78,570
104-430: [REDACTED] 8,713 103 Americans killed by Mexican liberals The Reform War , or War of Reform ( Spanish : Guerra de Reforma ), also known as the Three Years' War ( Spanish : Guerra de los Tres Años ), and the Mexican Civil War , was a complex civil conflict in Mexico fought between Mexican liberals and conservatives with regional variations over the promulgation of Constitution of 1857 . It has been called
208-643: A Centralist Republic in 1835 that lasted until the outbreak of the Mexican–American War in 1846. In 1854 there was a liberal revolt, known as the Plan of Ayutla against the dictatorship of Santa Anna . A coalition of liberals, including Benito Juárez , then governor of Oaxaca, and Melchor Ocampo of Michoacán overthrew Santa Anna, and the presidency passed on to the liberal caudillo Juan Alvarez . Juan Álvarez assumed power in November, 1855. His cabinet
312-1011: A School of Agriculture, and set aside funds for that purpose. In 1859, Dr. José Eleuterio González founded a school of medicine in Monterey. A 'Society for the Beneficience for the education and mercy of poor children'( Sociedad Beneficiencia para la educacion y amparo de la ninez desvalida ) was founded by the philanthropist Vidal Alcocer in October 1846. In 1858, the Society, in spite of an ongoing civil war, managed to raise funds for and maintain thirty three schools for poor children, attended by seven thousand students, teaching them reading and writing, grammar and arithmetic, art, religious instruction, and music. In at least one institution they also managed to provide food, board, and clothing. The Academy of San Carlos , an art school flourished in
416-571: A civil war and began to back away from Zuloaga. On 11 January 1858, Comonfort resigned and went into exile. He was constitutionally succeeded by president of the Supreme Court, Juárez. Mexican states subsequently chose to side with either the Mexico City based government of Zuloaga or that of Juárez which established itself at the strategic port of Veracruz . Initial choices for one side or the other often shifted over time. The first year of
520-412: A constitution actually led to a conservative revolt against him led by General Echegaray . He resigned in favor of Manuel Robles Pezuela on 23 December. On 30 December a conservative junta in Mexico City elected General Miguel Miramón as president. President Miramón's most important military priority was now the capture of Veracruz, the liberals' stronghold. He left the capital on February 16, leading
624-444: A level of sovereignty to be shared with the federal government. Both federal and the state governments continued to be divided into legislative, executive, and judicial branches. In contrast to previous Mexican constitutions, congress was also now made unicameral. There were 2,400 primary schools by 1860, an increase from 1,310 in 1843. The Colegio de San Ildefonso established classes in drawing, French, English, and law. In 1850,
728-481: A loan with the United States. He was reported to despair of Mexico's situation and saw some form of protection from the United States as the way forward and the way to prevent a resurgence of Spanish colonialism. Correspondence between Melchor Ocampo and Santos Degollado discussing Lerdo's attempt to negotiate a loan was captured and published by conservatives. Degollado was later to advocate mediation through
832-401: A majority (53%) of the popular vote, opponents claimed his margin of victory was not enough and a Congressional vote was required. The Congressional election committee released two reports, one produced by the majority declaring Juárez the winner, and one stating that there should be a Congressional vote between Juárez and runner-up Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada . The majority report was approved by
936-504: A measure aimed at both the Catholic Church an Indigenous, collectively owned lands known as the ejidos . The seizure of private property by the government without due compensation was made illegal. Imprisonment for debt was made illegal. Monopolies were made illegal with exceptions made for the government in order to coin money and run the postal service. The Constitution of 1857 restored the federalist system granting each state
1040-482: A measure aimed at the independent court systems previously held by the clergy and the military respectively. Education and administration of justice were declared to be free of charge. Person and home were made inviolable with the exception of arrests by court issued warrant with a clearly defined criminal charge. Under the Constitution of 1857, corporations civil or ecclesiastical were forbidden from owning land,
1144-838: A military command. Former conservative president during the Reform War Manuel Robles Pezuela was also executed in 1862 by the Juarez government for attempting to help the French. Seeing the intervention as an opportunity to undo the Reform, conservative generals and statesmen who had played a role during the War of the Reform joined the French and a conservative assembly voted in 1863 to invite Habsburg Archduke Maximilian to become Emperor of Mexico. The Emperor, however, proved to be of liberal inclinations and ended up ratifying
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#17327724460681248-487: A new constitution from 1856 to 1857. The subsequent Constitution of 1857 was implemented that year and triggered the War of Reform . The Constitution of 1857 began by declaring man's inherent freedom. Slaves were declared free upon stepping on Mexican soil and contracts were automatically to be rendered null if they involved an undue loss of freedom. The latter was applied even to religious vows. Freedom of speech , freedom of
1352-606: A pretext, and with the American Civil War preventing the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine , Napoleon III invaded Mexico in 1862, and sought local help in setting up a monarchical client state. Former liberal president Ignacio Comonfort , who had played such a key role in the outbreak of the Reform War, was killed in action that year, having returned to the country to fight the French, and having been given
1456-469: A railway and telegraph line was begun, and the first industrial exhibition in Mexico opened on November 1, 1849, in Mexico City. On November 4, 1848, the army was reduced to 10,000 men, and conscription was abolished, yet the latter measure had to be abrogated when only enough volunteers could be found to fill half of the men needed in the army. The government attempted to establish military colonies along
1560-561: A stance as dishonorable was not worthy of being called honest. Negotiations were opened with the United States government, and after deliberating upon the matter, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was approved by congress. As the peace treaty was concluded and the occupiers were on the point of leaving the country, congress named Jose Joaquin Herrera to the presidency of the republic, and Peña y Peña left his post as president in exchange for
1664-434: A war council, including in it prominent citizens to meet the crisis and by November 5 it was resolved to fight until the end. The conservatives were not struggling with a shortage of funds, due to looting the british legation of $ 700,000, but with increasing defections. Nonetheless, Miramon gained a victory when he attacked the liberal headquarters of Toluca on 9 December, in which almost all of their forces were captured. With
1768-401: A year. Conservatives eventually found it convenient to collaborate with the invaders in their aims to return themselves in the wake of their loss in the Reform War, and many Conservative generals eventually began to join the French. Mexico City was taken by June, 1863, with President Juarez fleeing ahead of the French troops, and a French controlled triumvirate was set up as the new executive for
1872-471: The Battle of Antón Lizardo The ships were sent to New Orleans, along with the now imprisoned General Marin, depriving the conservatives of an attack force and the substantial artillery, guns, and rations that they were carrying onboard for delivery to Miramón. Miramón's effort to besiege Veracruz was abandoned on 20 March, and he arrived back in Mexico City on April 7. The conservatives also suffered defeats in
1976-611: The Gadsden Purchase and his suppression of democratic government. A little over a year of civil war followed, the Liberals being led by Juan Álvarez and Ignacio Comonfort and achieving success by October 1855. Álvarez assumed the interim presidency and convoked congress. Appointed to the Alvarez Cabinet were a younger generation of liberals that were to play a notable role in the subsequent Reforma, including
2080-558: The Lerdo law , named after the secretary of the treasury, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada . The law aimed at disentailing the collective ownership of real estate by the Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities. It forced 'civil or ecclesiastical institutions' to sell any land that they owned, with the tenants receiving priority and generous terms for purchasing the community-held land they cultivated. The law sought to undermine
2184-491: The McLane-Ocampo Treaty , which would have granted to the United States perpetual transit and extraterritorial rights in Mexico. This treaty was denounced by conservatives and some liberals, with Juárez countering that the territorial losses to the United States had occurred under the conservatives. With the liberal victory, Juárez's government was unable to meet foreign debt obligations, some of which stemmed from
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#17327724460682288-760: The McLane–Ocampo Treaty with the United States in 1859. If ratified the treaty would have given the liberal regime cash, but it would have also granted the United States perpetual military and economic rights on Mexican territory. The treaty failed to pass in the U.S. Senate, but the U.S. Navy still helped protect Juárez's government in Veracruz. Liberals accumulated victories on the battlefield until Conservative forces surrendered on 22 December 1860. Juárez returned to Mexico City on 11 January 1861 and held presidential elections in March. Although Conservative forces lost
2392-474: The "worst civil war to hit Mexico between the War of Independence of 1810-21 and the Revolution of 1910-20." Following the liberals' overthrow of the dictatorship of conservative Antonio López de Santa Anna , liberals passed a series of laws codifying their political program . These laws were incorporated into the new constitution. It aimed to limit the political power of the executive branch, as well as
2496-594: The American Senate. The tide of the war began to turn in 1860 as the Liberals finally began making inroads upon the Conservative controlled interior, culminating in the decisive Battle of Calpulalpan in December 22, 1860. Miramon and other leading Conservatives fled the country, while Conservative guerrillas remained active in the countryside. President Juarez entered Mexico City in victory but now faced
2600-463: The Americans was declared a traitor. On April 2, 1847, Anaya convoked a junta in which he to resolve the issue on whether to defend the capital in case there was not a reasonable chance of winning. All of the supply and budget issues were expounded and the cabinet endorsed guerrilla warfare. When Santa Anna returned to the capital, Anaya passed the presidency down to him. Santa Anna was in charge of
2704-528: The College of San Juan de Letran established chairs in athletics, bookkeeping, and carpentry. The College of St. Gregory established classes in athletics and typography, and begun also holding classes on agriculture. In 1851, a school for teachers was founded in Guadalajara. A business college was founded in 1854. In 1856, Minister of Development Ignacio Siliceo passed a measure for the establishment of
2808-602: The Emperor, being executed by a firing squad on June 19, 1867. Santiago Vidaurri , once Juarez's commander in the north during the Reform War, had actually joined the imperialists, and was captured and executed for his betrayal on July 8, 1867. Leonardo Marquez would once again escape, this time to Cuba, living there until his death in 1913 and publishing a defense of his role in the empire. Second Federal Republic of Mexico The Second Federal Republic of Mexico ( Spanish : Segunda República Federal de México ) refers to
2912-567: The Ley Juarez and the Ley Lerdo , the latter nationalizing collectively owned land, a measure aimed at the Catholic Church vast holdings, but also affecting Mexico's indigenous communities. President Comonfort was dismayed by the level of opposition being shown towards the Constitution of 1857, also finding himself unsatisfied with how weak it left the president in the face of so many revolts. Conservatives reached out to Comonfort to overthrow
3016-542: The Liberal capital of Veracruz, which during the Battle of Antón Lizardo was protected by the United States Navy . Meanwhile the Liberals passed even more sweeping anti-clerical reforms, nationalizing the remainder of Catholic Church properties in order to continue funding the war effort. The controversial McLane–Ocampo Treaty was also signed with the United States by the Liberal government although it died in
3120-572: The Mexican General Marin who was disembarking from Havana. The United States Navy however had orders to intercept it. Miramón arrived at Medellín on 2 March, and awaited Marin's attack in order to begin the siege. The U.S. steamer Indianola had been anchored near the fortress of San Juan de Ulúa , to defend Veracruz from attack. On March 6, Marin's squadron arrived in Veracruz, and was captured by U.S. Navy Captain Joseph R. Jarvis in
3224-552: The Mexican government. This triumvirate organized a Mexican Assembly of Notables and under French direction resolved on July 3, 1863, to change Mexico into a monarchy inviting Maximilian of Habsburg to assume the newly established Mexican throne. This proclamation ended the era of the Second Federal Republic of Mexico. The Constitution of 1824 was reestablished in 1846, restoring the system of government that
Reform War - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-626: The Mon-Almonte Treaty. When Juárez's government suspended payments, the pretext was used to inaugurate the Second French Intervention in Mexico . During the Reform War as the military stalemate continued, some liberals considered the idea of foreign intervention. The brothers Miguel Lerdo de Tejada and Sebastián were liberal politicians from Veracruz and had commercial connections with the United States. Miguel Lerdo, Juárez's Minister of Finance, attempted to negotiate
3432-508: The Reform laws. Regardless, the liberal government of Benito Juárez still resisted and fought the French and Mexican Imperial forces with the backing of the United States, which since the end of the American Civil War could now once again enforce the Monroe Doctrine. The French eventually withdrew in 1866, leading the monarchy to collapse in 1867. Former President Miguel Miramon and conservative general Tomas Mejia would die alongside
3536-485: The Tripartite Expedition when they realized France's true intentions. Upon beginning the invasion in December 1861, however, Napoleon realized that Hidalgo and Estrada had exaggerated the monarchist sentiment, which did not truly exist even among Mexican Conservatives . Furthermore, French troops were repulsed by Mexican troops at the Battle of Puebla on May 5, 1862, delaying French advances for over
3640-550: The Tripartite Expedition. Napoleon III intended to overthrow the Mexican Republic and establish a monarchical client state. The idea for invading Mexico and establishing a monarchy had reached Napoleon through two monarchist Mexican expatriates named José Manuel Hidalgo y Esnaurrízar , and José María Gutiérrez de Estrada , and the idea coincided with French imperial aims. Spain and the United Kingdom abandoned
3744-523: The United States. The dictatorship began to take on a regal atmosphere as Santa Anna moved his residence to Tacubaya to live in a lavishly decorated palace which also frequently hosted balls and soirees. He revived the noble Order of Guadalupe that had briefly existed during the First Mexican Empire , but upon the first public exposition of its members wearing their ceremonial decorations, they became subject to public ridicule throughout
3848-522: The Zuloaga government, but after he was abandoned by most of his loyal troops, Comonfort left the capital on January 11, 1858, with the constitutional presidency having passed to the President of the Supreme Court, Benito Juárez . The Conservative government in the capital summoned a council of representatives that elected Zuloaga as president, and the states of Mexico proclaimed their loyalties to either
3952-435: The aim of turning it into a client state led by Maximilian of Habsburg . The Second French Intervention in Mexico began in 1861, but was subsequently delayed by a year due to the French loss in the Battle of Puebla . French reinforcements arrived and President Benito Juarez was forced to evacuate the capital which the French occupied by June, 1863. French troops subsequently arranged a Mexican Assembly of Notables to declare
4056-431: The capital and closed congress and issued the Plan of Tacubaya on December 17, 1857. The constitution was nullified, President Comonfort was initially signed onto the plan and was retained in the presidency and given emergency powers. Some liberal politicians were arrested, including President of the Supreme Court of Justice, Benito Juárez . Comonfort, hoping to establish a more moderate government, found himself triggering
4160-500: The capital on the 18th and dissolved congress. The following day, Comonfort accepted the Plan of Tacubaya, and released a manifesto making the case that more moderate reforms were needed under the current circumstances. The Plan of Tacubaya did not lead to a national reconciliation, and as Comonfort realized this he began to back away from Zuloaga and the conservatives. He resigned from the presidency and even began to lead skirmishes against
4264-468: The central government being weak. The brief liberal administration of Valentín Gómez Farías attempted to implement anti-clerical measures as early as 1833. The government closed church schools, assumed the right to make clerical appointments to the Catholic Church, and shut down monasteries. The ensuing backlash would result in Gómez Farías's government being overthrown and conservatives established
Reform War - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-490: The conservative Zuloaga or liberal Juárez governments. The Reform War had now begun. President Juárez and his ministers fled from Mexico City to Querétaro . General Zuloaga, knowing the strategic importance of the Gulf Coast state of Veracruz, tried to win over its governor, Gutierrez Zamora , who however affirmed his support for the government of Juárez. Santiago Vidaurri and Manuel Doblado organized Liberal forces in
4472-531: The conservative government was recognized swiftly by Spain and France. Neither conservatives nor liberals ever had official foreign troops as part of their respective armed forces. The conservative government signed the Mon-Almonte Treaty with Spain that promised to pay the Spanish government indemnities in exchange for aid. The liberals also sought foreign support from the United States. Mexico signed
4576-457: The conservatives and some liberals, the European press, and even members of Juarez's cabinet. The issue was rendered moot when the U.S. Senate failed to approve the treaty. Miramón was preparing another siege of Veracruz, leaving the conservative capital of Mexico City on February 8, leading his troops in person along with his war minister, hoping to rendezvous with a small naval squadron led by
4680-467: The country and were referred to by the pejorative ‘ huehuenches .’ Notwithstanding, Santa Anna himself began to go under the honorific His Most Serene Highness He impeded efforts to organize a congress for the purpose of drafting a new constitution and on December 16, 1853, passed a decree extending his personal dictatorship indefinitely. On March 1, 1854, the liberal Plan of Ayutla was proclaimed against Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna , indicting him for
4784-438: The country had been governed was restored, and state legislatures among other bodies of local government were dissolved throughout the country. Education and the accreditation of lawyers was brought directly under the control of Mexico City. A new Ministry of Development was established with the responsibility of handling public works, trade, and colonization. The military was reorganized, being increased in its number of troops,
4888-507: The current circumstances. Comonfort had overestimated the support he could expect among the state governors, and upon realizing that the nation had begun to fracture into a civil war he resigned in favor of the imprisoned President of the Supreme Court Benito Juarez whom Comonfort released before leaving the nation. Juarez narrowly escaped death but eventually found himself along with the Liberal cabinet ensconced in
4992-544: The diplomatic corps in Mexico to end the conflict. Juárez flatly refused Degollado's call to resign, since Juárez saw that as turning over Mexico's future to European powers. A French invasion and the establishment of the Second Mexican Empire followed almost immediately after the end of the Reform War, and key figures of the Reform War would continue to play roles during the rise and fall of the Empire. While
5096-482: The economic power of the Church and to force create a class of yeoman farmers of indigenous community members. The law was envisioned as a way to develop Mexico's economy by increasing the number of indigenous private property owners, but in practice the land was bought up by rich speculators. Most of the lost indigenous lands community lands increased the size of large landed estates, haciendas . The Constitution of 1857
5200-403: The elections of 1832 in the same fashion. They assumed power on the 24th. The government struggled to finance the war, a problem made worse by the refusal of several state governments to cooperate, and by corruption in the finance ministry, which did not inspire confidence when the government proposed an audit of property owners. On January 7, 1847, a measure was introduced to congress endorsing
5304-625: The end securing benefits to Mexico without actually concluding the treaty. In early December as the tide of war had clearly turned to the liberals, Juárez signed the Law for the Liberty of Religious Worship on December 4, the final step in the liberals' program to disempower the Roman Catholic Church by allowing religious tolerance in Mexico. General González Ortega approached Mexico City with reinforcements. The decisive battle took place on December 22, at Calpulalpan . The conservatives had 8,000 troops and
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#17327724460685408-590: The establishment of the Second Mexican Empire in July 1863, putting an end to the era of the Second Federal Republic of Mexico. The Mexican American War broke out in April 1846 during the presidency of Mariano Paredes . A series of uninterrupted Mexican losses inflamed opposition against the government, and Paredes faced revolution, he resigned on July 28, choosing to return to the military to help with
5512-420: The fields of order and finances amidst so many challenges. He explained how as Minister of Foreign Relations under President Herrera, he had been against the war. He did not view this stance as dishonorable as even the most martial of nations at one point had faced a war they could not win. He expressed belief that Mexico simply did not have the ability to continue the war, and proclaimed that anyone who viewed such
5616-488: The forces of Winfield Scott who had just landed at Veracruz. He was at the town of Matehuala on the way from Angostura to San Luis Potosí City , when he received news that there had been a revolution against the government of Valentin Gomez Farias. Valentin Gomez Farias resigned. The insurrection ended, troops were sent back to their stations, and the presidency passed over to Santa Anna, but in turn Santa Anna passed
5720-403: The frontier to settle and pacify the region against Indian raids. The project was hampered by lack of funds, but by 1851, despite not being as extensive as originally planned, reasonable progress on the colonies had nonetheless been made, and three successful settlements were home to over two thousand individuals. The 1851 election was won by Mariano Arista, Herrera’s Minister of War, and Herrera
5824-423: The government and establish a new constitution, and On December 17, 1857 General Félix Zuloaga proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya , declaring the Constitution of 1857 nullified, inviting Comonfort to join. To the dismay of liberals Comonfort accepted a role in to what amounted to a self coup . Comonfort accepted the Plan of Tacubaya, and released a manifesto making the case that more moderate reforms were needed under
5928-438: The government in 1852, bringing Santa Anna back for what would be his final dictatorship. The Liberal revolt which in turn overthrew him in 1853, would inaugurate what would come to be known as La Reforma , a series of substantial unprecedented reforms in Mexican constitutional history, most notably the separation of church and state and the nationalization of Catholic Church lands. A new constitution implementing such measures
6032-403: The hostile soldiers from shooting Juárez, an event now memorialized by a statue. As rival factions struggled to control the city, Juárez and other liberal prisoners were released on agreement after which Guadalajara was fully captured by conservatives by the end of March. Conservatives took the silver mining center of Zacatecas on 12 April. Juárez reconstituted his regime in Veracruz, embarking from
6136-494: The interior, losing Aguascalientes and San Luis Potosí before the end of April. Degollado was sent into the interior to lead the liberal campaign since their enemies had now exhausted their resources. He appointed José López Uraga as Quartermaster General Uraga split his troops and attempted to lure out Miramón to isolate him, but in late May Uraga then committed the strategic blunder of attempting to assault Guadalajara with Mirámon's troops behind him. The assault failed and Uraga
6240-465: The jurisdiction of military and ecclesiastical courts which existed for soldiers and clergy. Further dissension within liberal ranks led to Alvarez's resignation and the more moderate Comonfort becoming president on December 11, who chose a new cabinet. A constituent congress began meeting on February 14, 1856, and ratified the Juárez law. In June, another major controversy emerged over the promulgation of
6344-506: The liberal lawyers Melchor Ocampo and Benito Juarez , the poet Guillermo Prieto and the anti-clerical writer Ignacio Comonfort . The Alvarez administration made progress on some anti-clerical legislation, but amidst the controversy that was resulting he stepped down from the presidency in December 1855, passing down his office to the more moderate Comonfort. Congress began to meet in February of 1856, ratifying Comonfort's ascension to
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#17327724460686448-416: The liberals 16,000. Miramon lost and retreated back towards the capital. Another conservative war council agreed to surrender. The conservative government fled the city, and Miramón himself escaped to European exile. Márquez escaped to the mountains of Michoacan. The triumphant liberals entered the city with 25,000 troops on January 1, 1861, and Juárez entered the capital on January 11. After Zuloaga's coup,
6552-607: The main fighting in the Reform War was over by the end of 1860, guerilla conflict continued to be waged in the countryside. After the fall of the conservative government, General Leonardo Marquez remained at large, and in June, 1861, he succeeded in assassinating Melchor Ocampo . President Juarez sent the former head of his troops during the Reform War, Santos Degollado after Marquez, only for Marquez to succeed in killing Degollado as well. Having been influenced by Mexican monarchist exiles, and using Juarez's suspension of foreign debts as
6656-557: The most eventful periods in Mexican history, experiencing two foreign invasions, the loss of half of the national territory, constitutional change, and a civil war. It was also a period of Mexican political evolution experiencing the downfall of the Conservative Party that had predominated during the Centralist Republic, and marking the rise of a Liberal Party hegemony which would consolidate itself throughout
6760-560: The nation had experienced during the First Mexican Republic . In 1853, Santa Anna briefly restored the centralist system that had reigned during the Centralist Republic of Mexico but he was overthrown in 1855. The Liberal government that came to power in the wake of the Plan of Ayutla narrowly voted against restoring the Constitution of 1824, and a constitutional convention was summoned that began work on
6864-455: The nation, and the latter embraced the liberal Constitution of 1824 , thus restoring the federal system and giving birth to the era of the Second Federal Republic. Salas now formed his cabinet out of liberals and Santa Anna supporters, including ex president Valentin Gomez Farias who now received the post of finance minister. Congress finally opened its sessions on December 5, 1846, at midnight, composed mostly of liberals. General Salas opened
6968-569: The north and led a liberal coalition in the interior headquartered in the town of Celaya . On March 10, 1858, liberal forces under Anastasio Parrodi , governor of Jalisco , and Leandro Valle lost the Battle of Salamanca , which opened up the interior of the country to the conservatives. Juárez was in Jalisco's capital Guadalajara at this time, when on 13-15 March part of the army there mutinied and imprisoned him, threatening his life. Liberal minister and fellow prisoner Guillermo Prieto dissuaded
7072-512: The oath. Controversy over the constitution continued to rage, and Comonfort himself was rumored to be conspiring to form a new government. On December 17, 1857, General Félix Zuloaga proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya , declaring the Constitution of 1857 nullified, and offered supreme power to President Comonfort, who was to convoke a new constitutional convention to produce a new document more in accord with Mexican interests. In response, congress deposed President Comonfort, but Zuloaga's troops entered
7176-405: The ongoing financial crisis which would lead to Arista's fall being used as a pretext by Conservatives who wished to see Santa Anna restored to the presidency. Revolts were raised against the government, most prominent of which was the local insurrection led by a Guadalajara hatmaker named Blancarte. Supporters of Santa Anna, reached out to Blancarte and successfully convinced the latter to increase
7280-479: The period of Mexican history involving a second attempt to establish a federal government in Mexico after the fall of the unitary Centralist Republic of Mexico in 1846 at the start of the Mexican-American War . It would last up until the Second French Intervention in Mexico led to the proclamation of the Second Mexican Empire in 1863. The period of the Second Federal Republic prove to be one of
7384-481: The political, economic, and cultural power of the Catholic Church . Specific measures were the expropriation of Church property; separation of church and state ; reduction of the power of the Mexican Army by elimination of their special privileges ; strengthening the secular state through public education; and measures to develop the nation economically. The constitution had been promulgated on 5 February 1857
7488-455: The possibility of a constituent congress. Negotiations broke down and hostilities resumed on the 12th after which Degollado was routed at the Battle of Las Vacas . On December 14, 1859, Melchor Ocampo signed the McLane–Ocampo Treaty , which granted the United States perpetual rights to transport goods and troops across three key trade routes in Mexico and granted Americans an element of extraterritoriality . The treaty caused consternation among
7592-459: The presidency and beginning work on a new constitution. Work on the new constitution ended about a year later in February of 1857, and the Constitution of 1857 was promulgated on February 12, 1857, with the purpose of coming into effect on September 16 of that year. The Constitution had integrated two major pieces of anti-clerical legislature that had been passed since the ascension of Alvarez
7696-415: The presidency as the Americans advanced upon and eventually captured Mexico City. The presidency was eventually transferred back to Anaya, who had commanded forces in the defense of Mexico City. After the loss of the capital the Mexican government fled northeast to the city of Querétaro City . Various governors gathered at Queretaro and suggested various options to the government ranging from a continuation of
7800-420: The presidency of the Supreme Court on June 3, 1848. The government left Queretaro and returned to the capital. The Herrera Administration faced enormous financial challenges and while the rest of the Herrera ministry was stable, many financial ministers resigned. However, the economy seemed to be overall improving. Abundant harvests were reported, and the mines began to increase their yields. Construction on
7904-505: The presidency over to Pedro María de Anaya , as he went to face the forces of Winfield Scott. Anaya was authorized by congress to place the capital under a state of siege. After the Battle of Cerro Gordo in which the Americans broke through the defenses on the way to Mexico City, congress gave the president extraordinary faculties, without giving him the authority to sign a peace treaty on his own, or to alienate any portion of national territory, and anyone who now attempted to negotiate with
8008-429: The press , and freedom of petition were recognized, with freedom of the press to be limited only by "respect to private life, morality, and the public peace." For the first time the constitution of Mexico did not declare the nation to be a Catholic confessional state , but it did not explicitly guarantee religious freedom either. Special courts separate from the jurisdiction of the civil judiciary were declared abolished,
8112-463: The property of the Catholic church, and suppressed the monasteries and convents, the sale of which provided the liberal war effort with new funds, though not as much as had been hoped for since speculators were waiting for more stable times to make purchases. Miramón met the liberal forces in November at which a truce was declared and a conference was held on the matter of the Constitution of 1857 and
8216-498: The rest of the century. The Second Federal Republic was born in the first months of the Mexican-American War in 1846, with the restoration of the Constitution of 1824 . The war ended in 1848 with Mexico being forced to cede half of its territory to the United States. The period immediately following the war would nonetheless be followed by a period of stable, moderate governments. A Conservative coup then overthrew
8320-623: The scope of his revolt. On September 13, Blancarte proclaimed that Arista ought to be overthrown and that Santa Anna ought to be recalled to take a role in reorganizing the government. As the Blancarte revolt spread throughout the entire nation, Arista addressed the chambers on December 15, 1852, and eventually resigned on January 5 The restoration of Santa Anna was brought about by a Conservative Party faction led by Lucas Alaman , and including Governor Mugica of Puebla, Teodosio Lares , and Jose Maria Tornel . The centralist system under which
8424-416: The seizure of fifteen million pesos from the church by nationalizing and then selling its lands. The proposal created great controversy and on February 27, 1847, several national guard battalions proclaimed against the government. They released a manifesto excoriating the government for pursuing a divisive policy instead of uniting the country in the war effort and seeking a means of funding the military that
8528-528: The session by lamenting the defeats that the military had faced, but expressed hope for the army of twenty thousand men that Santa Anna had gathered at San Luis Potosi . He expressed that he was completely behind continuing the war,. He also expounded upon the peace proposals that had been forwarded to him by the American government. In December the congress elected Santa Anna and Gomez Farias as president and vice-president respectively. Both men had previously won
8632-528: The state militias being dissolved and absorbed into the national army, and subject to an unprecedented conscription, which proved to be enormously unpopular. Santa Anna nonetheless aimed to modernize the army, hiring instructors from Europe, and improving fortresses armaments, and the ships of the Mexican Navy. The regime found new funds through the Gadsden Purchase , which nonetheless proved to be controversial for once again alienating national territory to
8736-452: The strategic port of Veracruz while the Conservative government remained based in Mexico City. The initial phase of the war resulted in repeated Conservative victories, but the Liberals remained entrenched in the peripheries of the nation, and controlled strategic ports that kept them supplied with vital customs revenues. The Conservatives replaced Zuloaga with Miguel Miramon who had a record of victories but who repeatedly failed to capture
8840-496: The task of rebuilding an exhausted and divided nation. A moratorium on foreign debt payments was passed in July, 1861 in order to meet Mexico's financial crisis, but France, the United Kingdom, and Spain responded with the Convention of London , agreeing to armed intervention in order to assure Mexico's debt payments. On 8 December 1861, the three navies occupied the port city of Veracruz . France had ulterior motives in joining
8944-473: The tide turning to liberal victories, Juárez rejected the McLane-Ocampo Treaty in November, while the treaty had previously been rejected in the U.S. Senate May 31 and not ratified. Juárez had secured recognition from the U.S. government with the opening of negotiations with the United States, rejected outright sale of Mexican territory to the United States, and received aid from the U.S. Navy, in
9048-539: The troops in person along with his minister of war. Aguascalientes and Guanajuato had fallen to the liberals. Liberal troops in the West were led by Degollado and headquartered in Morelia , which now served as a liberal arsenal. The conservatives fell ill with malaria , endemic in the Gulf Coast, and abandoned the siege of Veracruz by March 29. Liberal General Degollado made another attempt on Mexico City in early April and
9152-510: The war effort. Nicolas Bravo was meanwhile chosen as his successor. On August 3, the garrisons of Vera Cruz and San Juan de Ulua revolted, against Bravo. Mariano Salas was made the provisional president, and on August 22, he restored the Constitution of 1824 , putting an end to Centralist Republic of Mexico, and inaugurating the era of the Second Federalist Republic. Salas allowed the exiled Santa Anna to return to
9256-470: The war to the surrender of the sparsely populated northern territories. Per the instructions of Congress, Anaya’s term ended on January 8, 1847, and the presidency passed to Manuel de la Peña y Peña , who had already served a brief term during the war. Congress finally met in May, 1847 and at its opening session President Peña y Peña recommended a policy of peace, and recounted the progress that had been made in
9360-489: The war was marked by repeated conservative victories, but the liberals remained entrenched in the nation's coastal regions, including their capital at the port of Veracruz , which gave them access to vital customs revenue that could fund their forces. Both governments attained international recognition, the Liberals by the United States and the Conservatives by France, the United Kingdom, and Spain. Liberals negotiated
9464-416: The war, guerrillas remained active in the countryside and would join the upcoming French intervention to help establish the Second Mexican Empire . After achieving independence in 1821, Mexico was alternatively governed by both liberal and conservative coalitions. The original Constitution of 1824 established the federalist system championed by the liberals, with Mexican states holding sovereign power and
9568-412: The west coast port of Manzanillo , crossing Panama, and arriving in Veracruz on May 4, 1858, making it the liberal capital. Juárez made Santos Degollado the head of the Liberal armies, who went on to defeat upon defeat. Miramón defeated him in the Battle of Atenquique on 2 July. On 24 July, Miramón captured Guanajuato , and San Luis Potosi was captured by the conservatives on 12 September. Vidaurri
9672-476: The years immediately after the Mexican-American War, being funded through a national lottery. Its first art exposition was held in 1850. It was also the first public building in the country to be illuminated at night with gas lighting. 1861 Mexican general election Benito Juárez Benito Juárez General elections were held in Mexico in 1861. Although incumbent president Benito Juárez received
9776-549: Was backed by national consensus. This became known as the Revolt of the Polkos , because the young middle class men who made up the militias stations throughout the capital were known for dancing the polka. Meanwhile news arrived that Santa Anna had won the Battle of Buena Vista which took place on February 22 to February 23, 1847, and which in reality had been a draw. Santa was heading back to Mexico City to arrange defenses against
9880-433: Was cut off from the rest of the country. Guadalajara was surrounded by 17,000 liberal troops while the conservatives in the city only had 7000. The conservative commander Castillo surrendered without firing a shot and was allowed to leave the city with his troops. General Leonardo Márquez was routed on 10 November, attempting to reinforce General Castillo without being aware of his surrender. Miramón on November 3 convoked
9984-477: Was defeated at the Battle of Ahualulco on 29 September. By October the conservatives were at the height of their strength. The liberals failed to take Mexico City on 14 October, but Santos Degollado captured Guadalajara on 27 October, after a thirty days siege that left a third of the city in ruins. This victory caused consternation at the conservative capital, but Guadalajara was taken back by Márquez on 14 December . The failure of Zuloaga's government to produce
10088-470: Was not exclusively aimed at the Catholic Church, but also Mexico's indigenous peoples , which were forced to sell sizeable portions of their communal lands. Controversy was further inflamed when the Catholic Church decreed excommunication to civil servants who took a government mandated oath upholding the new constitution, which left Catholic civil servants with the choice of losing their jobs or being excommunicated. General Félix Zuloaga led army troops to
10192-628: Was promulgated in 1857, upon which the Conservative Party opposition took up arms, inaugurating three years of what would come to be known as the Reform War . The Liberal government led by president Benito Juarez would emerge triumphant in 1860, but a financial crisis led the government to postpone its external debts, a measure that was used as a pretext by the Second French Empire to launch an invasion of Mexico with
10296-459: Was promulgated on February 5, 1857, and it integrated both the Juárez and the Lerdo Laws. It was meant to take into effect on September 16. On March 17 it was decreed that all civil servants had to publicly swear and sign and oath to it. The Catholic Church decreed excommunication for anyone that took the oath, and subsequently many Catholics in the Mexican government lost their jobs for refusing
10400-535: Was radical and included the prominent liberals Benito Juárez , Miguel Lerdo de Tejada , Melchor Ocampo , and Guillermo Prieto , but also the more moderate Ignacio Comonfort. Clashes in the cabinet led to the resignation of the radical Ocampo, but the administration was still determined to pass significant reforms. On November 23, 1855, the Juárez Law , named after the Minister of Justice, substantially reduced
10504-485: Was routed in the Battle of Tacubaya by Leonardo Márquez . Márquez captured a large amount of war materiel and gained infamy for including medics among those executed in the aftermath of the battle. On April 6, the Juárez government was recognized by the United States during the Buchanan administration. Miramón unsuccessfully attempted to besiege Veracruz in June and July. On July 12, the liberal government nationalized
10608-484: Was taken prisoner. Miramón was routed on August 10, in Silao , which resulted in his commander Tomás Mejía being taken prisoner, and Miramón retreated to Mexico City. In response to the disaster, Miramón resigned as president to seek a vote of confidence. The conservative junta elected him president again after a two days interregnum. By the end of August, liberals were preparing for a decisive final battle. The Mexico City
10712-399: Was the first Mexican president to complete a full term since the inaugural holder of the office, Guadalupe Victoria has passed power over to Vicente Guerrero in 1828. Arista took office on January 15, 1851. He decided to adopt many of Herrera’s policies, which he as Minister of War had already played a significant hand in enacting, but made some changes in the cabinet. It was ultimately
10816-410: Was to come into force on 16 September 1857. Predictably there was fierce opposition from Conservatives and the Catholic Church over its anti-clerical provisions, but there were also moderate liberals, including President Ignacio Comonfort , who considered the constitution too radical and likely to trigger a civil war. The Lerdo Law forced the sale of most of the Church's rural properties. The measure
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