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68-602: A coastal suburb situated some 2 miles (3.2 km) northwest of Le Havre city centre, at the junction of the D147 and the D940. The English Channel forms the western border of the commune. Sainte-Adresse has an oceanic climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ). The average annual temperature in Sainte-Adresse is 11.8 °C (53.2 °F). The average annual rainfall is 789.8 mm (31.09 in) with December as

136-605: A connection to the Greenway which promises to be an important network of quality. Between 2007 and 2011, the total length of cycle paths has doubled to 46 km (29 mi) in total length. It is possible to rent bicycles through agencies of the Océane bus or from the town hall (Vel-H) which has them on hand. Finally, 140 taxis work in Le Havre and serve 25 stations. Le Havre is one of two sub-prefectures of Seine-Maritime and

204-420: A cross Or surmounted by an inescutcheon tierced in pale sable, Or and gules. The oldest known name of the commune was "Caput Caleti" mentioned in 1240. Later known as Saint-Denis-Chef-de-Caux , named after an ancient place of worship and its position on the cape. In 1415, Henry V landed with his fleet, to claim the throne of France. Starting in 1905, Georges Dufayel, a Parisian businessman, created

272-512: A high level today. Changes in years 1990–2000 were numerous. The right won the municipal elections and committed the city to the path of reconversion, seeking to develop the service sector and new industries ( aeronautics , wind turbines ). The Port 2000 project increased the container capacity to compete with ports of northern Europe, transformed the southern districts of the city, and ocean liners returned. Modern Le Havre remains deeply influenced by its employment and maritime traditions. Its port

340-530: A large thickness of chalk measuring up to 200 m (656 ft) deep. Because of the slope the coast is affected by the risk of landslides. Due to its location on the coast of the Channel, the climate of Le Havre is temperate oceanic . Days without wind are rare. There are maritime influences throughout the year. According to the records of the meteorological station of the Cap de la Heve (from 1961 to 1990),

408-472: A new area is being developed: "Les Hauts de Bleville". This eco-district made up of housing units to HQE standards, a Joint Development Area (ZAC), and a school should have a total of 1,000 housing units. The peripheral suburbs of the commune grew in the postwar period. These are large housing estates in Caucriauville, Bois de Bleville, Mont-Gaillard, and Mare-rouge where a disadvantaged population

476-417: A people still scarred by World War II. These decades of economic prosperity combined high productivity with high average wages and high consumption, and were also characterized by a highly developed system of social benefits. According to various studies, the real purchasing power of the average French worker's salary went up by 170% between 1950 and 1975, while overall private consumption increased by 174% in

544-481: A residential seaside resort known as Nice havrais (the " Nice of Le Havre"), at Sainte Adresse. The local architect Ernest Daniel directed operations. The Avenue de Regatta on the waterfront is designed in the image of the promenade des Anglais in Nice . During World War I , Sainte-Adresse was the administrative capital of Belgium . The Belgian government in exile was installed from October 1914 to November 1918 in

612-418: A target to reduce emissions of CO 2 by 3% per year. To achieve this solar panels have been installed on several municipal buildings (city hall, hanging gardens). Since 2008, Le Havre has been part of the network of Energy Cities and, in this context, it applies the steps of Agenda 21 and an Environmental Approach to Urban Planning. The city has received many awards of eco-labels several times (Energy of

680-546: Is a TGV daily service to Le Havre: it has connected the city to Marseille since December 2004 serving Rouen, Mantes-la-Jolie , Versailles , Massy , Lyon , Avignon , Aix-en-Provence , and Saint Charles station in Marseille. There are also local services from Le Havre station to Rolleville and Fécamp. Le Havre-Graville station in the eastern part of the city is served by trains to Rolleville. No direct rail link connects Le Havre and Caen yet many projects – known as

748-722: Is a major port city in the Seine-Maritime department in the Normandy region of northern France . It is situated on the right bank of the estuary of the river Seine on the Channel southwest of the Pays de Caux , very close to the Prime Meridian . Le Havre is the most populous commune of Upper Normandy, although the total population of the greater Le Havre conurbation is smaller than that of Rouen . After Reims , it

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816-454: Is also attested in similar forms such as estable and probably dates back to the ancient Scandinavian stafn . When founded in 1517, the city was named Franciscopolis after Francis I of France . It was subsequently named Le Havre-de-Grâce ("Harbor of Grace"; hence Havre de Grace, Maryland ). Its construction was ordered to replace the ancient harbours of Honfleur and Harfleur whose utility had decreased due to silting. The history of

884-545: Is also the second largest subprefecture in France. The name Le Havre means "the harbour" or "the port". Its inhabitants are known as Havrais or Havraises . The city and port were founded by King Francis I in 1517. Economic development in the early modern period was hampered by religious wars , conflicts with the English, epidemics, and storms. It was from the end of the 18th century that Le Havre started growing and

952-439: Is also the third best city in France with more than 100,000 inhabitants for air quality. A Carbon accounting showed in 2009 that the municipality ejected some 32,500 tonnes of CO 2 per year. In 2011 the average annual emissions of sulfur dioxide by industry was between three micrograms per cubic metre in the centre of Le Havre to twelve micrograms per cubic metre in the district of Caucriauville. The municipality has set

1020-420: Is between 150,000 and 199,999 so the number of councillors is 59 members. The mayor , 41 aldermen and 17 deputies form the council of Le Havre elected in 2008. It meets on average once a month at the town hall. The debates are generally public except for certain proceedings. Trente Glorieuses Les Trente Glorieuses ( French pronunciation: [le tʁɑ̃t ɡlɔʁjøz] ; 'The Glorious Thirty')

1088-541: Is concentrated. In October 2004 the National Agency for Urban Renewal (ANRU) signed with the municipality of Havre the first agreement to finance the rehabilitation of these areas. This finance agreement provides more than 340 million euros for the housing estates in the northern districts, where about 41,000 people reside. This development extends the budget for the Grand Projet de Ville (GPV). It allows

1156-718: Is located 50 kilometres (31 miles) west of Rouen on the shore of the English Channel and at the mouth of the Seine . Numerous roads link to Le Havre with the main access roads being the A29 autoroute from Amiens and the A13 autoroute from Paris linking to the A131 autoroute . Administratively, Le Havre is a commune in the Normandy region in the west of the department of Seine-Maritime . The urban area of Le Havre corresponds roughly to

1224-437: Is revitalizing areas neglected by industrial and port activities by developing tertiary activities. Thus, the docks have been completely transformed into sports and entertainment complexes ( Dock Océane ), a mall (Docks Vauban), and an exhibition hall (Docks Café). Les Bains Des Docks was designed by the architect Jean Nouvel . At the end of 2012 students from Sciences-Po Europe Asia and from INSA integrated new buildings next to

1292-424: Is subject to a rising water table . The lack of watercourses within the commune prevents flooding from overflows. Le Havre's beach may rarely experience flooding known as "flooding from storms". These are caused by the combination of strong winds, high waves, and a large tidal range . A study by Aphekom comparing ten large French cities showed that Le Havre is the least polluted urban commune of France. Le Havre

1360-537: Is the Transport hub of Lyon . Many holiday destinations are offered each year ( Tunisia , Balearic Islands, Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria , etc.) through local travel agencies that charter aircraft. There is also the Flying club Jean Maridor at the airport. The Channel maritime links with Portsmouth in southern England with P&O Ferries ended on 30 September 2005 to be taken over by LD Lines who had changed

1428-419: Is the second largest in France, after that of Marseille , for total traffic, and the largest French container port. In 2005, UNESCO inscribed the central city of Le Havre as a World Heritage Site because of its unique post-WWII reconstruction and architecture. The André Malraux Modern Art Museum is the second of France for the number of impressionist paintings . The city has been awarded two flowers by

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1496-668: The A29 autoroute (E44) has connected Le Havre to the north of France and passes over the Normandy Bridge which makes Amiens (in the north-east) two hours away and Caen (in the south-west) one hour. The TER network was modernized with the creation of the LER line in 2001 and direct services to Fécamp in 2005. Thirteen Corail trains of the Paris–Le Havre line link Le Havre station with Bréauté-Beuzeville, Yvetot , Rouen and Paris Saint-Lazare station . In addition there

1564-589: The French Revolution but was not imposed. However it explains why the complementary determinant -de-Grace was not restored. This qualifier undoubtedly referred to the Chapel of Notre Dame located at the site of the cathedral of the same name . The chapel faced the Chapel Notre Dame de Grace of Honfleur across the estuary. The common noun havre meaning "port" was out of use at the end of

1632-528: The Hanging Gardens and Fort Tourneville hosted the Tetris project in 2013 – an axis of contemporary music with concert halls and rehearsal studios. To the north of the "coast" suburban districts such as Rouelles, Sainte-Cecile, la Mare au Clerc, Sanvic, Bleville, and Dollemard were developed during the first half of the 19th century. In their extension North-west between Bleville and Octeville airport

1700-476: The Mesozoic period. The Paris Basin consists of sedimentary rocks . The commune of Le Havre consists of two areas separated by a natural cliff edge: one part in the lower part of the town to the south including the harbour, the city centre and the suburbs. It was built on former marshland and mudflats that were drained in the 16th century. The soil consists of several metres of alluvium or silt deposited by

1768-476: The Seine . The city centre was rebuilt after the Second World War using a metre of flattened rubble as a foundation. The upper town to the north, is part of the cauchois plateau : the neighbourhood of Dollemard is its highest point (between 90 and 115 metres (295 and 377 feet) above sea level ). The plateau is covered with a layer of flinty clay and a fertile silt . The bedrock consists of

1836-570: The eighth (former cantons II, III, IV, VIII, IX). Several politicians have spent part of their lives in the city: Jules Lecesne (1818–1878), Jules Siegfried (1837–1922), and Félix Faure (1841–1899) were elected as municipal councillors and MPs. A pool, a shopping centre and a street have been named after René Coty from Le Havre, who served as President of the French Republic from 1954 to 1959. Christine Lagarde (born 1956) attended high schools in Le Havre before becoming Minister of

1904-475: The "Southwest Line" – to link Le Havre to the left bank of the Seine downstream from Rouen, near the estuary of the river, were studied in the second half of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century but none have been realized. By public transport it is necessary to go to Rouen by train or bus (using No. 20 Green Bus ). There is a Gray Coach to Étretat and Fécamp and there is VTNI for destinations in

1972-469: The 18th or beginning of the 19th centuries but is still preserved in the phrase havre de paix meaning "safe haven". It is generally considered a loan from Middle Dutch from the 12th century. A Germanic origin can explain the "aspiration" of the initial h . Havre de Grace, Maryland , in the United States retains the "de Grace" from colonial times. New research however focuses on the fact that

2040-489: The 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries. The shops are concentrated along several major roads in the Rond-Point neighbourhood. During the 1990s and 2000s, these neighborhoods have seen major redevelopments, particularly in the context of an OPAH: improvement of habitat by rehabilitation or reconstruction, creation of public facilities, and revitalization of business. At the end of the 20th century and beginning of

2108-534: The 19th century, it became an industrial center. At the end of World War I Le Havre played a major role as the transit port used to wind up affairs after the war. The city was devastated during the Battle of Normandy when 5,000 people were killed and 12,000 homes were totally destroyed before its capture in Operation Astonia . The center was rebuilt in a modernist style by Auguste Perret . Le Havre

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2176-520: The 21st century, the area around the railway station has undergone a major transformation. As the station is the gateway to the city with the main avenues intersecting here. New buildings have sprung up ( University of Le Havre , the conservatory, headquarters of the SPB (Provident Society Bank), and of CMA CGM , Novotel , Matmut, new CCI) some of which were designed by renowned architects. The bus station, certified NF since 2005, has been refurbished. North of

2244-547: The Brazilian architect Oscar Niemeyer and nicknamed "the Volcano" because of the shape of the building. From 2012, this place was refurbished both inside and outside with fairly significant changes approved by the architect including greater openness to the outside of the plaza. The Notre Dame and Perrey neighbourhoods are mainly residential. Les Halles is one of the commercial hubs of the city. The Saint Francis neighborhood

2312-638: The Dufayel building, named after the businessman who had built it in 1911. It had at its disposal a post office using Belgian postage stamps . During World War II , the Germans built several fortifications here for the Atlantic Wall , to defend the port of Le Havre. Le Havre Le Havre ( / l ə ˈ h ɑː v ( r ə )/ lə HAHV( -rə) ; French: [lə ɑvʁ(ə)] ; Norman : Lé Hâvre [lɛ ˈhɑvʁ(ə)] )

2380-662: The Economy and Director-General of the International Monetary Fund in 2011. Since 23 October 2010 the mayor has been Édouard Philippe ( UMP ). He also holds the presidency of the CODAH and has held a seat in the National Assembly for the 7th district of Seine-Maritime since 2012. He succeeded Antoine Rufenacht (UMP), who was mayor of Le Havre for fifteen years before resigning, as the head of

2448-586: The Future label in 2009–2011, sustainable Earth label in 2009). Since 1998, Le Havre's beach has received the Blue Flag yearly thanks to its range of facilities, which extend over 30,000   m . Le Havre has kept extensive green areas (750 hectares or 41   m per inhabitant ), the two largest areas are the Montgeon Forest and Rouelles Park which are both located in the upper town. The gardens of

2516-520: The ISEL (Higher Institute of logistics studies) and the future ENSM (Ecole Nationale Supérieure Maritime). The new medical axis around the new Clinic des Ormeaux was built in the neighbourhoods where many homes are planned with the aim of promoting social mix. The City of the Sea and of Sustainable Development (Odyssey 21) will be organized around a metal tower one hundred metres high designed by Jean Nouvel :

2584-498: The Industrial Zone and Port of Le Havre, thus adding to the cross-estuary service of VTNI. Since 1890 the funicular has provided a link between the upper town and the lower town in four minutes with a cable car. Le Havre had a tramway system from 1894 until it closed in 1957. More recently a new tramway system, with 23 stations and 13 km (8 mi) of route, was built, and opened on 12 December 2012. The first part of

2652-654: The National Council of Towns and Villages in Bloom in the Competition of Cities and Villages in Bloom. The name of the town was attested in 1489, even before it was founded by François I in the form le Hable de Grace then Ville de Grace in 1516, two years before its official founding. The learned and transient name of Franciscopolis in tribute to the same king, is encountered in some documents then that of Havre Marat , referring to Jean-Paul Marat during

2720-723: The Priory of Graville and the hanging gardens offer views of the lower city. In the city centre, Saint-Roch Square and the City Hall Gardens provide the people with urban recreation areas. Various ecosystems are represented in the Beach Gardens and the Hauser Park (caves). Finally, the Plateau of Dollemard was classified as a "Sensitive Natural Area" of the department in 2001 to protect its landscape and ecosystems on

2788-468: The Seine valley and Rouen who provide inter-urban services on behalf of the Department of Seine-Maritime . Finally, the company AirPlus provides a shuttle service to the railway stations and airports of Paris. For air transport, there is Le Havre Octeville Airport which is located 5 km (3 mi) north of Le Havre at the town of Octeville-sur-Mer and managed by CODAH . The main destination

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2856-417: The bus network in 2008 helped to ensure a better service for all the towns in the metropolitan area. The CTPO operates a bus network consisting of 19 regular urban routes and six evening routes called the "Midnight Bus". The Le Havre urban area is served by 165 vehicles and 41 regular bus routes with an average of 100,000 passengers per day. From January 2011 there has been a regular shuttle service specific to

2924-595: The city is inextricably linked to its harbour. In the 18th century, as trade from the West Indies was added to that of France and Europe, Le Havre began to grow. On 19 November 1793, the city changed its name to Hâvre de Marat and later Hâvre-Marat in honor of the recently deceased Jean-Paul Marat , who was seen as a martyr of the French Revolution . By early 1795, however, Marat's memory had become somewhat tarnished, and on 13 January 1795, Hâvre-Marat changed its name once more to simply Le Havre, its modern name. During

2992-510: The city of Le Havre on 15 July 2005 as a World Heritage Site . This area of 133 hectares is one of the few inscribed contemporary sites in Europe. The architecture of the area is characterized by the use of precast concrete using a system of a modular frame of 6.24 metres and straight lines. Another notable architectural work of the central city is that of the House of Culture built in 1982 by

3060-645: The cliff. The streets are lined with 13,000 trees of 150 different varieties. Largely destroyed by the Allies during the Second World War , the city was rebuilt according to the plans of the architect Auguste Perret between 1945 and 1964. Only the City Hall and the Church of Saint Joseph (107   m-high) were personally designed by Auguste Perret. In commending the reconstruction work UNESCO listed

3128-529: The configuration. Two services to Portsmouth are provided daily from the Terminal de la Citadelle until ceasing operations in 2014, the route has since been taken over by Brittany Ferries . The link to Ireland was moved to the port of Cherbourg . Crossing times to Portsmouth vary from five hours and thirty minutes to eight hours. Popular alternative routes going to areas close to Le Havre include Newhaven to Dieppe , and Poole to Cherbourg . The city and

3196-443: The demolition and rebuilding of more than 1,700 homes. For a long time Le Havre has exploited the strengths of its coastal location but also suffered from its relative isolation. This is why the accessibility of the city has been improved with the harbour highway A131 (E05) which links Le Havre to the A13 autoroute over Tancarville Bridge . The city is one hour from Rouen and one and a half-hour from Île-de-France . More recently

3264-406: The east (St. Cecilia, Aplemont). The Jenner tunnel passes under the "coast" and connects the upper town to the lower town. It is also on the coast that there are two fortifications of the city, Forts Sainte-Adresse and Tourneville, and the main cemetery (Sainte-Marie cemetery). With the demise of the military functions of the city, the forts are gradually being converted: Fort Sainte-Adresse houses

3332-468: The framework of the Marshall Plan , such as West Germany , Italy , and Japan . From 1946 to 1950, France, paralyzed by an obsolete economy and infrastructures, did not achieve real growth, and living conditions remained very difficult after the war and the penury which resulted from it. The cost of living rose. Rationing (present until 1947–1948) and the housing crisis accentuated the problems of

3400-586: The line connects the beach to the station climbing to the upper town through a new tunnel near the Jenner tunnel then it splits into two: one link going to Mont-Gaillard, the other to Caucriauville. Finally, since 2001 Le Havre agglomeration has operated the LER, a TER line connecting the Le Havre station to Rolleville passing through five other SNCF railway stations of the urban area. From 2005, development work for Segregated cycle facilities have increased including

3468-501: The metropolitan area has a dense transport network. This solves the problem of a break between the lower town and the upper town and the two parts of the city are connected by long boulevards, winding roads, many stairs, a funicular , and finally the Jenner tunnel. The CODAH transport network is called Lia and is operated by the Ocean Port Transport company (CTPO), a subsidiary of Veolia Transport . The overhaul of

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3536-470: The municipality. The city of Le Havre has long been the strongest bastion of the Communist Party of France , who directed it from 1956 to 1995. Overall, the inhabitants of Le Havre in the 7th electoral district (city centre and western neighbourhoods) tend to vote for the right while those of the 8th electoral district (eastern neighbourhoods) tend to choose the candidate of the left. For example, in

3604-408: The period 1950–74. The French standard of living , which had been damaged by both World Wars , became one of the world's highest. The population also became far more urbanized; many rural départements experienced a population decline while the larger metropolitan areas grew considerably, especially that of Paris . Ownership of various household goods and amenities increased considerably, while

3672-509: The port took off first with the slave trade then other international trade. After the 1944 bombings the firm of Auguste Perret began to rebuild the city in concrete. The oil, chemical, and automotive industries were dynamic during the Trente Glorieuses (postwar boom) but the 1970s marked the end of the golden age of ocean liners and the beginning of the economic crisis: the population declined, unemployment increased and remains at

3740-583: The presidential election of 2007, the 7th electoral district voted for Nicolas Sarkozy (UMP) by 55.05% against 44.95% for Ségolène Royal (PS) while in the 8th electoral district 55.02% voted for the Socialist candidate. However, the results of the 2012 presidential elections gave the PS wins in both districts with a smaller margin in the 7th (Hollande: 51.71% / Sarkozy: 48.29%) than in the 8th (Hollande 64.21% / Sarkozy: 35.79%). The number of inhabitants in Le Havre

3808-493: The project was suspended in 2007 but the work should finally begin in 2013. The municipality has to attract some 300,000 visitors per year. The upper town is composed of three parts: the "coast", the suburban districts of the plateau, and large peripheral housing estates. The neighbourhoods on the "coast" (the Dead Cliff) are residential – more prosperous in the western part (Les Ormeaux, Rue Felix Faure) and more modest to

3876-529: The region is the high variability of the temperature, even during the day. The prevailing winds are from the southwest sector for strong winds and north-north-east for breezes, snowstorms occur in winter, especially in January and February. The absolute speed record for wind at Le Havre – Cap de la Heve was recorded on 16 October 1987 at 180 kilometres per hour (112 miles per hour). The main natural hazards are floods, storms, and storm surges . The lower town

3944-583: The second largest subprefecture in France after Reims . It is the capital of the Arrondissement of Le Havre which includes 168 communes. It is also the largest member of the Le Havre Seine Métropole . Since 2015, the city of Le Havre is divided over six Cantons , some of which also cover neighbouring communes. For the parliamentary elections, Le Havre spans two constituencies: the seventh (former cantons I, V, VI, and VII) and

4012-631: The station, another construction project in place of the dilapidated island of Turgot-Magellan will be opened in 2013, including 12,500 m (135,000 sq ft) of office space and an eight-storey hotel, complete with shops on the ground-floor. The southern districts of Le Havre are mainly used for industrial and port activities. There are buildings in brick from the 19th century, large developments (Chicago, Les Neiges), worker estates, SMEs, warehouses, dock and port facilities, and transport infrastructure. The southern districts have for some years experienced profound change due to European funding. It

4080-413: The temperature drops below 0 °C (32 °F) on 24.9 days per year and it rises above 25 °C (77 °F) on 11.3 days per year. The average annual sunshine duration is 1,785.8 hours per year. Precipitation is distributed throughout the year, with a maximum in autumn and winter. The months of June and July are marked by some thunderstorms on average 2 days per month. One of the characteristics of

4148-459: The term was attested very early (12th century) and in Norman texts in the forms Hable , hafne , havene , havne , and haule makes a Dutch origin unlikely. By contrast, a Scandinavian etymology is relevant given the old Scandinavian höfn (genitive hafnar ) or hafn meaning "natural harbour" or "haven" and the phonetic evolution of the term étrave which is assuredly of Scandinavian origin

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4216-531: The territory of the Agglomeration community of Le Havre (CODAH) which includes 17 communes and 250,000 people. It occupies the south-western tip of the natural region of Pays de Caux where it is the largest city. Le Havre is sandwiched between the coast of the Channel from south-west to north-west and the estuary of the Seine to the south. Le Havre belongs to the Paris Basin which was formed in

4284-422: The three days of revolution on 27–29 July 1830 in France. As early as 1944, Charles de Gaulle introduced a dirigiste economic policy, which included substantial state-directed control over a capitalist economy. This was followed by thirty years of unprecedented growth, known as the Trente Glorieuses . Over this thirty-year period, France's economy grew rapidly like economies of other developed countries within

4352-457: The wages of the French working class rose significantly as the economy became more prosperous. As noted by the historians Jean Blondel and Donald Geoffrey Charlton in 1974, If it is still the case that France lags in the number of its telephones, working-class housing has improved beyond recognition and the various 'gadgets' of the consumer society—from television to motor cars—are now purchased by

4420-507: The wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in August, at around 18.4 °C (65.1 °F), and lowest in January, at around 5.7 °C (42.3 °F). The highest temperature ever recorded in Sainte-Adresse was 38.2 °C (100.8 °F) on 18 July 2022; the coldest temperature ever recorded was −13.8 °C (7.2 °F) on 17 January 1985. Quarterly, 1 and 4, azure a tower argent masoned sable, 2 and 3 gules an escallop Or;

4488-522: The working class on an even more avid basis than in other Western European countries. In his book Capital in the Twenty-First Century , French economist Thomas Piketty describes the Trente Glorieuses as an exceptional 'catch up' period following the two world wars. He cites statistics showing that normal growth in wealthy countries is about 1.5–2%, whereas in Europe growth dropped to 0.5% between 1913 and 1950, and then 'caught up' with

4556-533: Was a thirty-year period of economic growth in France between 1945 and 1975, following the end of the Second World War. The name was first used by the French demographer Jean Fourastié , who coined the term in 1979 with the publication of his book Les Trente Glorieuses, ou la révolution invisible de 1946 à 1975 ('The Glorious Thirty, or the Invisible Revolution from 1946 to 1975'). The term is derived from Les Trois Glorieuses ('The Glorious Three'),

4624-424: Was also rebuilt beginning in 1950 but in a radically different architectural style: the buildings are brick and have pitched slate roofs. This is the restaurant district and the fish market. To the east and north of the rebuilt central city are a stretch of old neighbourhoods (Danton, Saint-Vincent, Graville, Massillon, etc.) which were spared the bombings of World War II. The buildings, usually in brick, dated to

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