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112-800: The college was founded 1588 and it is composed of six sections, that are five colonial baroque: the Colegio Grande, Colegio Chico, the chapel, El Generalito and the courtyard of los Pasantes, all completed in 1749; and one modern neo-baroque: the Amphitheater Bolívar completed in 1911. The Jesuits arrived in Mexico in 1572. With evangelization of the native population mostly complete in central Mexico, this order soon turned to establishing schools, especially schools for Criollo youth. They founded numerous colleges both in Mexico City and

224-426: A royal decree freeing all slaves who fled to Spanish Florida and accepted Catholic conversion and baptism (since 1690), most went to the area around St. Augustine , but escaped slaves also reached Pensacola and Cuba . Also, a substantial number of blacks from Haiti (a French colony) arrived as refugees to Spanish Louisiana because of these greater freedoms. The Spanish Santa Teresa de Mose (Florida) became

336-657: A Portuguese term, however, differs in that it refers to Brazilians of African ancestry . Spaniards born in the Spanish East Indies were called insulares . Whites born in colonial Brazil, with both parents born in the Iberian Peninsula, were known as mazombos . Europeans began arriving in Latin America during the Spanish conquest; and during the colonial period most European immigration

448-464: A boarding residence and school. Young men lived and studied at the school, which did offer classes, but San Ildefonso's students were also enrolled in the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico , taking classes there and with the old faculty of San Pedro y San Pablo. In the early 18th century, student population at the school had grown such that building expansion was needed. Work was begun on extending

560-569: A cause for this turmoil. It was only "under the rule of non criollos such as the Indian Benito Juárez and the Mestizo Porfiro Díaz " that Mexico "experienced relative [periods of] calm." By the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the criollo identity "began to disappear," with the institution of mestizaje and Indigenismo policies by the national government, which stressed a uniform homogenization of

672-523: A condor and a background of the volcanic mountains in central Mexico . Vasconcelos is said to have declared, "I have not come to govern the University but to ask the University to work for the people." When Obregón became President in 1920, he created the Secretariat of Public Education (SEP) in 1921 and named Vasconcelos as its head. Under Obregón, the national budget had two key expenditures;

784-563: A decisive influence in Octavio Paz 's El laberinto de la soledad ('The Labyrinth of Solitude'), with anthropological and aesthetic implications. Paz wrote that Vasconcelos was "the teacher" who had educated hundreds of young Latin American intellectuals during his many trips to Central and South America . Vasconcelos was a guest lecturer at Columbia University and Princeton University , but his influence on new generations in

896-528: A direct influence on the young writers, poets, anthropologists, and philosophers who wrote on this subject. He also influenced the point of view of Carlos Pellicer with respect to several aesthetic assumptions reflected in his books. Together, Pellicer and Vasconcelos made a trip through the Middle East (1928–1929) and were looking for the "spiritual basis" of Byzantine architecture . Other works, particularly La raza cósmica and Metafísica , had

1008-425: A frame of aesthetic monism . As he argued that only by the means of rhythm can humans able to know the world without any intermediation, he proposed that the minimal aspects of cognition are conditioned by a degree of sympathy with the natural "vibration" of things. In that manner, he thought that the auditive categories of knowledge were much higher than the visual ones. Later, Vasconcelos developed an argument for

1120-528: A fully-fledged independence movement. At the conspiración de los machetes , soldiers and criollo traders attacked colonial properties "in the name of Mexico and the Virgen de Guadalupe." As news of Napoleon I 's armies occupying Spain reached Mexico, Spanish-born peninsulares such as Gabriel de Yermo strongly opposed criollo proposals of governance, deposed the viceroy, and assumed power. However, even though Spaniards maintained power in Mexico City, revolts in

1232-597: A great deal of power, but he accrued even more by ignoring the standard structures, such as the University Council, to govern the institution. Rather, he exercised personal power and began implementing his vision of the function of the university. He redesigned the logo of the university to show a map of Latin America , with the phrase "Por mi raza hablará el espíritu" (The spirit will speak for my race), an influence of Rodó's arielismo . It also had an eagle and

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1344-456: A modest zoological theory, then as social biology that confers definitive preponderance to the English above all races. Every imperialism needs a justifying philosophy". ( La raza cósmica , 1948) "Hitler, although he disposes of absolute power, finds himself a thousand leagues from Caesarism. Power does not come to Hitler from the military base, but from the book that inspires the troops from

1456-455: A monumental staircase and contains most of the mural work done at San Ildefonso, and most of this was done by José Clemente Orozco between 1922 and 1927. In what was once the portico , there is a mural by Ramón Alva de la Canal entitled The Spanish Landing and Planting of the Cross on New Land done in 1922. This fresco is considered to be the first of "The New School" of painting dealing with

1568-474: A new building was ordered for the land against and behind the Colegio Grande. The amphitheatre was built by architect Samuel Chavez between 1906 and 1911. Another building that served as the dean's offices was finished in 1931 and designed by architect Pablo Flores. Both the amphitheatre and the dean's offices were designed to copy the Baroque style of the rest of the complex but, according to critics, both contain

1680-535: A number of cities," his forces failed to capture Mexico City. In the summer of 1811, Hidalgo was captured by the Spanish and executed. Despite being led by a criollo, many criollos did not initially join the Mexican independence movement, and it was reported that "fewer than one hundred criollos fought with Hidalgo," despite their shared caste status. While many criollos in the period resented their "second-class status" compared to peninsulares , they were "afraid that

1792-469: A number of paintings, this room also has an elaborately carved professor's chair that was made for the Preparatory School. The smaller courtyard of the Colegio Grande is called the "Patio de los Pasantes." Pasantes (lit. "those who have passed") were those students who had completed all classes but needed to write their theses. When students reached this point, they were housed in this side of

1904-684: A period of severe economic decline," internal political turmoil, and substantial loss of territory. Leadership "changed hands 48 times between 1825 and 1855" alone, "and the period witnessed both the Mexican-American War and the loss of Mexico's northern territories to the United States in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and the Gadsden Purchase ." Some credit the " criollos ' inexperience in government" and leadership as

2016-654: A pious Catholic, died when José was 16. The family moved to the border town of Piedras Negras, Coahuila , where he grew up attending school in Eagle Pass, Texas . He became bilingual in English and Spanish, which opened doors to the English-speaking world. The family also lived in Campeche while the northern border area was unstable. His time living on the Texas border likely contributed to fostering his idea of

2128-567: A privileged economic situation, they faced limitations in accessing the high administrative positions that the Spanish empire reserved for the peninsular. This is how, after the independence of the United States and the French Revolution , among the enlightened Criollo elite, the spirit of independence from the Spanish Empire arose from the general captaincy of Guatemala. This would be consolidated by 1821 although time later

2240-529: A significant number of design errors. The lobby leading from the Just Sierra entrance has a double arcade decorated with elaborate Neo- Churrigueresque details. One the left is a fresco painted by Fernando Leal between 1931 and 1933. Named Epopeya bolivariana , it is a historical piece done in nine panels depicting the heroes that fought for independence in the various countries of the Americas . Inside

2352-475: A small powerful elite. However, Spaniards were often the most numerous ethnic group in the colonial cities, and there were menial workers and people in poverty who were of Spanish origin throughout all of Latin America. The criollos allowed a syncretism in their culture and gastronomy, and they, in general, felt more identified with the territory where they were born than with the Iberian peninsula. Evidence

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2464-583: A specific point of Mexican history. On the opposite wall of the portico is the Allegory of the Virgin of Guadalupe by Fermin Revueltas. During the commission of this work, after not being paid for a number of weeks, Revueltas staged a kind of a strike at the school. Armed with a pistol and being somewhat drunk, he forced the porter to close the doors of the school. Since neither students nor teachers could enter

2576-696: A wider musical scale than the indigenous pentatonic , and a melodic and poetic repertoire, transmitted by writings such as songbooks, common of it is the sung voice, common in the European baroque music, the mixed aesthetics are the fruit of diverse contributions indigenous, African and especially, Spanish and European. Instruments introduced by the Spanish are the chirimías , sackbuts , dulcians , orlos, bugles , violas , guitars , violins , harps , organs , etc., along with percussions (that can be indigenous or African), everything converges on music heard by everyone. The Dominican Diego Durán in 1570 writes, "All

2688-633: Is a term used originally to describe people of full Spanish descent born in the viceroyalties . In different Latin American countries, the word has come to have different meanings, mostly referring to the local-born majority. Historically, they have been misportrayed as a social class in the hierarchy of the overseas colonies established by Spain beginning in the 16th century, especially in Hispanic America . They were locally-born people–almost always of Spanish ancestry, but also sometimes of other European ethnic backgrounds. Their identity

2800-402: Is considered a satirical work and The Trench which is considered one of his best works. On the third floor corridor is another series of murals by Orozco known as New Ideals . The staircase connecting the three floors also contains Orozco's mural The Origin of Spanish America , but the upper portion of the staircase contains works by other artists. The southern wall of the stairway leading to

2912-526: Is reported to have said, "When the coffin was lowered into the ground, Vasconcelos sobbed bitterly. At that moment he must have known and felt who he really had as a wife; perhaps they were tears of belated repentance." He remarried the pianist Esperanza Cruz and they had a child, Héctor. Although Vasconcelos was interested in studying philosophy, the Porfiriato's universities focused on the sciences, influenced by French positivism . Vasconcelos attended

3024-425: Is their authorship of works demonstrating an attachment to and pride in the natives and their history. They sometimes criticized the crimes of the conquistadores , often denouncing and defending natives from abuse. In the colony's last two centuries criollos rebelled in response to the harsh suppression of Indigenous uprisings. They allowed the natives and the mestizos (indigenous/European mixed) to be schooled in

3136-630: The criollos ." Despite being descendants of Spanish colonizers, many criollos in the period peculiarly "regarded the Aztecs as their ancestors and increasingly identified with the Indians out of a sense of shared suffering at the hands of the Spanish." Many felt that the story of the Virgin of Guadalupe , published by criollo priest Miguel Sánchez in Imagen de la Virgen María (Appearance of

3248-552: The Law of Coartación or "slave law" was created since the 16th century, reaching its maximum peak in the 18th century, which made the black slaves to buy their freedom, through periodic payments to their owner, which eventually led to freedom. Others were freed and purchased by family members or allied whites. It was a consuetudinary act in Spanish America; it allowed the appearance of a large population of free blacks in all of

3360-547: The Mexican Revolution , was an important Mexican writer, philosopher, and politician. He is one of the most influential and controversial personalities in the development of modern Mexico. His philosophy of the " cosmic race " affected all aspects of Mexican sociocultural, political, and economic policies. Vasconcelos was born in Oaxaca, Oaxaca , on February 28, 1882, the son of a customs official. José's mother,

3472-643: The National Preparatory School , an elite high school in Mexico City , and he went on to Escuela de Jurisprudencia in Mexico City (1905). In law school, he became involved with a group of radical students organized as the Ateneo de la Juventud (Youth Atheneum). The Ateneo de Juventud was led by a Dominican citizen, Pedro Henríquez Ureña , who had read Uruguayan essayist José Enrique Rodó 's Ariel , an influential work published in 1900 that

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3584-791: The Oruro Rebellion prosecuted in Buenos Aires, and also for the lawsuit filed against Dr. Juan José Segovia , born in Tacna , and Colonel Ignacio Flores , born in Quito , who had served as President of the Real Audiencia of Charcas and had been Governor Mayor of La Plata (Chuquisaca or Charcas, current Sucre ). Until 1760, the Spanish colonies were ruled under laws designed by the Spanish Habsburgs , which granted

3696-538: The Spanish American Wars of Independence , criollos like Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla , Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín became the main supporters of independence from Spanish rule in their respective countries. The word is used today in some countries as an adjective defining something local or very typical of a particular Latin American country. The word criollo and its Portuguese cognate crioulo are believed by some scholars, including

3808-543: The spanish caste system of central america they had greater access to higher education. Many of them could receive a formal education, both in local schools and in universities in the colonial metropolis, Spain , or in other parts of America. This allowed them to have knowledge in law, administration and philosophy. In the Catholic church , many Criollos functioned as general officials of the church in America, such as bishops. Although many Central Americans who were part of

3920-458: The universities and art schools, and many natives and mestizos were actually notable painters and architects, mostly in the Andes, but also in Mexico. The mixed religious or secular music appears since the 16th century in Spanish and indigenous languages. Baroque music is imported from Spain but with European and African instruments (such as drums and congas ) appears. The Spanish also introduce

4032-570: The 1920s, soon after the Mexican Revolution , the government sponsored mural paintings with themes centering on Mexico's history and politics of the post-Revolution era. San Ildefonso was one of the first public buildings to be painted this way. The artwork was commissioned by Secretary of Education José Vasconcelos , a former director of the Preparatory School. Painters who contributed mural work include Ramón Alva de la Canal , Fermin Revueltas , Fernando Leal , José Clemente Orozco , Diego Rivera , David Alfaro Siqueiros , and Jean Charlot . Today

4144-544: The American provinces broad autonomy. That situation changed by the Bourbon Reforms of 18th century during the reign of Charles III . Spain needed to extract increasing wealth from its colonies to support the European and global wars it needed to maintain the Spanish Empire . The Crown expanded the privileges of the peninsulares , who took over many administrative offices that had been filled by Criollos. At

4256-531: The Americas separated into a number of independent republics. The word criollo retains its original meaning in most Spanish-speaking countries in the Americas . In some countries, however, the word criollo has over time come to have additional meanings, such as "local" or "home-grown". For instance, comida criolla in Spanish-speaking countries refers to "local cuisine", not "cuisine of

4368-490: The Anti-Re-election Party. Vasconcelos returned to Mexico City to participate more directly in the anti-re-election movement, became one of the party's secretaries, and edited its newspaper, El Antireelectionista . After Díaz was ousted by revolutionary violence that was followed by the election of Madero to the presidency, Vasconcelos led a structural change at the National Preparatory School . He changed

4480-771: The Bolívar Amphitheater itself, one of Diego Rivera's early murals The Creation is exhibited. Despite the mixture of styles and concepts, this mural contains some of the features that would become Rivera trademarks: generous curves in the human form, Mexican nationalist elements, geometric structure of the composition, and groupings of famous persons. Other paintings here include works by Emilio Garcia Cahera, Ernesto García Cabral , and Angel Bolivar. 19°26′9.78″N 99°7′50.37″W  /  19.4360500°N 99.1306583°W  / 19.4360500; -99.1306583 Criollo people In Hispanic America , criollo ( Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkɾjoʝo] )

4592-643: The Central American nations. For the following centuries of Spanish domination, many Criollos in Central America owned large areas of land and agricultural businesses. There are several records of Spanish families in Central America with enormous fortunes who managed to obtain noble titles from the crown. Cities like Santiago de los Caballeros and Comayagua were political centers where many of them had properties and some of their economic activities were concentrated. Unlike other peoples of

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4704-484: The Central American status quo, which in the following years began a civil war . Finally the Federation falls in 1841. In the middle of the 19th century the term "Criollos" would begin to disappear, this thanks to the fact that after the fall of the federation these republics would little by little begin to stop cataloging people by their origin or racial mix , thus the term Criollo would become only "White" although

4816-520: The Colonial period to evangelize the Catholic faith in what is now northern Mexico. The exhibition brought together pieces from Mexico, the U.S., and Europe. The museum is also an active participant in the effort to revitalize the historic center of Mexico City, offering space for cultural and business events, using the money earned to support its public cultural functions. There is also a gift shop in

4928-664: The Criollos ' Viracocha '; also, he says that Criollos are born in the middle of the Indigenous, are respected, and also loved by many, that they speak the language of the natives (in addition to Spanish) and used to Indigenous customs. After suppressing the Túpac Amaru II Uprising of 1780 in the viceroyalty of Peru , evidence began against the criollos ill will from the Spanish Crown, especially for

5040-527: The Díaz regime, continued to be used. Although Vasconcelos was no advocate of Mexican indigenous culture, as Secretary of Education he sent a statue of the last Aztec emperor, Cuauhtemoc , to Brazil for its centennial celebrations of independence in 1923, to the amazement of the South American recipients. He resigned in 1924 because of his opposition to President Plutarco Elías Calles . He worked for

5152-515: The Globe: the mission of fusing the peoples ethnically and spiritually." ( La raza cósmica , 1948) "Each of the great nations of History has believed itself to be the final and chosen one. ... The Hebrews founded the belief in their superiority on oracles and divine promises. The English found theirs on observations relative to domestic animals. From the observation of cross-breeding and hereditary varieties in such animals, Darwinism emerged. First, as

5264-559: The Jesuits) as well as one called Virgen del Rosario ( Our Lady of the Rosary ) both done in tecali. This portal opens to a hall that leads to a smaller patio. Colegio Grande or Large College is the largest and original portion of the complex. It consists of one large patio, surrounded on all four sides by simple rounded arches, hallways, and rooms and one smaller patio called the "Patio de los Pasantes." The school part has three floors with

5376-841: The Jurisprudence School, and housing several departments of the School of Medicine. During the Mexican American War and the French intervention , United States and French troops used this building as barracks. The old Jesuit school had almost completely fallen into ruin by the time of the Reform Laws in the 1860s. These Laws secularized most of Church property, including the San Ildefonso College building. In 1867, Benito Juárez began reform of

5488-520: The Mexican "cosmic race" and rejection of Anglo culture. At 24, he married Serafina Miranda of Tlaxiaco , Oaxaca , in 1906. Their children were José Ignacio and Carmen. He also had a long-term relationship with Elena Arizmendi Mejia and throughout his life many other shorter liaisons, including one with Berta Singerman . His troubled relationship with Antonieta Rivas Mercado led to her suicide inside Paris's Notre Dame Cathedral in 1931. When his wife of forty years died in 1942, their daughter Carmen

5600-636: The Mexican population under the Mestizo identity. As a result, "although some Mexicans are closer to the ethnicity of criollos than others" in contemporary Mexico, "the distinction is rarely made." During the Chicano movement , when leaders promoted the ideology of the "ancient homeland of Aztlán as a symbol of unity for Mexican Americans , leaders of the 1960s Chicano movement argued that virtually all modern Mexicans are Mestizos." The first great wave of Spanish settlers to Central American lands occurred after

5712-530: The Secretariat gave him a powerful position to implement his vision of Mexico's history, especially the Mexican Revolution. Vasconcelos printed huge numbers of texts for the expanded public school system, but in the 1920s, there was no agreement about how the Mexican Revolution should be portrayed and so earlier history texts by Justo Sierra , the head of the ministry of public education during

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5824-434: The Spanish peninsulares , "they felt they were unjustly treated and their relationship with their mother country was unstable and ambiguous: Spain was, and was not, their homeland," as noted by Mexican writer Octavio Paz . They [ criollos ] felt the same ambiguity in regard to their native land. It was difficult to consider themselves compatriots of the Indians and impossible to share their pre-Hispanic past. Even so,

5936-413: The Spanish monarchy, which suppressed expressions of open resentment from the criollos towards peninsulares for a short period. By 1623, criollos were involved in open demonstrations and riots in Mexico in defiance of their second-class status. In response, a visiting Spaniard by the name of Martín Carrillo noted, "the hatred of the mother country's domination is deeply rooted, especially among

6048-654: The Tacubaya neighborhood of Mexico City. His body was found reclining on the desk, in which he was working on one of his last literary works: Letanías del atardecer (‘Litanies of the evening’), published posthumously unfinished. Because of his qualities as a pedagogue and his strong support for Latin American culture, he was named “Teacher of the Youth of America” a title that is often abbreviated as "Teacher of America". With significant post-war activity Vasconcelos' first writings on philosophy are passionate reactions against

6160-431: The United States (and briefly, into Independent Texas ), Hispanos had enjoyed a privileged status in the society of New Spain , and later in post-colonial Mexico. Regional subgroups of Hispanos were named for their geographic location in the so-called "internal provinces" of New Spain: Jos%C3%A9 Vasconcelos José Vasconcelos Calderón (28 February 1882 – 30 June 1959), called the "cultural caudillo " of

6272-777: The United States gradually decreased. Nevertheless, his work La raza cósmica has been used by Chicano and Mexican-American movements since the 1970s, which assert the reconquista ('retaking' or literally 'reconquest') of the American Southwest , based on their Mexican ancestry. Vasconcelos caused the National Symphonic Orchestra (1920) and the Symphonic Orchestra of Mexico (1928) to be officially endorsed. Under his secretaryship, artists Diego Rivera , José Clemente Orozco , and David Alfaro Siqueiros were permitted to paint

6384-537: The Virgin Mary) in 1648, "meant that God had blessed both Mexico and particularly criollos , as "God's new chosen people." By the eighteenth century, although restricted from holding elite posts in the colonial government, the criollos notably formed the "wealthy and influential" class of major agriculturalists, "miners, businessmen, physicians, lawyers, university professors, clerics, and military officers." Because criollos were not perceived as equals by

6496-652: The academic programs and broke with the past positivistic influence. After Madero's assassination in February 1913, Vasconcelos joined the broad movement to defeat the military regime of Victoriano Huerta . Soon, Vasconcelos was forced into exile in Paris, where he met Julio Torri , Doctor Atl , Gabriele D'Annunzio , and other contemporary intellectuals and artists. After Huerta was ousted in July 1914, Vasconcelos returned to Mexico. The Convention of Aguascalientes in 1914,

6608-441: The beginning of criollo rule in Mexico as they became "firmly in control of the newly independent state." Although direct Spanish rule was now gone, "by and large, Mexicans of primarily European descent governed the nation." The period was also marked by the expulsion of the peninsulares from Mexico, of which a substantial source of " criollo pro-expulsionist sentiment was mercantile rivalry between Mexicans and Spaniards during

6720-484: The best among them, if rather hazily, admired the past, even idealized it. It seemed to them that the ghost of the Roman empire had at times been embodied in the Aztec empire . The criollo dream was the creation of a Mexican empire, and its archetypes were Rome and Tenochtitlán . The criollos were aware of the bizarre nature of their situation, but, as happens in such cases, they were unable to transcend it — they were enmeshed in nets of their own weaving. Their situation

6832-449: The building in 1712 and completed in 1749. This section of the complex is now known as the "Colegio Chico" (Small College) as opposed to the original section, called the "Colegio Grande" (Large College). The facade of both sections, which faces San Ildefonso Street, was constructed around this time as well. The school reached its height in the 18th century, becoming one of the most important educational institutions in Mexico City, along with

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6944-461: The building is a museum and cultural center. In 1978, the National Preparatory School was closed and the building remained closed to the public until 1992. In that year it was renovated for an exposition called "Esplendores de 30 siglos" (Splendors of 30 centuries). In 1994, the building was opened permanently as a cultural center and museum administered jointly by the National Autonomous University of Mexico, National Council for Culture and Arts , and

7056-461: The building. It has only three sides with arches, with the fourth side being a blank wall. Otherwise, this patio is similar to the larger one. While the Colegio Chico has undergone significant modifications since it was built onto the main college in the 18th century, it remains intact to this day. From the Colegio Chico entrance there is a simple stairwell. Siqueiros (muralist) painted the sides of this stairwell from 1922 to 1924, but he never finished

7168-490: The church, where children learn to play European instruments. In Quito (1609): "there were many dances of tall and small Indigenous, and there was no lack of Moscas Indigenous who danced in the manner of the New Kingdom [European] (...) and dances of Spaniards and blacks and other dances of the Indigenous must dance before the Blessed Sacrament and in front of the Virgin Mary and the saints at parties and Easter, if they don't do it then they are punished". The well-known Zambra mora

7280-431: The colonial economy or who lost their property due to debt or conflict found themselves in situations of poverty. In the same way, a Spanish immigrant and his descendants had certain facilities in climbing the social ladder, since their condition of purity of blood meant that they had greater opportunities to prosper in America than many mestizos , indigenous people , and people of African descent . Although they enjoyed

7392-456: The conquest of Tenochtitlan when they began to reach the soil of what is today Guatemala and the coasts of Honduras . Creoles in metropolitan America would quickly begin to take advantage of local mining, agricultural, and livestock production. The latter was very good in regions such as Honduras and Nicaragua . The towns where this population was settled enjoyed the construcction of large colonial buildings that today continue to be heritage of

7504-415: The conservative elites would vote to form part of the new Mexican empire , although this union would be ephemeral and by 1823 Central America would be an independent republic. At first it would be a conservative federal republic, although the liberal faction would come to take power under the command of General Francisco Morazan , who was a supporter of a liberal institution that challenged several aspects of

7616-591: The countryside were quickly spreading. Ongoing resentment between criollos and peninsulares erupted after Napoleon I deposed Charles IV of Spain of power, which, "led a group of peninsulares to take charge in Mexico City and arrest several officials, including criollos." This, in turn, motivated criollo priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla to begin a campaign for Mexican independence from Spanish colonial rule. Launched in Hidalgo's home city of Dolores , Guanajuato , in 1810, Hidalgo's campaign gained support among many "Amerindians and Mestizos, but despite seizing

7728-445: The criollos". In Portuguese, crioulo is also a racist slang term referring to blacks. In some countries, the term was extended or changed over the years: As early as the sixteenth century in the colonial period in New Spain , criollos , or the "descendants of Spanish colonists," began to "distinguish themselves from the richer and more powerful peninsulares ," whom they referred to as gachupines , as an insult. At

7840-410: The dancers and is considered a notable example of Neo-Baroque style. On one side of the hallway leading from the portal to the patio, there is the old chapel. This chapel was used as a library during the years that this was the preparatory school. This chapel contains a number of paintings. On the other side of the hallway, to the left of the "La Tinchera" mural, is "El Generalito" (the little general)

7952-427: The education of the masses and sought to make the nation's education on secular, civic, and Pan-American ( americanista ) lines. He ran for the presidency in 1929 but lost to Pascual Ortiz Rubio in a controversial election, and again left the country. He later directed the National Library of Mexico (1940) and presided over the Mexican Institute of Hispanic Culture (1948). José Vasconcelos died on June 30, 1959, in

8064-668: The educational system, taking it out of clerical hands and making it a government function. San Ildefonso was converted into the Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, or National Preparatory School, initially directed by Gabino Barreda , who organized the new school on the Positivist model of Auguste Comte ( Comtism ). The initial purpose of the school was to provide the nucleus of students for the soon-to-be-reconstructed Universidad Nacional (National University), later National Autonomous University of Mexico , which

8176-432: The elite or were respected landowners used to be Criollos, there were also those who were poor, since they were children of those Spaniards who migrated as laborers in the construction of churches and palaces in the general captaincy of Guatemala. It is also known that not all descendants of Spaniards in Central America had access to land, education or wealth. In some cases, Criollo families who were unable to prosper in

8288-554: The eminent Mexican anthropologist Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán , to derive from the Spanish/Portuguese verb criar , meaning 'to breed' or 'to raise'; however, no evidence supports this derivation in early Spanish literature discussing the origin of the word. In Spanish colonies, an español criollo was an ethnic Spaniard who had been born in the colonies, as opposed to an español peninsular born in Spain. Crioulo as

8400-610: The estipite designs on the Kings Altar of the cathedral are the first use of this design in New Spain. This portal has a relief named La imposición de la casulla a san Ildefonsus ("Putting on the chasuble on Saint Ildephonsus of Toledo ") and opens to a hall that leads to the largest patio. The portal leading to the Colegio Chico has a relief called El patrocinio de san Jose los Jesuitas ( Saint Joseph as patron of

8512-547: The failed attempt of anti-Huerta regime to find a political solution, split the factions. The leader of the Constitutionalists, Venustiano Carranza , and General Álvaro Obregón split with more radical revolutionaries, especially Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata . Vasconcelos chose the side of the Convention and served as Minister of Education during the brief presidential period of Eulalio Gutiérrez . Villa

8624-471: The final part of his life, he gradually fell into a deeply Catholic political conservatism. Before the Second World War, he had begun writing sympathetically about Francisco Franco , and he retracted some of his earlier liberal positions. One of his last published works, Letanías del atardecer (1957) is a pessimistic tract that hinted that the use of nuclear weapons might be necessary because of

8736-472: The first legally sanctioned free black town in the present-day United States. The popularity of the Law of coartación resulted in a large population of free black people in Spanish America. Also, Mexican historian Federico Navarrete comments: that "if they received the surname of the white father and incorporated them into their family, those children counted as American whites having the same rights, regardless of

8848-511: The formal, positivistic education at the National Preparatory School, formerly under the influence of Porfirian thinkers like Justo Sierra and Gabino Barreda . A second period of productivity was fed by a first disappointment in the political field, after Madero's murder. In 1919, he wrote a long essay on Pythagoreanism , as a dissertation on the links between harmony and rhythm and its eventual explanation into

8960-526: The general assembly room of the Preparatory School. This room got its nickname because despite its small size, it was still the room used for all major assemblies. It contains the elaborately-carved choir stalls that belonged to the Convent of San Agustin, created by Salvador Ocampo with relief work in wood. These stalls were probably created sometime in the last third of the 17th century. They were brought, refurbished, and installed here in 1890. In addition to

9072-524: The government of the Federal District of Mexico City. The museum hosts temporary art and archeological exhibits focusing on both Mexican and foreign cultures. One recent exhibition was called "Cicatrices de la Fe. El arte de las misiones del norte de la Nueva España 1600–1821" (Scars of the Faith. The art of the missions in the north of New Spain 1600–1821), focusing on the religious art used during

9184-775: The hands of the criollo elite as well as the church under the authority of criollo Agustín de Iturbide who became Emperor Agustín I of the Mexican Empire . Iturbide was the son of a "wealthy Spanish landowner and a Mexican ( criolla ) mother" who ascended through the ranks of the Spanish colonial army to become a colonel . Iturbide reportedly fought against "all the major Mexican independence leaders since 1810, including Hidalgo, José María Morelos y Pavón , and Vicente Guerrero ," and according to some historians, his "reasons for supporting independence had more to do with personal ambition than radical notions of equality and freedom." Mexican independence from Spain in 1821 resulted in

9296-627: The inner walls of the most important public buildings in Mexico (such as the National Palace in Mexico City), creating the Mexican muralist movement. "[T]he leaders of Latin American independence ... strove to free the slaves, declared the equality of all men by natural law; the social and civic equality of whites, blacks and Indians. In an instant of historical crisis, they formulated the transcendental mission assigned to that region of

9408-470: The lower one being larger. Most of the facade belongs to the Colegio Grande, or the original section of the college. There are two extremely large portals done in cantera with supporting relieves done in "tecali", a very white, almost transparent marble. On the far left of the pedestrian zone is the stone portal of the Colegio Chico. This is the oldest intact section of facade, and it is adorned with estipite (inverted truncated pyramid) pilasters. Either they or

9520-468: The military was one, but the other was education. Creating the Secretariat entailed changing the Constitution of 1917 , and so Obregón's government had to muster support from lawmakers. Vasconcelos traveled throughout Mexico while he was rector of the university to seek that support. His effort succeeded, and Vasconcelos was named head of the new cabinet-level secretariat in July 1921. His tenure at

9632-512: The mixing of races, as a natural and desirable direction for humankind. That work, known as La raza cósmica ('The Cosmic Race'), would eventually contribute to further studies on ethnic values as an ethic and for the consideration of ethnic variety as an aesthetic source. Finally, between 1931 and 1940, he tried to consolidate his proposals by publishing his main topics organized in three main works: Metafísica (' Metaphysics '), Ética ('Ethics'), and Estética (' Aesthetics '). In

9744-497: The newly independent university system, being designated as Preparatory #1 for a short time. As part of the student revolts of 1968 , some students hid inside the building, which resulted in an occupation by the Mexican Army, who entered the building by shooting a bazooka round on its 18th-century-old front door. Its name soon changed back to Escuela Nacional Preparatoria and remained so until 1978, when it closed completely. In

9856-423: The outlying provinces, but the most important of these was San Ildefonso, founded in 1588. In 1618, it merged with the old San Pedro y San Pablo College , which was nearly in ruins, and gained a royal seal from Philip III of Spain . Although administered by Jesuits, the education here was not solely dedicated to religious matters. San Ildefonso was not a college in the modern sense of the word, but rather more like

9968-468: The overthrow of the Spanish might mean sharing power with Amerindians and Mestizos, whom they considered to be their inferiors." Additionally, due to their privileged social class position, "many criollos had prospered under Spanish rule and did not want to threaten their livelihoods." Criollos only undertook direct action in the Mexican independence movement when new Spanish colonial rulers threatened their property rights and church power, an act which

10080-401: The patio of the Colegio Grande that offers museum publications, handcrafted jewelry, ceramics and textiles, as well as publications relating to the temporary and permanent collections of the museum. Although it no longer provides access inside the complex, the large facade that runs along almost the entire length of San Ildefonso Street is the original, with a wide pedestrian zone between it and

10192-478: The peoples have parties, and therefore it is unthinkable to remove them (because it is impossible and because it is not convenient either)", himself parade like the natives with a bouquet of flowers at a Christian party that coincides with the celebration of Tezcatlipoca in Mexico. The Jesuits develop with great success a "pedagogy of theatricality", with this the Society of Jesus attracts the natives and blacks to

10304-429: The postwar order. Vasconcelos is often referred to as the father of the indigenismo philosophy. In recent times it has come under criticism from Native Americans, because of its negative implications concerning indigenous peoples. To an extent his philosophy argued for a new, "modern" mestizo people, at the cost of cultural assimilation for all ethnic groups. His research on the nature of Mexican modern identity had

10416-433: The race". Also, a fact is in every marriage, including the most mixed, they are characterized, portrayed and named the caste product that was according to their ancestry, and if this can not, according to their appearance and color. Several documents mention that indigenous people called Criollos with the same name as one of their gods. For example, Juan Pablo Viscardo relates (1797) that the Indigenous (from Peru) call to

10528-524: The relationship between individual and society." After graduating from law school, he joined the law firm of Warner, John, and Galston in Washington, D.C. Vasconcelos joined the local Anti-Re-election Club in Washington, D.C. It supported the democratic movement to oust the longtime President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz in 1910 and was headed by Francisco I. Madero , the presidential candidate of

10640-506: The same time, Mexican-born Spaniards were referred to as criollos , initially as a term that was meant to insult. However, over time, "those insulted who were referred to as criollos began to reclaim the term as an identity for themselves. In 1563, the criollo sons of Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés , attempted to remove Mexico from Spanish-born rule and place Martín , their half-brother, in power. However, their plot failed. They, along with many others involved, were beheaded by

10752-583: The same time, reforms by the Catholic Church reduced the roles and privileges of the lower ranks of the clergy, who were mostly Criollos. By the 19th century, this discriminatory policy of the Spanish Crown and the examples of the American and French revolutions, led Criollo factions to rebel against the peninsulares . With increasing support of the other castes, they engaged Spain in a fight for independence (1809–1826). The former Spanish Empire in

10864-439: The school, classes were suspended. The situation was resolved when David Alfaro Siqueiros met with Education Minister José Vasconcelos to arrange payment in gold coins. The story ends with both Siqueiros and Revueltas spending the money at a local cantina . From the large patio of the Colegio Grande, one can see murals done by Orozco on all three floors. In the second floor corridor is a piece by Orozco called The Old Order which

10976-406: The street. The facade is a long wall which is covered in tezontle, a blood-red porous volcanic stone, with windows and doors arranged unevenly and pilasters dividing the façade horizontally. These windows and doors are framed with jambs and lintels in cantera, a grayish-white stone. Vertical pilasters made of chiluca , another kind of white stone, divide the facade, which has two levels with

11088-467: The term white in Central American countries can be broad since it includes populations that in other contexts are not classified as such. In the same way, it is known that there is still an important ethnic minority population descended from the Spanish in these countries. As the United States expanded westward , it annexed lands with a long-established population of Spanish-speaking settlers. This group became known as Hispanos . Prior to incorporation into

11200-536: The territory. Freedom could also be obtained through baptism , with the white recognizing his illegitimate children; his word was sufficient for the newborn child to be declared free. Legal freedom was more common in the cities and towns than in the countryside. Also, from the late 1600s to the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged slaves from the British colonies and the United States to come to Spanish Florida as refuge; King Charles II of Spain and his court issued

11312-465: The third floor is occupied by a mural by French artist Jean Charlot entitled The Conquest of Tenochtitlan . This work covers an aspect of Aztec history for the first time and is also noted for the use of metallic encrustations on the necklaces worn by Aztec lords. The northern wall contains a work called The Festivities of the Lord of Chalma by Fernando Leal. The work is noted for its use of bright color on

11424-474: The top. Hitler's power is not owed to the troops, nor the battalions, but to his own discussions... Hitler represents, ultimately, an idea, the German idea, so often humiliated previously by French militarism and English perfidy. Truthfully, we find civilian governed 'democracies' fighting against Hitler. But they are democracies in name only". (" La Inteligencia se impone ", Timon 16; June 8, 1940) Vasconcelos

11536-537: The university. However, the Jesuits were expelled from all Spanish lands in 1767, including Mexico, by Charles III . Operation of the school was then given to non-monastic clergy, and the school declined. The building continued to function as the San Ildefonso College between 1767 and 1867, but it was also used for other purposes, such as housing soldiers from the Flandes Regiment , being a temporary site of

11648-558: The work. Furthermore, much of the work was lost during later renovations. Only a work on the stairwell's ceiling, called The Elements , survives intact. The portals of the San Ildefonso Street side of the complex are no longer open for public access. The entrance to the complex is now on Justo Sierra Street through the Simón Bolívar Amphitheater. In 1906, due to the growth of the Preparatory School,

11760-471: Was "deplored by most criollos " and therefore brought many of them into the Mexican independence movement. Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821 under the coalitionary leadership of conservatives, former royalists, and criollos , who detested Emperor Ferdinand VII 's adoption of a liberal constitution that threatened their power. This coalition created the Plan de Iguala , which concentrated power in

11872-413: Was Spanish. In the 19th and 20th centuries millions of European and European-derived populations from North and South America did immigrate to the region. According to church and censal registers for Acatzingo in 1792, during colonial times , 73% of Spanish men married with Spanish women. Ideological narratives have often portrayed criollos as a "pure Spanish" people, mostly men, who were all part of

11984-405: Was cause for pride and for scorn, for celebration and humiliation. The criollos adored and abhorred themselves. [...] They saw themselves as extraordinary, unique beings and were unsure whether to rejoice or weep before that self-image. They were bewitched by their own uniqueness. As early as 1799, open riots against Spanish colonial rule were unfolding in Mexico City, foreshadowing the emergence of

12096-517: Was commonly danced by blacks, to the sound of castanets and drums. The Spanish Sarabande was danced by whites and blacks. Blacks also have their chiefs. In these local events, the brotherhoods of the Congos give rise to the Congadas (Brazil, Caribbean). Actually, there were no relevant black artists during the colony; also, one must consider the fact that many of the pure blacks were slaves , but

12208-725: Was defeated by the Constitutionalist Army under Obregón in the Battle of Celaya in 1915, and Vasconcelos went into exile again. Venustiano Carranza became President (1915–1920), but was ousted and killed by the Sonoran generals who had helped put him in power. Vasconcelos returned to Mexico during the interim presidency of Sonoran Adolfo de la Huerta and was named rector of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (1920) As rector, he had

12320-454: Was opposed to Anglo cultural influence but also emphasized the redemptive power of education. The Ateneo de la Juventud had a diverse membership, composed of university professors, artists, other professionals, and students. Some other members included Isidro Fabela and Diego Rivera . Opposed to the Díaz regime, it formulated arguments against it and its emphasis on positivism by employing French spiritualism, which articulated "a new vision of

12432-535: Was re-established in 1910 by Justo Sierra . The new preparatory school began functioning at the San Ildefonso building with more than 700 day students and 200 live-in students. The complex remained a separate entity until 1929, when the Universidad Nacional gained autonomy, meaning it became independent of the government, though still government-sponsored. The Preparatory School became part of

12544-500: Was strengthened as a result of the Bourbon reforms of 1700, which changed the Spanish Empire 's policies toward its colonies and led to tensions between criollos and peninsulares . The growth of local criollo political and economic strength in the separate colonies, coupled with their global geographic distribution, led them to each evolve separate (both from each other and Spain) organic national identities and viewpoints. During

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