with the berries that she had collected. Rama saw a divine person doing penance and asked Shabari to tell him who it was. Shabari said it was Sastha (Ayyappan). Sastha also stood and greeted Rama. According to mythology, Maalikapurathamma is the divine daughter of Cheerappanchira Panicker who taught Kalaripayattu to Ayyappa. Cheerappanchira
12826-630: The temple premises. In 1991, Justices K. Paripoornan and K. Balanarayana Marar of the Kerala High Court , in their ruling against the Travancore Devaswom Board , restricted the entry of women between the ages of 10 and 50 from offering worship at the temple, stating that such a restriction was in accordance with the usage prevalent from time immemorial. In addition, the judges directed the Government of Kerala to use
12947-544: The temple's location and the relationship between the deity and the worshipper, the temple's design also illustrates the idea of recursion and the equivalency of the macrocosm and the microcosm . A temple incorporates all elements of the Hindu cosmos—presenting the good, the evil and the human, as well as the elements of the Hindu sense of cyclic time and the essence of life—symbolically presenting dharma , artha , kama , moksha , and karma . The spiritual principles symbolically represented in Hindu temples are detailed in
13068-566: The temple, listing the nurses, physicians, medicines and beds for patients. Similarly, a stone inscription in Andhra Pradesh dated to about 1262 mentions the provision of a prasutishala (maternity house), vaidya (physician), an arogyashala (health house) and a viprasattra (hospice, kitchen) with the religious center where people from all social backgrounds could be fed and cared for. According to Zysk, both Buddhist monasteries and Hindu religious centers provided facilities to care for
13189-540: The temple. According to the Bhagavata Purana , the god Shiva fell in love with the god Vishnu while he was in his female Mohini form. Their relationship resulted in the conception of the deity Shasta . Shasta is also known as Hariharaputra, the son of Hari (Vishnu) and Hara (Shiva). It is believed that Ayyappa is a form of Shasta. The worship of Shasta forms part of the ancient history of south India. There are many Shasta temples in South India and across
13310-536: The temple. The Pandalam royal family drafted a mortgage document in 1793. It states that the royal family is pledging the revenue returns, which encompass the income generated by the Sabarimala Temple, to the Tranvancore state . In 1863, Ward and Conner published an article that provided a description of Sabarimala and its vicinity. In the year 1902, the ruler of Travancore issued a directive for
13431-539: The temple. The Sabarimala temple complex includes Pampa Ganapathi temple, Nilakal Mahadeva temple, and Palliyarakkavu Devi Temple temple. The Nilakal Mahadeva temple and Palliyarakkavu Devi Temple temple are as old as the Ayyappan temple, and the deities are worshipped as the parents of Ayyappan. Ganapathi temple at Pampa has Pampa Maha Ganapathi and Athi Ganapathi (lit. old Ganesha) idols; in Sreekovil,
13552-770: The texts were copied when they wore out. In South India, temples and associated mathas served custodial functions, and a large number of manuscripts on Hindu philosophy , poetry, grammar and other subjects were written, multiplied and preserved inside the temples. Archaeological and epigraphical evidence indicates existence of libraries called Sarasvati-bhandara , dated possibly to early 12th-century and employing librarians, attached to Hindu temples. Palm-leaf manuscripts called lontar in dedicated stone libraries have been discovered by archaeologists at Hindu temples in Bali Indonesia and in 10th century Cambodian temples such as Angkor Wat and Banteay Srei . Inscriptions from
13673-605: The top, on being paid. Temple management places religious restrictions against the entry of women aged 10 to 50. This is based on the tradition of the temple to respect the celibate nature of the deity; similar restrictions are present against the entry of men on certain days or the inner sanctum in other Hindu temples such as the Pushkar Brahma Temple and the Kamakhya Temple in Guwahati. According to
13794-408: The top, two mandapams , and the balikalpura, which houses the altar. The 18 sacred steps are the main stairway to the temple. As per the custom followed, no pilgrim without "Irumudikkettu" can ascend the 18 sacred steps. In 1985, the 18 steps were covered by Panchaloha . The temples of Ayyappan's trusted lieutenants, Karuppu Sami and Kadutha Sami, are positioned as his guards (kaval) at the foot of
13915-594: The tree would be anointed with butter to minimize the hurt to the tree. Even in modern times, in some parts of India such as Odisha , Visvakarma Puja is a ritual festival every year where the craftsmen and artists worship their arts, tools and materials. Hindu temples served as nuclei of important social, economic, artistic and intellectual functions in ancient and medieval India. Burton Stein states that South Indian temples managed regional development function, such as irrigation projects, land reclamation, post-disaster relief and recovery. These activities were paid for by
14036-497: The underlying principle in a Hindu temple is the belief that all things are one, that everything is connected. The pilgrim is welcomed through 64-grid or 81-grid mathematically structured spaces, a network of art, pillars with carvings and statues that display and celebrate the four important and necessary principles of human life—the pursuit of artha (prosperity, wealth), of kama (pleasure, sex), of dharma (virtues, ethical life) and of moksha (release, self-knowledge). At
14157-401: The underworld. This vastu-purusha-mandala plan and symbolism is systematically seen in ancient Hindu temples on the Indian subcontinent as well as those in southeast Asia, with regional creativity and variations. Beneath the mandala's central square(s) is the space for the all-pervasive, all-connecting Universal Spirit, the highest reality , the purusha . This space is sometimes known as
14278-455: The word "Silpin". "Silpa", explains Stella Kramrisch, is a multicolored word and incorporates art, skill, craft, ingenuity, imagination, form, expression and inventiveness of any art or craft. Similarly, "Shilpin", notes Kramrisch, is a complex Sanskrit word, describing any person who embodies art, science, culture, skill, and rhythm and employs creative principles to produce any divine form of expression. Silpins who built Hindu temples, as well as
14399-514: The world. Indian texts call the craftsmen and builders of temples "Silpin" ( Sanskrit : शिल्पिन् ), derived from "Silpa". One of the earliest mentions of the Sanskrit word "Silpa" is in Atharvaveda , from about 1000 BCE; according to scholars, the word was used to denote any work of art. Some scholars suggest that the word "Silpa" has no direct or one-word translation in English, nor does
14520-474: Was a seeker of knowledge and wanted to know the meaning of Dharma. After days of travel, she met Sage Matanga at the foot of Mount Rishyamukha . She accepted him as guru , serving him with devotion for many years. When Matanga was about to die, Shabari, now elderly, stated that after serving him throughout her life, she now sought to reach for herself the same "abode of peace" which Matanga had reached. The sage responded that, if she offered seva (service),
14641-634: Was undertaken". Temples also acted as refuge during times of political unrest and danger. Historically, the Scheduled Castes or Dalits were prohibited from the entry into temples. In contemporary times, the process of building a Hindu temple by emigrants and diasporas from South Asia has also served as a process of building a community, a social venue to network, reduce prejudice and seek civil rights together. John Guy and Jorrit Britschgi state Hindu temples served as centers where ancient manuscripts were routinely used for learning and where
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