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80-580: At the end of the ninth century (898–900) coins were minted named after Muhammad ibn Abu Saj. Muhammad ibn Abu Saj succeeded in incorporating much of the South Caucasus into the Sajid state. The first capital of Sajids was Maragha though they usually resided in Barda . Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj came to power in 901 and demolished the walls of Maragha and moved the capital to Ardabil . The eastern borders of

160-753: A Greek historian who is known as 'the Father of History' and Strabo , a Greek geographer, philosopher, and historian, spoke about autochthonous peoples of the Caucasus in their books. In the Middle Ages, various people, including Scythians , Alani , Huns , Khazars , Arabs , Seljuq Turks , and Mongols settled in Caucasia. These invasions influenced on the culture of the peoples of the South Caucasus. In parallel Middle Eastern influence disseminated

240-704: A cave in Georgia. Discoveries in the Hotu cave and the adjacent Kamarband cave , near the town of Behshahr , Mazandaran south of the Caspian in Iran, suggest human habitation of the area as early as 11,000 years ago. Ancient Greeks focused on the civilization on the south shore – they call it the (H)yr(c/k)anian Sea ( Ancient Greek : Υρκανία θάλαττα , with sources noting the latter word was evolving then to today's Thelessa : late Ancient Greek : θάλασσα ). Hafiz-i Abru ,

320-567: A fall in sea level . The Caspian Sea was a comparatively small endorheic lake during the Pliocene , but its surface area increased fivefold around the time of the Pliocene-Pleistocene transition. During warm and dry climatic periods, the landlocked sea almost dried up, depositing evaporitic sediments like halite that were covered by wind-blown deposits and were sealed off as an evaporite sink when cool, wet climates refilled

400-683: A fourteenth century Timurid Empire geographer, recorded that the destruction of the Oxus river dam and irrigation works diverted the river flow towards the Caspian Sea, which caused the Aral sea to nearly disappear. Later, in the Tang dynasty (618–907), the sea was the western limit of the Chinese Empire. The area is rich in fossil fuels . Oil wells were being dug in the region as early as

480-488: A result of the petrochemical industry; this has significantly decreased the number of species of marine birds in the area. Existing and planned oil and gas pipelines under the sea further increase the potential threat to the environment. The high concentration of mud volcanoes under the Caspian Sea were thought to be the cause of a fire that broke out 75 kilometers from Baku on July 5, 2021. The State oil company of Azerbaijan SOCAR said preliminary information indicated it

560-484: Is a wholly freshwater species. The zebra mussel is native to the Caspian and Black Sea basins, but has become an invasive species elsewhere, when introduced. The area has given its name to several species, including the Caspian gull and the Caspian tern . The Caspian seal ( Pusa caspica ) is the only aquatic mammal endemic to the Caspian Sea, being one of very few seal species that live in inland waters, but it

640-405: Is different from those inhabiting freshwaters due to the hydrological environment of the sea. A century ago the Caspian was home to more than one million seals . Today, fewer than 10% remain. Archeological studies of Gobustan Rock Art have identified what may be oceanic species including cetaceans from baleen whales to dolphins , and auks most likely Brunnich's Guillemot , although

720-675: Is divided into three distinct physical regions: the Northern, Middle, and Southern Caspian. The Northern–Middle boundary is the Mangyshlak Threshold, which runs through Chechen Island and Cape Tiub-Karagan. The Middle–Southern boundary is the Apsheron Threshold , a sill of tectonic origin between the Eurasian continent and an oceanic remnant, that runs through Zhiloi Island and Cape Kuuli. The Garabogazköl Bay

800-511: Is in the South Caucasus; the majority of present-day Georgia and Azerbaijan , including the exclave of Nakhchivan , also fall within the region. Parts of Iran and Turkey are also included within the region of the South Caucasus. Goods produced in the region include oil , manganese ore , tea , citrus fruits , and wine . It remains one of the most politically tense regions in the post- Soviet area, and contains two heavily disputed areas: Abkhazia and South Ossetia . Between 1878 and 1917,

880-551: Is predicted that during the 21st century, the depth of the sea will decrease by 9–18 m (30–60 ft) due to global warming and the process of desertification , leading to an ecocide . The sea's name stems from Caspi , the ancient people who lived to the southwest of the sea in Transcaucasia . Strabo (died circa AD 24) wrote that "to the country of the Albanians ( Caucasian Albania , not to be confused with

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960-453: Is the saline eastern inlet of the Caspian, which is part of Turkmenistan and at times has been a lake in its own right due to the isthmus that cuts it off from the Caspian. Differences between the three regions are dramatic. The Northern Caspian only includes the Caspian shelf, and is very shallow; it accounts for less than 1% of the total water volume with an average depth of only 5–6 m (16–20 ft). The sea noticeably drops off towards

1040-585: Is the world's largest inland body of water , described as the world's largest lake and usually referred to as a full-fledged sea . An endorheic basin , it lies between Europe and Asia : east of the Caucasus , west of the broad steppe of Central Asia , south of the fertile plains of Southern Russia in Eastern Europe , and north of the mountainous Iranian Plateau . It covers a surface area of 371,000 km (143,000 sq mi) (excluding

1120-570: The Khazar sea : Turkmen : Hazar deňzi ; Azerbaijani : Xəzər dənizi , Turkish : Hazar Denizi . In all these the first word refers to the historical Khazar Khaganate , a large empire based to the north of the Caspian Sea between the 7th and 10th centuries. In Iran, the lake is referred to as the Mazandaran Sea ( Persian : دریای مازندران ), after the historic Mazandaran Province at its southern shores. Old Russian sources use

1200-680: The 1877-78 Russo-Turkish War , Russia annexed Kars , Ardahan , Agri and Batumi from the Ottomans , joined to this unit, and established the province of Kars Oblast as its most south-westerly territory in the South Caucasus. After the fall of the Russian Empire in 1918, the South Caucasus region was unified into a single political entity twice, as the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and as

1280-600: The Achaemenid Empire , the Parthian Empire , and the Sassanid Empire , during which Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion in the region. However, after the rise of Christianity and conversion of Caucasian kingdoms to the new religion , Zoroastrianism lost its prevalence and only survived because of Persian power and influence still lingering in the region. Thus, the South Caucasus became

1360-701: The Arsacid dynasty of Iberia , and the Arsacid dynasty of Caucasian Albania . In the middle of the 8th century, with the capture of Derbend by the Umayyad armies during the Arab–Khazar wars , most of the South Caucasus became part of the Caliphate and Islam spread throughout the region. Later, the Orthodox Christian Kingdom of Georgia dominated most of the South Caucasus. The region

1440-683: The Azerbaijan Academy of Sciences estimated that the level of the sea was dropping by more than six centimetres per year due to increased evaporation due to rising temperatures caused by climate change . The Volga River , the longest river in Europe, drains 20% of the European land area and is the source of 80% of the Caspian's inflow. Heavy development in its lower reaches has caused numerous unregulated releases of chemical and biological pollutants. The UN Environment Programme warns that

1520-918: The Black Sea in the west to the Caspian Sea coast of Iran in the east. The area includes the southern part of the Greater Caucasus mountain range, the entire Lesser Caucasus mountain range, the Colchis Lowlands , the Kura-Aras Lowlands , Qaradagh , the Talysh Mountains , the Lankaran Lowland , Javakheti and the eastern portion of the Armenian Highland . All of present-day Armenia

1600-655: The Black Sea . In the late Pontian stage , a mountain arch rose across the south basin and divided it into the Khachmaz and Lankaran Lakes (or early Balaxani ). The period of restriction to the south basin was reversed during the Akchagylian – the lake became more than three times its size today and took again the first of a series of contacts with the Black Sea and Aral Sea . A recession of Lake Akchagyl completed stage one. The earliest hominid remains found around

1680-472: The European Parliament passed a resolution confirming Armenia meets Maastricht Treaty Article 49 requirements and that the country may apply for EU membership. The South Caucasus, in particular where modern-day Turkey , Georgia , Armenia and Iran are located, is one of the native areas of the wine-producing vine Vitis vinifera . Some experts speculate that the South Caucasus may be

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1760-605: The European Political Community , and participate in the EU's Eastern Partnership and Euronest Parliamentary Assembly . On 8 November 2023, the European Commission issued an official recommendation to grant EU candidate status to Georgia, which was confirmed on 14 December 2023. Georgia, thus becoming, the first country in the South Caucasus to receive EU candidate status. On 12 March 2024,

1840-630: The Khvalyn or Khvalis Sea ( Хвалынское море / Хвалисское море ) after the name of Khwarezmia . Among Greeks and Persians in classical antiquity it was the Hyrcanian ocean. Renaissance European maps labelled it as the Abbacuch Sea (Oronce Fine's 1531 world map), Mar de Bachu (Ortellius' 1570 map), or Mar de Sala (the Mercator 1569 world map ). It was also sometimes called

1920-678: The North Caucasus together comprise the larger Caucasus geographical region that divides Eurasia . The South Caucasus spans the southern portion of the Caucasus Mountains and their lowlands, straddling the border between the continents of Europe and Asia , and extending southwards from the southern part of the Main Caucasian Range of southwestern Russia to the Turkish and Armenian borders, and from

2000-635: The Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. Both times these Transcaucasian entities dissolved, although the region would remain politically bound together in the Soviet Union in the form of the three separate Soviet Socialist Republics of Armenia , Azerbaijan and Georgia . All three regained independence in 1991 when the Soviet Union dissolved . The Russo-Georgian War took place in 2008 across

2080-549: The Transcaucasus , is a geographical region on the border of Eastern Europe and West Asia , straddling the southern Caucasus Mountains . The South Caucasus roughly corresponds to modern Armenia , Georgia , and Azerbaijan , which are sometimes collectively known as the Caucasian States . The total area of these countries measures about 186,100 square kilometres (71,850 square miles). The South Caucasus and

2160-589: The Treaty of Gulistan that followed after the 1804-1813 war, Iran was forced to cede modern-day Dagestan , Eastern Georgia , and most of the Azerbaijan Republic to Russia. By the Treaty of Turkmenchay that followed after the 1826-1828 war, Iran lost all of what is modern-day Armenia and the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that remained in Iranian hands. After the 1828-1829 war,

2240-670: The Uzboy River , as did the Syr Darya farther north. The Caspian has several small islands, primarily located in the north with a collective land area of roughly 2,000 km (770 sq mi). Adjacent to the North Caspian is the Caspian Depression , a low-lying region 27 m (89 ft) below sea level . The Central Asian steppes stretch across the northeast coast, while the Caucasus mountains hug

2320-484: The Volga , enters at the shallow north end. Two deep basins form its central and southern zones. These lead to horizontal differences in temperature, salinity, and ecology. The seabed in the south reaches 1,023 m (3,356 ft) below sea level, which is the third-lowest natural non-oceanic depression on Earth after Baikal and Tanganyika lakes. Written accounts from the ancient inhabitants of its coast perceived

2400-553: The tidal areas of the Volga delta and riparian forests of the Samur River delta. The shoreline is also a unique refuge for plants adapted to the loose sands of the Central Asian Deserts . The principal limiting factors to successful establishment of plant species are hydrological imbalances within the surrounding deltas, water pollution , and various land reclamation activities. The water level change within

2480-401: The twelfth largest by nominal GDP and sixth largest by purchasing power parity in 2015. Russia's extensive mineral and energy resources are the largest such reserves in the world, making it the second leading producer of oil and natural gas globally. Caspian littoral states join efforts to develop infrastructure, tourism and trade in the region. The first Caspian Economic Forum

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2560-411: The 10th century to reach oil "for use in everyday life, both for medicinal purposes and for heating and lighting in homes". By the 16th century, Europeans were aware of the rich oil and gas deposits locally. English traders Thomas Bannister and Jeffrey Duckett described the area around Baku as "a strange thing to behold, for there issueth out of the ground a marvelous quantity of oil, which serveth all

2640-433: The Black Sea basin or widespread Palearctic species such as crucian carp , Prussian carp , common carp , common bream , common bleak , asp , white bream , sunbleak , common dace , common roach , common rudd , European chub , sichel , tench , European weatherfish , wels catfish , northern pike , burbot , European perch and zander . Almost 30 non-indigenous, introduced fish species have been reported from

2720-515: The Caspian "suffers from an enormous burden of pollution from oil extraction and refining, offshore oil fields, radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and huge volumes of untreated sewage and industrial waste introduced mainly by the Volga River". The magnitude of fossil fuel extraction and transport activity in the Caspian also poses a risk to the environment. The island of Vulf off Baku , for example, has suffered ecological damage as

2800-546: The Caspian Sea are from Dmanisi dating back to around 1.8 Ma and yielded a number of skeletal remains of Homo erectus or Homo ergaster . More later evidence for human occupation of the region came from a number of caves in Georgia and Azerbaijan such as Kudaro and Azykh Caves . There is evidence for Lower Palaeolithic human occupation south of the Caspian from western Alburz. These are Ganj Par and Darband Cave sites. Neanderthal remains also have been discovered at

2880-470: The Caspian Sea as an ocean, probably because of its salinity and large size. With a surface area of 371,000 square kilometres (143,000 sq mi), the Caspian Sea is nearly five times as big as Lake Superior (82,000 square kilometres (32,000 sq mi)). The Caspian Sea is home to a wide range of species and is famous for its caviar and oil industries. Pollution from the oil industry and dams on rivers that drain into it have harmed its ecology. It

2960-725: The Caspian Sea is an indirect reason for which plants may not get established. These affect aquatic plants of the Volga Delta, such as Aldrovanda vesiculosa and the native Nelumbo caspica . About 11 plant species are found in the Samur River delta, including the unique liana forests that date back to the Tertiary period . Since 2019 UNESCO has admitted the lush Hyrcanian forests of Mazandaran , Iran as World Heritage Site under category (ix). The Caspian turtle ( Mauremys caspica ), although found in neighboring areas,

3040-488: The Caspian Sea, but only a few have become established. Six sturgeon species, the Russian , bastard , Persian , sterlet , starry and beluga , are native to the Caspian Sea. The last of these is arguably the largest freshwater fish in the world . The sturgeon yield roe (eggs) that are processed into caviar . Overfishing has depleted a number of the historic fisheries. In recent years, overfishing has threatened

3120-431: The Caspian region economies are highly dependent on this type of mineral wealth. The world energy markets were influenced by Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan, as they became strategically crucial in this sphere, thus attracting the largest share of foreign direct investment (FDI). All of the countries are rich in solar energy and harnessing potential, with the highest rainfall much less than the mountains of central Europe in

3200-678: The Iranian languages and Islamic religion in Caucasus. Located on the peripheries of Iran , Russia and Turkey , the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the region has come under control of various empires, including the Achaemenid , Neo-Assyrian Empire , Parthian , Roman , Sassanian , Byzantine , Umayyad , Abbassid , Mongol , Ottoman , successive Iranian ( Safavid , Afsharid , Qajar ), and Russian Empires , all of which introduced their faiths and cultures. Throughout history, most of

3280-641: The Kumyk Sea and Tarki Sea (derived from the name of the Kumyks and their historical capital Tarki ). The Caspian Sea is at its South Caspian Basin , like the Black Sea , a remnant of the ancient Paratethys Sea . Its seafloor is, therefore, a standard oceanic basalt and not a continental granite body. It is estimated to be about 30 million years old, and became landlocked in the Late Miocene , about 5.5 million years ago, due to tectonic uplift and

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3360-531: The Middle Caspian, where the average depth is 190 m (620 ft). The Southern Caspian is the deepest, with oceanic depths of over 1,000 m (3,300 ft), greatly exceeding the depth of other regional seas, such as the Persian Gulf . The Middle and Southern Caspian account for 33% and 66% of the total water volume, respectively. The northern portion of the Caspian Sea typically freezes in

3440-536: The Ottomans ceded Western Georgia (except Adjaria , which was known as Sanjak of Batum), to the Russians, who populated this new southern boundary mostly with undesirable citizens and tolerated heretics ( sektanty ). In 1844, what comprises present-day Georgia , Armenia , and Azerbaijan were combined into a single czarist government-general, which was termed a vice-royalty in 1844-1881 and 1905–1917. Following

3520-529: The Protection of the Caspian Sea against Pollution from Land-based Sources in order to ensure better protection for the biodiversity of the Caspian Sea. The rising level of the Caspian Sea between 1995 and 1996 reduced the number of habitats for rare species of aquatic vegetation. This has been attributed to a general lack of seeding material in newly formed coastal lagoons and water bodies. Many rare and endemic plant species of Russia are associated with

3600-710: The Russian-controlled province of Kars Oblast and the county of Surmalu uezd (present-day Iğdır Province ) were also incorporated into the South Caucasus. Nowadays, the region is referred to as the South Caucasus or Southern Caucasia ( Armenian : Հարավային Կովկաս , romanized :  Haravayin Kovkas ; Azerbaijani : Cənubi Qafqaz ; Abkhaz : Агырҭ Кавказ , romanized:  Agyrt Kavkaz ; Georgian : სამხრეთ კავკასია , romanized : samkhret k'avk'asia ; Russian : Южный Кавказ , romanized :  Yuzhnyy Kavkaz ). The former name of

3680-433: The Sajid dynasty extended to the shores of the Caspian Sea , and the western borders to the cities of Ani and Dabil (Dvin). Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj relations with the caliph were not good. In 908, a caliphate army was sent against Yusuf, but al-Muqtafi died and his successor, al-Muqtadir , moved a large army against Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj and forced him to pay a tribute of 120 thousand dinars a year. Abu'l-Hasan Ali ibn al-Furat

3760-647: The South Caucasus was usually under the direct rule of the various in-Iran based empires and part of the Iranian world . In the course of the 19th century, Qajar Iran had to irrevocably cede the region (alongside its territories in Dagestan , North Caucasus ) as a result of the two Russo-Persian Wars of that century to Imperial Russia. Ancient kingdoms of the region included Colchis , Urartu , Iberia , Armenia and Albania , among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including

3840-401: The South Caucasus, contributing to further instability in the region, which is as intricate as the Middle East, due to the complex mix of religions (mainly Muslim and Orthodox Christian) and ethno-linguistic groups. Since their independence, the three countries have had varying degrees of success in their relations with Russia and other countries. In Georgia, after the Rose Revolution in 2004,

3920-514: The amount of North Atlantic depressions that reach the interior, and they in turn are affected by cycles of the North Atlantic oscillation . Thus levels in the Caspian Sea relate to atmospheric conditions in the North Atlantic, thousands of kilometres to the northwest. The last short-term sea-level cycle started with a sea-level fall of 3 m (10 ft) from 1929 to 1977, followed by a rise of 3 m (10 ft) from 1977 until 1995. Since then smaller oscillations have taken place. A study by

4000-420: The area of not only military, but also religious convergence, which often led to bitter conflicts with successive Persian empires (and later Muslim-ruled empires) on the one side and the Roman Empire (and later the Byzantine Empire and Russian Empire ) on the other side. The Iranian Parthians established and installed several eponymous branches in the South Caucasus, namely the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia ,

4080-467: The basin. (Comparable evaporite beds underlie the Mediterranean .) Due to the current inflow of fresh water in the north, the Caspian Sea water is almost fresh in its northern portions, getting more brackish toward the south. It is most saline on the Iranian shore, where the catchment basin contributes little flow. Currently, the mean salinity of the Caspian is one third that of Earth's oceans. The Garabogazköl lagoon , which dried up when water flow from

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4160-421: The birthplace of wine production. Archaeological excavations and carbon dating of grape seeds from the area have dated back to 8000–5000 BC. Wine found in Iran has been dated to c.  7400 BC and c.  5000 BC, while wine found in Georgia has been dated to c.  8000 BC. The earliest winery , dated to c.  4000 BC, was found in Armenia. Caspian Sea The Caspian Sea

4240-408: The caliphate’s treasury. According to the Azerbaijani historian Abbasgulu aga Bakikhanov , from 908–909 to 919, the Sajids made the Shirvanshah Mazyadids dependent on them. Thus, at the beginning of the tenth century, the Sajid state included territories from Zanjan in the south to Derbent in the north, the Caspian Sea in the east, to the cities of Ani and Dabil in the west, covering most of

4320-488: The coasts, but none in the deeper parts of the sea. Ogurja Ada is the largest island. The island is 37 km (23 mi) long, with gazelles roaming freely on it. In the North Caspian, the majority of the islands are small and uninhabited, like the Tyuleniy Archipelago , an Important Bird Area (IBA). The climate of the Caspian Sea is variable, with the cold desert climate (BWk), cold semi-arid climate (BSk), and humid continental climate (Dsa, Dfa) being present in

4400-418: The country of Albania ) belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared". Moreover, the Caspian Gates , part of Iran 's Tehran province , may evince such people migrated to the south. The Iranian city of Qazvin shares the root of its name with this common name for the sea. The traditional and medieval Arabic name for

4480-423: The country to burn in their houses. This oil is black and is called nefte . There is also by the town of Baku, another kind of oil which is white and very precious [i.e., petroleum ]." Today, oil and gas platforms abound along the edges of the sea. During the rule of Peter I the Great , Fedor I. Soimonov was a pioneering explorer of the sea. He was a hydrographer who charted and greatly expanded knowledge of

4560-414: The country, like the Baltic states , began integrating into wider European society by opening up relations with NATO and the European Union . Armenia continues to foster relations with Russia , while also developing ties with the EU . Azerbaijan relies less on Russia, strategically partnering with Turkey and other NATO states. All three South Caucasus countries are members of the Council of Europe ,

4640-426: The current Caspian Sea and either the Arctic Ocean or North Sea , or the Black Sea . This is supported by the existences of current endemic, oceanic species such as lagoon cockles which was genetically identified to originate in the Caspian and Black Seas regions. The sea's basin (including associated waters such as rivers) has 160 native species and subspecies of fish in more than 60 genera . About 62% of

4720-415: The fish stocks, since it targets reproductive females. Reptiles native to the region include the spur-thighed tortoise ( Testudo graeca buxtoni ) and Horsfield's tortoise . The main geologic history locally had two stages. The first is the Miocene , determined by tectonic events that correlate with the closing of the Tethys Sea . The second is the Pleistocene noted for its glaciation cycles and

4800-424: The full run of the present Volga. During the first stage, the Tethys Sea had evolved into the Sarmatian Lake, that was created from the modern Black Sea and south Caspian, when the collision of the Arabian peninsula with West Asia pushed up the Kopet Dag and Caucasus Mountains , lasting south and west limits to the basin. This orogenic movement was continuous, while the Caspian was regularly disconnected from

4880-418: The highly saline lagoon of Garabogazköl to its east), an area approximately equal to that of Japan , with a volume of 78,200 km (19,000 cu mi). It has a salinity of approximately 1.2% (12 g/L), about a third of the salinity of average seawater . It is bounded by Kazakhstan to the northeast, Russia to the northwest, Azerbaijan to the southwest, Iran to the south, and Turkmenistan to

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4960-429: The inflow) and the Ural River discharge into the Caspian Sea, but it has no natural outflow other than by evaporation . Thus the Caspian ecosystem is a closed basin , with its own sea level history that is independent of the eustatic level of the world's oceans. The sea level of the Caspian has fallen and risen, often rapidly, many times over the centuries. Some Russian historians, such as Lev Gumilev , claim that

5040-399: The lands of modern Azerbaijan . During the reign of Yusuf ibn Abi'l-Saj, Russian raiders attacked the Sajid territory from the north via the Volga in 913–914. Yusuf ibn Abu Saj repaired the Derbent wall to strengthen the northern borders of the state. He also rebuilt the collapsed part of the wall inside the sea. In 914, Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj organized a campaign towards Georgia . Tbilisi

5120-440: The main body of the Caspian was blocked in the 1980s but has since been restored, routinely exceeds oceanic salinity by a factor of 10. The Caspian Sea is the largest inland body of water in the world by area and accounts for 40–44% of the total lake waters of the world, and covers an area larger than Germany . The coastlines of the Caspian are shared by Azerbaijan , Iran , Kazakhstan , Russia , and Turkmenistan . The Caspian

5200-453: The mountains of the west, which are also rich in hydroelectricity sources. Iran has high fossil fuel energy potential. It has reserves of 137.5 billion barrels of crude oil , the fourth largest in the world, producing around four million barrels a day. Iran has an estimated 988.4 trillion cubic feet of natural gas , around 16 percent of world reserves, thus key to current paradigms in global energy security. Russia's economy ranks as

5280-524: The northern portions of the Caspian Sea, while the Mediterranean climate (Csa) and humid subtropical climate (Cfa) are present in the southern portions of the Caspian Sea. The Caspian has characteristics common to both seas and lakes. It is often listed as the world's largest lake, although it is not freshwater : the 1.2% salinity classes it with brackish water bodies. It contains about 3.5 times as much water, by volume, as all five of North America's Great Lakes combined. The Volga River (about 80% of

5360-431: The region, Transcaucasia, is a Latin rendering of the Russian-language word Zakavkazye ( Закавказье ), meaning "[the area] beyond the Caucasus". This implies a Russian vantage point, and is analogous to similar terms such as Transnistria and Transleithania . Other, rarer forms of this word include Trans-Caucasus and Transcaucasus ( Russian : Транскавказ , romanized :  Transkavkaz ). Herodotus ,

5440-411: The rising of the Caspian in the 10th century caused the coastal towns of Khazaria to flood, resulting in the Khazars losing approximately two-thirds of their territory due to flooding. Over the centuries, Caspian Sea levels have changed in synchrony with the estimated discharge of the Volga, which in turn depends on rainfall levels in its vast catchment basin. Precipitation is related to variations in

5520-412: The rock art on Kichikdash Mountain which is assumed to depict either a beaked whale or a dolphin , it may represent the famous beluga sturgeon instead due to its size (430 cm in length). These petroglyphs may suggest potential presences of oceanic faunas in the Caspian Sea presumably until the Quaternary or even the last glacial period or antiquity due to historic marine inflow between

5600-529: The sea was Baḥr ('sea') Khazar , but in recent centuries the common and standard name in Arabic language has become بحر قزوين Baḥr Qazvin , the Arabized form of Caspian. In modern Russian language, it is known as Russian : Каспи́йское мо́ре , Kaspiyskoye more . Some Turkic ethnic groups refer to it with the Caspi(an) descriptor; in Kazakh it is called Каспий теңізі , Kaspiy teñizi , Kyrgyz : Каспий деңизи , romanized :  Kaspiy deñizi , Uzbek : Kaspiy dengizi . Others refer to it as

5680-432: The sea. He drew a set of four maps and wrote Pilot of the Caspian Sea , the first lengthy report and modern maps. These were published in 1720 by the Russian Academy of Sciences . Countries in the Caspian region, particularly Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan , have high-value natural-resource-based economies, where the oil and gas compose more than 10 percent of their GDP and 40 percent of their exports. All

5760-403: The southeast. The name of the Caspian sea is derived from the ancient Iranic Caspi people. The sea stretches 1,200 km (750 mi) from north to south, with an average width of 320 km (200 mi). Its gross coverage is 386,400 km (149,200 sq mi) and the surface is about 27 m (89 ft) below sea level . Its main freshwater inflow , Europe's longest river,

5840-905: The species and subspecies are endemic , as are 4–6 genera (depending on taxonomic treatment). The lake proper has 115 natives, including 73 endemics (63.5%). Among the more than 50 genera in the lake proper, 3–4 are endemic: Anatirostrum , Caspiomyzon , Chasar (often included in Ponticola ) and Hyrcanogobius . By far the most numerous families in the lake proper are gobies (35 species and subspecies), cyprinids (32) and clupeids (22). Two particularly rich genera are Alosa with 18 endemic species/subspecies and Benthophilus with 16 endemic species. Other examples of endemics are four species of Clupeonella , Gobio volgensis , two Rutilus , three Sabanejewia , Stenodus leucichthys , two Salmo , two Mesogobius and three Neogobius . Most non-endemic natives are either shared with

5920-421: The sturgeon population to the point that environmentalists advocate banning sturgeon fishing completely until the population recovers. The high price of sturgeon caviar – more than 1,500 Azerbaijani manats (US$ 880 as of April 2019 ) per kilo – allows fishermen to afford bribes to ensure the authorities look the other way, making regulations in many locations ineffective. Caviar harvesting further endangers

6000-593: The vizier of al-Muqtadir, played a key role in establishing peace, and since then Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj considered him his patron in Baghdad and often mentioned him on his coins. Peace allowed Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj to receive investiture of the governorship in Azerbaijan by the caliph in 909. After the dismissal (in 912) of his protector in Baghdad, vizier ibn al-Furat, Yusuf ibn Abi’l-Saj stopped annual tax payments to

6080-402: The western shore. The biomes to both the north and east are characterized by cold, continental deserts. Conversely, the climate to the southwest and south are generally warm with uneven elevation due to a mix of highlands and mountain ranges ; the drastic changes in climate alongside the Caspian have led to a great deal of biodiversity in the region. The Caspian Sea has numerous islands near

6160-639: The winter, and in the coldest winters ice forms in the south as well. Over 130 rivers provide inflow to the Caspian, the Volga River being the largest. A second affluent, the Ural River , flows in from the north, and the Kura River from the west. In the past, the Amu Darya (Oxus) of Central Asia in the east often changed course to empty into the Caspian through a now-desiccated riverbed called

6240-458: Was a mud volcano which spewed both mud and flammable gas. It is calculated that during the 21st century, the water level of the Caspian Sea will decrease by 9–18 m (30–60 ft) due to the acceleration of evaporation due to global warming and the process of desertification , causing an ecocide . On October 23, 2021, Kazakhstan President Kassym-Jomart Tokayev signed the Protocol for

6320-638: Was chosen as the center of military operations. He first occupied Kakheti and captured the fortresses of Ujarma and Bochorma, and returned after capturing several territories. After the death of Yusuf ibn Abu Saj, the last ruler of the Sajid dynasty Fath b. Muhammad b. Abi 'l-Saj was poisoned in Ardabil by one of his slaves, which ended the Sajid dynasty and enabled eventual expansion of the Sallarid dynasty into Azerbaijan in 941. Transcaucasia The South Caucasus , also known as Transcaucasia or

6400-677: Was then conquered by the Seljuk , Mongol , Turkic , Safavid , Ottoman , Afsharid and Qajar dynasties. After two wars in the first half of the 19th century, namely the Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and the Russo-Persian War (1826-1828) , the Russian Empire conquered most of the South Caucasus (and Dagestan in the North Caucasus ) from the Iranian Qajar dynasty , severing historic regional ties with Iran. By

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