Misplaced Pages

#200799

54-699: John Cassian established a priory at Sainte-Baume in the early fifth century. According to the Tradition of Provence, Mary Magdalene , Lazarus of Bethany and Maximinus, one of the Seventy Disciples , and some companions, expelled by persecutions from the Holy Land, traversed the Mediterranean in a frail boat with neither rudder nor mast and landed at the place called Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer near Arles. Lazarus came to Marseille and converted

108-524: A coenobium following the model of Egypt, in contrast to the existing monastic life in Gaul, which included the work of Martin of Tours . According to Hugh Feiss the Institutes are a counterweight to Sulpicius Severus’ Life of Martin and Dialogues , and are an attempt to put order into a movement Cassian regarded as chaotic. Cassian, who insists on manual work, had a higher opinion of and close ties with

162-560: A Gallic origin. The son of wealthy parents, he received a good education: his writings show the influence of Cicero and Persius . He was bilingual in Latin and Greek. Cassian mentions having a sister in his first work, the Institutes , with whom he corresponded in his monastic life; she may have ended up with him in Marseille. As a young adult he traveled to Palestine with an older friend Germanus, with whom he would spend much of

216-547: A letter to Demetrias his contemporary Jerome referred to him as the son of the previous pope, Anastasius I . It has, however, been suggested that Jerome was describing a link merely hierarchical rather than biological. According to Urbano Cerri, Pope Innocent was a native of Albania . Innocent lost no opportunity to maintain and extend the authority of the Roman apostolic See , seen as final arbiter for all ecclesiastical disputes. That such opportunities were numerous and varied

270-628: A priest in Antioch between 404 and 415. In any case, he arrived in Marseille around 415. His foundation, the Abbey of St Victor , was a complex of monasteries for both men and women, one of the first such institutes in the West, and served as a model for later monastic development. Cassian's achievements and writings influenced Benedict of Nursia , who incorporated many of the principles into his monastic rule , and recommended to his own monks that they read

324-552: A saint, with a feast day on 23 July ( death anniversary ). Like his contemporaries Augustine of Hippo and John Chrysostom , he was never formally canonized, a process that came into use several centuries after his death. Pope Urban V referred to him as sanctus (a saint) and he was included in the Gallican Martyrology He is included also in the Roman Martyrology with a feast-day on 23 July. In

378-474: A will that is more complex than the will at the heart of the Pelagian message. Willful monks are a contentious problem, and Cassian paid considerable attention to analyzing the will, treating the corrupt will, and chiefly subordinating even the good will for the good of the community and ultimately, the will of God. Below is an outline of Cassian's Institutes : The Conferences , dedicated to Pope Leo , to

432-619: A witness to the Orthodox position. In The Book of Mystical Chapters , a compilation of sayings of the Church Fathers by renowned theologian and early church historian John Anthony McGuckin , Cassian is quoted as saying the following: The thief on the cross certainly did not receive the Kingdom of Heaven as a reward for his virtues but as a grace and a mercy from God. He can serve as an authentic witness that our salvation

486-578: Is attributed by Eastern Orthodox theologian Georges Florovsky also to the Eastern Orthodox Church, which, he says, "always understood that God initiates, accompanies, and completes everything in the process of salvation", rejecting instead the Calvinist idea of irresistible grace . Neither Cassian nor any of his teachings have ever been directly or indirectly called into question or condemned by Eastern Orthodox, as they are considered

540-517: Is evident from his communications with Victricius of Rouen , Exuperius of Toulouse , Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as how he acted when John Chrysostom appealed to him against Theophilus of Alexandria . On the Pelagian controversy he took a decided view. He reinforced the decisions of the synod of the province of proconsular Africa , held in Carthage in 416. He accordingly confirmed

594-405: Is given to us only by God's mercy and grace. All the holy masters knew this and unanimously taught that perfection in holiness can be achieved only through humility. According to some scholars, Cassian is a prominent representative of a monastic movement in southern Gaul which, ca. 425, gave expression to the soteriological view that much later was called Semipelagianism. This emphasized

SECTION 10

#1732773242201

648-539: Is omitted only if the hour begins with the Invitatory , the introduction to the first hour said in the day, whether it be the Office of Readings or Morning Prayer. Alphonsus Liguori also cites Cassian's recommendation to use this short prayer continually. In the West, Cassian's proposition that "the slightest glimmer of goodwill" could be attributed to the human drive was widely regarded as unacceptable in relation to

702-722: The Conferences be read to monks under his Rule. Moreover, the monastic institutions Cassian inspired kept learning and culture alive during the Early Middle Ages , and were often the only institutions that cared for the sick and poor. His works are excerpted in the Philokalia ( Greek for "love of the beautiful"), the Eastern Orthodox compendium on mystical Christian prayer. Even modern thinkers have been influenced by Cassian's thinking. Michel Foucault

756-509: The Conferences deal with "the training of the inner man and the perfection of the heart". His books were written in Latin , in a simple, direct style. They were swiftly translated into Greek, which indicates the Eastern monks recognized him as one of their own. Some of his works had been translated into Georgian by the 11th century. The Institutes were meant to help Castor to establish

810-478: The sack of Rome in 410 by Alaric I , Innocent I was willing to permit private pagan practices as a temporary measure. However, Zosimus also suggests that this attempt by pagans to restore public worship failed due to lack of public interest, suggesting that Rome in the previous century had been successfully and permanently won over to Christianity. Among Innocent I's letters is one to Jerome and another to John II, Bishop of Jerusalem , regarding annoyances to which

864-639: The Conference of Abbot Paphnutius; book 5, the Conference of Abbot Serapion; and most especially in book 13, the Third Conference of Abbot Chaeremon. The view that Cassian propounded Semipelagianism has been disputed. Lauren Pristas, writes: "For Cassian, salvation is, from beginning to end, the effect of God's grace. It is fully divine. Salvation, however, is salvation of a rational creature who has sinned through free choice. Therefore, salvation necessarily includes both free human consent in grace and

918-780: The Irish church, at the beginning of the ninth century, Cassian was commemorated on 25 November, as indicated in the Martyrology of Óengus: "Lasin nEoin Cassian assa érchain corann" (With John Cassian whose crown is very fair). Like the great majority of recognized saints of the church, he is not one of the saints in the General Roman Calendar , but the Archdiocese of Marseilles and some monastic orders celebrate his memorial on his feast day. In 2022, John Cassian

972-578: The beginning of his papacy, he was seen as the general arbitrator of ecclesiastical disputes in both the East and the West. He confirmed the prerogatives of the Archbishop of Thessalonica , and issued a decretal on disciplinary matters referred to him by the Bishop of Rouen . He defended the exiled John Chrysostom and consulted with the bishops of Africa concerning the Pelagian controversy, confirming

1026-635: The behest of Jean-Baptiste Henri Lacordaire . In 1941, a hostel and school were established to serve as refuge for those fleeing Nazi persecution. 43°19′N 5°45′E  /  43.317°N 5.750°E  / 43.317; 5.750 John Cassian John Cassian , also known as John the Ascetic and John Cassian the Roman ( Latin : Ioannes Eremita Cassianus , Ioannus Cassianus , or Ioannes Massiliensis ; Greek : Ίωάννης Κασσιανός ό Ερημίτης; c.  AD 360 – c.  435 ),

1080-458: The bishop of Fréjus , and to the monk Helladius, summarize important conversations that Cassian had with elders from the monastery at Scetis about principles of the spiritual and ascetic life. This book addresses specific problems of spiritual theology and the ascetic life. It was later read in Benedictine communities after the evening meal, and from the Latin title, Collationes , comes

1134-534: The condemnation in 411 against Cælestius, who was of the Pelagian view. In the same year he wrote likewise to the fathers of the Numidian synod of Mileve who had appealed to him. Soon after this, five African bishops, among them St. Augustine, wrote a personal letter to Innocent explaining their own position on Pelagianism. In addition he acted as metropolitan over the bishops of Italia Suburbicaria. The historian Zosimus, in his Historia Nova , suggests that during

SECTION 20

#1732773242201

1188-521: The decisions of the African synods. The Catholic priest-scholar Johann Peter Kirsch , 1500 years later, described Innocent as a very energetic and highly gifted individual "...who fulfilled admirably the duties of his office". According to his biographer in the Liber Pontificalis , Innocent was a native of Albano Laziale and the son of a man called Innocentius. On the other hand, in

1242-413: The deep desert or into remote forests. His asceticism, while rigorous, was tempered by common sense. Cassian says hospitality should override ascetical routine. Even the most contemplative of anchorites should entertain visitors. Both asceticism and ministry are aspects of the practical life. In his Conferences , Cassian recommended as "absolutely necessary for possessing the perpetual awareness of God"

1296-510: The face of any crisis, the humility of a devout confession, the watchfulness of concern and of constant fear, a consciousness of one's own frailty, the assurance being heard, and confidence in a protection that is always present and at hand, for whoever calls unceasingly on his protector is sure that he is always present. It contains a burning love and charity, an awareness of traps, and a fear of enemies. Seeing oneself surrounded by these day and night, one confesses that one cannot be set free without

1350-533: The former had been subjected by the Pelagians at Bethlehem . He died on 12 March 417. Accordingly, his feast day is now celebrated on 12 March, though from the thirteenth to the twentieth century he was commemorated on 28 July. His successor was Zosimus . In 405, Pope Innocent sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, Exsuperius of Toulouse , identical with that of Trent (which took place more than 1000 years later), except for some uncertainty in

1404-519: The formula in Psalm 70 (69) v. 2, Deus, in adiutorium meum intende. Domine, ad adiuvandum me festina ("God, incline unto my aid; O Lord, make haste to help me"). He says of it: Not without reason has this verse been selected out of the whole body of Scripture. For it takes up all the emotions that can be applied to human nature and with great correctness and accuracy it adjusts itself to every condition and every attack. It contains an invocation of God in

1458-566: The gradual rehabilitation in grace of the faculty of free choice. Thus Cassian insists salvation is also fully human. His thought, however, is not Semi-Pelagian, nor do readers who submit to the whole corpus emerge Semi-Pelagians." And Augustine Casiday states that "for Cassian ... although sparks of goodwill may exist (which are not directly caused by God), they are totally inadequate and only direct divine intervention can ensure our spiritual progress". The Latin Church condemned Semipelagianism in

1512-592: The help of one's defender. This verse is an unassailable wall, an impenetrable breastplate, and a very strong shield for those who labour under the attack of demons. Benedict of Nursia praises Cassian's Conferences in his rule and use of this formula became part of the Liturgy of the Hours in the Western Church, in which all the canonical hours , including the minor hours, start with this versicle , which

1566-553: The initial sin of pride. Cassian illustrates advanced cases of the will's pathology in the Institutions , saying these problems began when man "believed himself capable of attaining the glory of the Godhead by his freedom of will and hard work." To this end, Cassian believes the renunciate must conquer his will, overcome it, and even kill it. In regards to demons, Cassian noted that the earliest coenobites would ensure one monk

1620-560: The intervention of divine grace first; and the Presbyterian theologian B. B. Warfield called Cassian the leader of the monastics in southern Gaul who asserted that men begin their turning to God and that God assists that beginning. The spiritual traditions of Cassian had an immeasurable effect on Western Europe. Many different western spiritualities, from that of St Benedict of Nursia to that of St Ignatius of Loyola , owe their basic ideas to Cassian. Pope Gregory I 's teaching on

1674-469: The local Council of Orange (529) , but recognizes Cassian himself as a saint. It did not endorse Augustine entirely and, while later Catholic theologians accepted Augustine's authority, they interpreted his views in the light of writers such as Cassian. Augustine Casiday states that Cassian "boldly asserts that God's grace, not human free will , is responsible for 'everything which pertains to salvation' - even faith." Some other Orthodox, who do not apply

Sainte-Baume - Misplaced Pages Continue

1728-508: The majority of the monks received the message of their patriarch "with bitterness", and charged Theophilus with heresy for impugning the plain teaching of scripture. Following an unsuccessful journey to Alexandria to protest the matter, Cassian and Germanus fled with about 300 other Origenist monks. Cassian and Germanus went to Constantinople , where they appealed to the Patriarch of Constantinople , John Chrysostom , for protection. Cassian

1782-662: The manuscript tradition about whether the letters ascribed to Paul were 14 or only 13, in the latter case possibly implying omission of the Epistle to the Hebrews . Previously in 367, Athanasius of Alexandria had circulated the 39th Easter Letter mentioning the list of Scripture, both Old and New Testament, which he referred to as "canonized". In 846, Pope Sergius II gave approval for the relics of St. Innocent to be moved by Count Liudolf of Saxony and his wife, Oda , along with those of his father and predecessor Anastasius , to

1836-468: The monastery on the Island of Lerins , founded by Honoratus . In Books 1–4 of Institutions , Cassian discusses clothing, prayer and rules of monastic life. Books 5–12 are rules on morality, specifically addressing the eight vices  – gluttony , lust , greed , hubris , wrath , envy , listlessness , and boasting  – and what to do to cure these vices. In the Institutions , Cassian discusses

1890-592: The next twenty-five years. There they entered a hermitage near Bethlehem . After remaining in that community for about three years, they journeyed to the desert of Scete in Egypt , which was rent by Christian struggles. There they visited a number of monastic foundations. Approximately fifteen years later, about 399, Cassian and Germanus faced the Anthropomorphic controversy provoked in letter form by Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria . Cassian noted that

1944-685: The poor as much as their resources allowed. Many monks died never having moved past this period. The final stage was the Unitio ( theosis in Greek), a period in which the soul of the monk was meant to bond with the Spirit of God in a union often described as the marriage of the Song of Solomon (also called the "Song of Songs" or the "Canticle of Canticles"). To find the solitude and peace that this level of mystical awareness demanded, elderly monks often fled into

1998-534: The prosperity of the Augustinianism of the period (Conf. 13.7.1; cf Prosper of Aquitaine Contra Collatorem; Cassiodorus, Institutiones 1.29; Decretum Gelasianum V.7 ) . In his Thirteenth Conference and in writings to the Monks of Lerins, Cassian qualifies this by saying the good will is "stirred" by God: For when God sees us inclined to will what is good, He meets, guides, and strengthens us: for "At

2052-792: The request of Bishop Castor of Apt in Gallia Narbonensis, Cassian wrote two major spiritual works, the De institutis coenobiorum ( Institutes of the Coenobia ) and the Conlationes or Collationes patrum in scythica eremo ( Conferences of the Desert Fathers ). In these, he codified and transmitted the wisdom of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. The Institutes deal with the external organization of monastic communities, while

2106-502: The role of free will in that the first steps of salvation are in the power of the individual, without the need for divine grace . His thought has been described as a "middle way" between Pelagianism , which taught that the will alone was sufficient to live a sinless life, and the view of Augustine of Hippo , which emphasizes original sin and the absolute need for grace. For instance, Anglican priest and historian Owen Chadwick stated that Cassian held that man can come to God without

2160-590: The role of God's justice and grace (predestination) and take a more negative view of human effort. His teaching on overcoming the eight evil tendencies (See Books 5 to 12 of The Institutes) were the inspiration behind the way the Irish monks practised asceticism, as shown in the Irish Penitentials. The Institutes had a direct influence on organization of monasteries described in the Rule of Saint Benedict ; Benedict also recommended that ordered selections of

2214-418: The same as those of Evagrius Ponticus , but he added his own ideas, which were arranged in extensive collections. Evagrius was, however, the single most important influence on Cassian's ideas, due to his reverence for the "Origenist" monks (who also relied predominantly on Evagrius) of Nitria , Kellia , and Scetis , three early monastic centres in the desert of the northwestern Nile Delta . Around 420, at

Sainte-Baume - Misplaced Pages Continue

2268-504: The seven deadly sins comes from Cassian, as does much of his teaching on compunction and prayer. Philip Neri used to read Cassian to the laity and would frequently use his work as the starting point for his own addresses. He also influenced John Climacus and John of Damascus , as well as Saint Dominic , Francis de Sales , and John Henry Newman . Cassian's writings stress the role of prayer and personal asceticism in attaining salvation by contrast with Augustine's writings which stress

2322-633: The term "Semi-Pelagian" to their theology, criticize the Roman Catholics for allegedly rejecting Cassian, whom they accept as fully orthodox, and for holding, as, in Casiday's interpretation, that everything which pertains to salvation comes from God's grace, and so that even the human consent to God's justifying action is itself an effect of grace, This position of the Roman Catholic Church and of Cassian as interpreted by Casiday

2376-440: The voice of thy cry, as soon as He shall hear, He will answer thee;" and: "Call upon Me," He says, "in the day of tribulation and I will deliver thee, and thou shalt glorify Me." And again, if He finds that we are unwilling or have grown cold, He stirs our hearts with salutary exhortations, by which a good will is either renewed or formed in us. Cassian finds the will to be insufficient for spiritual progress, and traces this back to

2430-627: The whole of Provence. Magdalene is said to have retired to a cave on a hill by Marseille, La Sainte-Baume ("Holy Cave", baumo in Provençal), where she gave herself up to a life of prayer and contemplation. The cave is now a Christian pilgrimage site. Louis IX of France visited the grotto in 1254. The site was under the management of the Dominicans when it was pillaged during the French Revolution. They subsequently returned in 1859 at

2484-610: The word collation in the sense of "light meal". Outline of Cassian's Conferences : The desert ascetics of Egypt followed a three-step path to mysticism: Purgatio , Illuminatio , and Unitio . These stages correspond to the three ways of later Catholic theology. During the first level, Purgatio (in Greek, Catharsis ), young monks struggled through prayer and ascetic practices to gain control of "the flesh"—specifically by purging their gluttony, lust and desire for possessions. This period of purgation, which often took many years,

2538-468: The works of Cassian. Since Benedict's rule is still followed by Benedictine , Cistercian , and Trappist monks, John Cassian's thought still exercises influence over the spiritual lives of thousands of men and women in the Latin Church . Cassian died in 435 at Marseille. Cassian came very late into writing and did so only when a request was made by one or more important persons. His sources were

2592-488: Was a Christian monk and theologian celebrated in both the Western and Eastern churches for his mystical writings. Cassian is noted for his role in bringing the ideas and practices of early Christian monasticism to the medieval West. Cassian was born around 360, most likely in the region of Scythia Minor (now Dobruja , a historical region shared today by Romania and Bulgaria ), although some scholars assume

2646-601: Was fascinated by the rigorous way Cassian defined and struggled against the "flesh". Perhaps because of investigations like these, Cassian's thought and writings are enjoying a recent popularity even in non-religious circles. He is a saint of the Eastern Orthodox Churches , with a feast day on 29 February. Because this day occurs only once every four years on leap years , official church calendars often transfer his feast to another date (usually 28 February). The Roman Catholic Church also ranks him as

2700-827: Was intended to teach young monks that whatever strength they had to resist these desires ( grace ) came directly from the Holy Spirit . At this point, the Illuminatio ( theoria in Greek) commenced. During this period the monks practiced the paths to holiness as revealed in the Gospel, identifying strongly with the Christ who taught the Sermon on the Mount (found in Matthew 5–7). Many monks took in visitors and students and tended

2754-616: Was officially added to the Episcopal Church liturgical calendar with a feast day on 23 July. Cassian's relics are kept in an underground chapel in the Monastery of Saint Victor in Marseilles . His head and right hand are in the main church there. Online texts Others Pope Innocent I Pope Innocent I ( Latin : Innocentius I ) was the bishop of Rome from 401 to his death on 12 March 417. From

SECTION 50

#1732773242201

2808-587: Was ordained a deacon and became a member of the clergy attached to the patriarch while the struggles with the imperial family ensued. When the patriarch was forced into exile from Constantinople in 404, the Latin-speaking Cassian was sent to Rome to plead his cause before Pope Innocent I . While he was in Rome, Cassian accepted the invitation to found an Egyptian-style monastery in southern Gaul , near Marseille . He may also have spent time as

2862-515: Was reciting a prayer, psalmody, or reading at all times, due to their belief that demons were especially prevalent at night. Cassian promotes David's evil spirit repulsing prayer at Ps. 35: 1–3, for demons actively oppose the virtuous life, and could be warded off with prayer. His third book, On the Incarnation of the Lord , was a defense of orthodox doctrine against the views of Nestorius , and

2916-626: Was written at the request of the Archdeacon of Rome, later Pope Leo I . In this book Cassian points out a link between Nestorianism which stresses the humanity of Jesus and Pelagianism which stresses human effort. Later theologians, however, labeled Cassian as " Semipelagian " because he stressed the role of the human will , as opposed to Augustine's stress on the totality of grace, in moving towards salvation. The ideas expressed by Cassian to which critics have pointed as examples of his alleged Semipelagianism are found in his Conferences , in book 3,

#200799