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104-564: Carranza had a few military forces on which he could rely for loyalty. He had the theoretical support of Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata , but they soon turned against the Constitutionalists after Huerta's defeat in 1914. In July 1913, Carranza divided the country into seven areas for military operations. Each area was, at least in theory, the responsibility of a general commanding an Army corps. These corps were: Northeast, Northwest, Central, East, West, South and Southeast. However

208-707: A Mexican mayor named Juan Muñoz, Villa recruited more men into his guerrilla militia and had 400 men under his command. Villa then met with his lieutenants Martin Lopez, Pablo Lopez, Francisco Beltran, and Candelario Cervantes , and commissioned an additional 100 men to the command of Joaquin Alvarez , Bernabe Cifuentes , and Ernesto Rios. Pablo Lopez and Cervantes were later killed in the early part of 1916. Villa and his 500 guerrillas then started planning an attack on U.S. soil. On 9 March 1916, General Villa ordered nearly 100 Mexican members of his revolutionary group to make

312-616: A broad movement against Díaz, he was not sufficiently radical for anarcho-syndicalists of the Mexican Liberal Party , who challenged his leadership. Madero ordered Villa to deal with the threat, which he did, disarming and arresting them. Madero rewarded Villa by promoting him to colonel in the revolutionary forces. Much of the fighting was in the north of Mexico, near the border with the United States. Fearful of U.S. intervention, Madero ordered his officers to call off

416-456: A cross-border attack against Columbus, New Mexico . Some historians believe that Villa attacked Columbus due to his concern for what Villa believed was American imperialistic interference in Mexican internal affairs. From a purely military standpoint Villa carried out the raid because he needed more military equipment and supplies in order to continue his fight against Carranza. Many believed

520-533: A factor in the Revolution. He decided to split his remaining forces into independent bands under his authority, ban soldaderas , and take to the hills as guerrillas. This strategy was effective and one that Villa knew well from his bandit days. He had loyal followers from western Chihuahua and northern Durango. A pattern of towns being under government control and the countryside under guerrilla control reasserted itself. Civilian populations during warfare are often

624-608: A follower of Emiliano Zapata , revolutionary leader in Morelos. Magaña also informed him of Zapata's Plan de Ayala , which repudiated Madero and called for land reform in Mexico. Villa was transferred to the Santiago Tlatelolco Prison on 7 June 1912. There he received further tutelage in civics and history from imprisoned Federal Army general Bernardo Reyes . Villa escaped on Christmas Day 1912, crossing into

728-422: A huge public ceremony. Villa told a number of conflicting stories about his early life. According to most sources, he was born on 5 June 1878, and named José Doroteo Arango Arámbula at birth. As a child, he received some education from a local church-run school, but was not proficient in more than basic literacy. His father was a sharecropper named Agustín Arango, and his mother was Micaela Arámbula. He grew up at

832-406: A major impact on him. Villa's outlook on banditry changed after he met Abraham González , the local representative for presidential candidate Francisco Madero , a rich hacendado turned politician from the northern state of Coahuila, who opposed the continued rule of Díaz and convinced Villa that through his banditry he could fight for the people and hurt the hacienda owners. At the outbreak of

936-617: A more formidable army and had demonstrated his brilliance in battle against the now-defunct Federal Army, Carranza's general Obregón was a better tactician. With Obregón's help, Carranza was able to use the Mexican press to portray Villa as a sociopathic bandit and undermine his standing with the U.S. In late 1914, Villa was dealt an additional blow with the death from typhus of Toribio Ortega, one of his top generals. While Convention forces occupied Mexico City, Carranza maintained control over two key Mexican states, Veracruz and Tamaulipas , where Mexico's two largest ports were located. Carranza

1040-538: A proper funeral in Chihuahua.) The governor of Coahuila , Venustiano Carranza , who had been appointed by Madero, also refused to recognize Huerta's authority. He proclaimed the Plan of Guadalupe to oust Huerta as an unconstitutional usurper. Considering Carranza the lesser of two evils, Villa joined him to overthrow his old enemy, Huerta, but he also made him the butt of jokes and pranks. Carranza's political plan gained

1144-475: A reprisal. After the defeat of Gen. Victoriano Huerta the revolutionary forces split among themselves. Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa reconciled their differences during the Convention of Aguascalientes , and as a result were often referred to as the "Conventionalistas", but they came into conflict with the so-called " Constitutionalistas ", or " Carrancistas ", of Venustiano Carranza, who saw himself as

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1248-519: A result, in mid-1915 he turned to expropriating the haciendas and factories of people who had stayed out of politics so far, which meant that the revolutionaries had previously left them alone. Many of these were partly American owned. This contributed to political pressure in the US for Wilson to back Carranza. Further factors that contributed to the switch in American policy included support for Carranza from

1352-534: A sharecropper, muleskinner ( arriero ), butcher, bricklayer, and foreman for a U.S. railway company. According to his dictated remembrances, published as Memorias de Pancho Villa, at the age of 16 he moved to Chihuahua, but soon returned to Durango to track down and kill an hacienda owner named Agustín López Negrete who had raped his sister, afterward stealing a horse and fleeing to the Sierra Madre Occidental region of Durango, where he roamed

1456-620: A soft civilian, while Villa's Division of the North was the largest and most successful revolutionary army. In August and September Obregón traveled to meet with and persuade Villa not to fracture the Constitutionalist movement. In their August meeting, the two agreed that Carranza should now take the title of interim president of Mexico, now that Huerta had been ousted. Despite the generals' joint petition, Carranza did not want to do that, since it would have meant being ineligible to run in

1560-422: A stable Mexican government. Villa was further enraged by Obregón's use of searchlights, powered by U.S. generated electricity, to help repel a Villista night attack on the border town of Agua Prieta , Sonora on 1 November 1915. In Mexico and U.S. bordering towns, a vendetta was launched by Villa against Americans as he blamed Wilson for his defeat against Carranza. In January 1916, a group of Villistas attacked

1664-493: A staunch supporter of Diaz until Diaz refused to appoint him as Governor of Coahuila in 1909 ) as his Minister of War. Madero's "refusal personally to accommodate Orozco was a major political blunder." Orozco rebelled in March 1912, both for Madero's continuing failure to enact land reform and because he felt insufficiently rewarded for his role in bringing the new president to power. At the request of Madero's chief political ally in

1768-481: A strategic railroad station heavily defended by Federal troops and considered nearly impregnable. Zacatecas was the source of much of Mexico's silver, and thus a supply of funds for whoever held it. Villa accepted his staff's advice and cancelled his resignation, and the División del Norte defied Carranza and attacked Zacatecas. Fighting up steep slopes, the División del Norte defeated a force of 12,000 Federals in

1872-640: A supporter of Carranza. Only 200 men in Villa's army remained loyal to him, and he was forced to retreat back into the mountains of Chihuahua. However, Villa and his men were determined to keep fighting Carranza's forces. Villa's position further was weakened by the United States' refusal to sell him weapons. By the end of 1915, Villa was on the run and the United States government recognized Carranza. The period after Villa's defeat by Obregón has many dark episodes. His fighting force had shrunk significantly, no longer an army. Villa's opponents believed him finished as

1976-400: A train he held 122 bars of silver and a Wells Fargo employee hostage, forcing Wells Fargo to help him sell the bars for cash. A rapid, hard-fought series of victories at Ciudad Juárez , Tierra Blanca , Chihuahua , and Ojinaga followed. The well-known American journalist and fiction writer Ambrose Bierce , then in his seventies, accompanied Villa's army during this period and witnessed

2080-607: A train on the Mexico North Western Railway , near Santa Isabel , Chihuahua, and killed a number of U.S. nationals employed by the American Smelting and Refining Company . The passengers included eighteen Americans, 15 of whom worked for American Smelting. There was only one survivor, who gave the details to the press. Villa admitted to ordering the attack, but denied that he had authorized the shedding of blood of U.S. citizens. After meeting with

2184-801: The American Federation of Labor , concern over German intelligence operations in Mexico related to World War I , Carranza's newfound commitment to protecting properties of foreigners in Mexico and the military successes of Carranza's generals . Unbeknownst to Villa, who was crossing the Sierra Madre Occidental , in October 1915 the US recognized Carranza as the president of Mexico. However, American support for Carranza now went beyond political recognition and diplomacy. The US placed an embargo on sales of arms to Villa. More crucially, President Wilson gave his permission for Carranzista troops to cross through American territory in order to strengthen

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2288-505: The Battle of Tierra Blanca . Villa considered Tierra Blanca, fought from 23 to 24 November 1913, his most spectacular victory, although General Talamantes died in the fighting. Bierce vanished on or after December 1913. His disappearance has never been solved. Oral accounts of his execution by firing squad were never verified. U.S. Army Chief of Staff Hugh L. Scott charged Villa's American agent, Sommerfeld, with finding out what happened, but

2392-722: The Convention of Aguascalientes , the Constitutional Army numbered 57,000 men, to Villa and Zapata's 72,000 men. But as the Constitutionalists grew stronger, Villa and Zapata grew weaker. Eventually the war against the Conventionalists was won after the assassination of Zapata in 1919 and the surrender of Villa in July 1920. By 1917, the main fighting of the civil war between the two factions was over, with some minor revolts by Felicistas (supporters of Félix Díaz , nephew of ousted president Porfirio Díaz ). This marked

2496-515: The Mexican Revolution . Villa's attack on the town was repulsed by Calles. The battle helped to establish Carranza's control over Mexico and directly led to his becoming, with United States recognition, president. Villa believed that Calles had received tactical and strategic support from the United States since the town is located across the border from Douglas , Arizona and launched his raid on Columbus , New Mexico partly as

2600-606: The Rancho de la Coyotada , one of the largest haciendas in the state of Durango . The family's residence now houses the Casa de Pancho Villa historic museum in San Juan del Rio. Doroteo later claimed to be the son of the bandit Agustín Villa, but according to at least one scholar, "the identity of his real father is still unknown." He was the oldest of five children. He quit school to help his mother after his father died, and worked as

2704-580: The Toma de Zacatecas (Taking of Zacatecas), the single bloodiest battle of the Revolution, with Federal casualties numbering approximately 7,000 dead and 5,000 wounded, and unknown numbers of civilian casualties. Villa's victory at Zacatecas in June 1914 broke the back of the Huerta regime. Huerta left the country on 14 July 1914. The Federal Army collapsed, ceasing to exist as an institution. As Villa moved towards

2808-459: The American side. Coupled with the fact that Wilson had allowed Carranza to transport troops across Arizona, this led to a complete change in Villa's attitude towards the US. Previously, despite engaging in an occasional border raid for supplies, Villa considered himself a friend of the Americans; now he wanted revenge for what he regarded as their treachery. As a result, in March 1916 Villa led

2912-539: The Battle of Celaya earlier in the year. Calles, building on Gen. Alvaro Obregon 's experience at Celaya, had built extensive fortifications around the city, with deep trenches, barbed wire and numerous machine gun nests. Villa arrived at Agua Prieta on October 30, where, while giving his men a day of rest, he finally learned that the US had recognized Carranza, but he still didn't know that Carranza's reinforcements had been allowed to cross American territory to strengthen

3016-760: The Germans after Villa's split with the Constitutionalists. This was principally in the person of Felix A. Sommerfeld (noted in Katz's book), who allegedly funneled $ 340,000 of German money to the Western Cartridge Company in 1915, to purchase ammunition. Sommerfeld had been Villa's representative in the United States since 1914 and had close contact with the German naval attaché in Washington Karl Boy-Ed , as well as other German agents in

3120-401: The Germans, after 1915, is that they were a futile extension of increasingly desperate German diplomatic efforts and Villista dreams of victory as progress of their respective wars bogged down. Villa effectively did not have anything useful to offer in exchange for German help at that point. When assessing claims of Villa conspiring with Germans, portrayal of Villa as a German sympathizer served

3224-486: The Mexican Revolution in 1910, Villa was 32 years old. At the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution, for Villa and men like him operating as bandits, the turmoil provided expanded horizons, "a change of title, not of occupation" in one assessment. Villa joined in the armed rebellion that Francisco Madero called for in 1910 to oust incumbent President Porfirio Díaz in the Plan de San Luis Potosí . In Chihuahua,

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3328-588: The Punitive Expedition. During the expedition, Carranza's forces captured one of Villa's top generals, Pablo López, and executed him on 5 June 1916. Before the Villa-Carranza irregular forces had left to the mountains in 1915, there is no credible evidence that Villa cooperated with or accepted any help from the German government or agents. Villa was supplied arms from the U.S., employed international mercenaries and doctors including Americans,

3432-535: The Revolution, he was one of its most charismatic and prominent figures. In life, Villa helped fashion his own image as an internationally known revolutionary hero, starring as himself in Hollywood films and giving interviews to foreign journalists, most notably John Reed . After his death he was excluded from the pantheon of revolutionary heroes until the Sonoran generals Obregón and Calles, whom he battled during

3536-517: The Revolution, were gone from the political stage. Villa's exclusion from the official narrative of the Revolution might have contributed to his continued posthumous popular acclaim. He was celebrated during the Revolution and long afterward by corridos , films about his life and novels by prominent writers. In 1976, his remains were reburied in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City in

3640-540: The U.S. considered recognizing Villa as Mexico's legitimate president. In Mexico, Villa is generally regarded as a hero of the Mexican Revolution who dared to stand up to the United States. The Mexican government declared 2023 as the Year of Pancho Villa. Some American media outlets describe Villa as a villain and a murderer. After 1914 Pancho Villa's previous political rise seems to have come to an end. In November 1915 civil war broke out when Carranza challenged Villa. Villa

3744-410: The U.S. into invading Mexico in 1916 . Despite a major contingent of soldiers and superior military technology, the U.S. failed to capture Villa. When Carranza was ousted from power in 1920, Villa negotiated an amnesty with interim President Adolfo de la Huerta and was given a landed estate, on the condition he retire from politics. Villa was assassinated in 1923. Although his faction did not prevail in

3848-486: The United States including Franz von Rintelen and Horst von der Goltz . In May 1914, Sommerfeld formally entered the employ of Boy-Ed and the German secret service in the United States. However, Villa's actions were hardly that of a German catspaw ; rather, it appeared that Villa resorted to German assistance only after other sources of money and arms were cut off. At the time of Villa's 1916 attack on Columbus, New Mexico, Villa's military power had been marginalized. He

3952-885: The United States near Nogales, Arizona on 2 January 1913. Arriving in El Paso, Texas, he attempted to convey a message to Madero via Abraham González about the upcoming coup d'état, to no avail; Madero was murdered in February 1913, and Huerta became president. Villa was in the U.S. when the coup occurred. With just seven men, some mules, and scant supplies, he returned into Mexico in April 1913 to fight Madero's usurper and his own would-be executioner, President Victoriano Huerta. Huerta immediately moved to consolidate power. He had Abraham González , governor of Chihuahua, Madero's ally and Villa's mentor, murdered in March 1913. (Villa later recovered González's remains and gave his friend and mentor

4056-419: The United States to Juarez, Chiahuahua, as Carranza had been allowed to transport troops and supplies; that request was denied. After resting his troops at Naco, Villa gathered up the remainder of his forces and attacked the town of Hermosillo , Sonora, on November 21, 1915. In order to try to restore the morale of his troops, he promised them that after they took the city, they could do whatever they wanted with

4160-443: The battlefield. This meeting set out a path towards democracy. None of the armed revolutionaries were allowed to be nominated for government positions, and Eulalio Gutiérrez was chosen as interim president. Emiliano Zapata , a military general from southern Mexico also sent a number of delegates to the convention, however these delegates did not participate until they were convinced the convention aimed for true reform, and an alliance

4264-633: The border and the possibility of the fighting spilling to the American side, US Gen. Frederick Funston stationed three infantry regiments, some cavalry and one regiment of artillery in the cross-border town of Douglas, Arizona . While the American troops in the end did not take part in the fighting, their nearby presence would later lead Villa to believe that the Americans provided Carranza's forces with crucial logistical support, which contributed to his growing anti-Americanism. The defending troops at Agua Prieta were led by Gen. Plutarco Calles and many of them were veterans who had already defeated Villa at

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4368-648: The capital and was killed in the Sierra Norte of Puebla on 21 May 1920. In 1920, Obregón was elected president, and some other former Constitutionalist generals would eventually become presidents and leading politicians in the years ahead. Pancho Villa Francisco " Pancho " Villa ( UK : / ˈ p æ n tʃ oʊ ˈ v iː ə / PAN -choh VEE -ə , US : / ˈ p ɑː n tʃ oʊ ˈ v iː ( j ) ə / PAHN -choh VEE -(y)ə , Spanish: [ˈpantʃo ˈβiʎa] ; born José Doroteo Arango Arámbula ; 5 June 1878 – 20 July 1923)

4472-472: The capital his progress was halted due to a lack of coal to fuel the railroad engines, and critically, an embargo placed by the U.S. government on importation to Mexico. Before this Villa had strong relationships with the Wilson administration, due in part to Carranza's distinctly anti-American rhetoric with which Villa publicly disagreed. Although nothing had changed for Villa historian Friedrich Katz writes that

4576-530: The case for Madero, who was murdered during a military coup in February 1913 in a period known as the Ten Tragic Days ( Decena Trágica ). Once elected president in November 1911, Madero proved a disastrous politician, dismissing his revolutionary supporters and relying on the existing power structure. Villa strongly disapproved of Madero's decision to name Venustiano Carranza (who previously had been

4680-465: The case of the Banco Minero he held a member of the bank's owning family, the wealthy Terrazas clan, as a hostage until the location of the bank's hidden gold reserves was revealed. He also appropriated land owned by the hacendados (owners of the haciendas ) and redistributed the money generated by the haciendas to fund military efforts and the pensions of citizens who had lost family members in

4784-401: The cavalry charges on the following day, but his troops were ready to mutiny . He was also running low on supplies and ammunition. As a result, Villa withdrew and arrived at Naco on November 4. Even though while there, his men were given rest and supplies, more than 1,500 deserted from his army. While at Naco, Villa requested that several hundred of his wounded be transported by rail through

4888-419: The city of Juárez as a connection with the US through which he could illegally import arms. Prior to late 1915 Villa's relations with the US had been pretty good, and at one time Villa even considered President Woodrow Wilson as " a kind of American Madero, an idealist and friend of the poor ". In fact, in April 1915 Wilson issued a sharply worded statement that threatened American intervention in Mexico if

4992-460: The civil war were to continue; this constituted a form of indirect support for Villa, who was reeling from his defeat at Celaya as, Villa hoped, it might put an end to Carranza's advance. As a result, Villa believed that if he managed to wrest control of the north from Carranza, the US would recognize him as president of Mexico. However, he was also running out of badly needed money with which to buy additional arms and pay his demoralized soldiers. As

5096-528: The command of General Victoriano Huerta . Huerta initially welcomed the successful Villa, and sought to bring him under his control by naming Villa an honorary brigadier general in the Federal Army, but Villa was not flattered or controlled easily. Huerta then sought to discredit and eliminate Villa by accusing him of stealing a fine horse and calling him a bandit. Villa struck Huerta, who then ordered Villa's execution for insubordination and theft. As he

5200-404: The condition to which it had reduced Huerta's in 1914. The celebrated Division of the North thus was eliminated as a capital military force." In November 1915, Carranza's forces captured and executed Contreras, Pereyra, and son. Severianco Ceniceros also accepted amnesty from Carranza and turned on Villa as well. Although Villa's secretary Perez Rul also broke with Villa, he refused to become

5304-435: The defeat and exile of Huerta in July 1914, Villa broke with Carranza. Villa dominated the meeting of revolutionary generals that excluded Carranza and helped create a coalition government . Emiliano Zapata and Villa became formal allies in this period. Like Zapata, Villa was strongly in favor of land reform, but did not implement it when he had power. At the height of his power and popularity in late 1914 and early 1915,

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5408-411: The defenses of the town. As a result, Villa still believed that a swift cavalry charge, carried out under the cover of darkness, was capable of capturing the city in one stroke. His staff officers believed that the town would be captured within five hours. The next day Villa began his attack with an artillery barrage in the early afternoon, which only managed to detonate some of the land mines around

5512-478: The end of any real resistance to Carranza. However, when Carranza's autocratic rule was threatened, the threat would come from the Constitutionalist army he had set up. Carranza was assassinated after he tried to have Obregón arrested on false charges (Obregón was put up for election for president, which threatened Carranza and his choice of successor, Ignacio Bonillas ) and Obregón, under the Plan of Agua Prieta , marched on Mexico City with his army. Carranza fled

5616-514: The exact motives of the U.S. government are hotly contested, it is likely that it was attempting to establish some type of control over Mexico by not allowing any one faction to become powerful enough to not need U.S. assistance. The break between Villa and Carranza had been anticipated. The Pact of Torreón , an agreement between the Division of the Northeast and Villa's Division of the North,

5720-507: The expected presidential election. The two also agreed that there should be immediate action on land reform. They also agreed that the military needed to be separated from politics. By the time of Obregón's second meeting with Villa in September, Obregón had given up on coming to an agreement with him, but he hoped to lure soldiers of the Division of the North away from Villa, sensing that some disapproved of Villa's violent tendencies. During

5824-437: The final defeat and dissolution of the Federal Army. In August 1914, Carranza and his revolutionary army entered Mexico City ahead of Villa. The unity of fighting against Huerta was no longer the underpinnings of the Constitutionalists under Carranza's leadership. Carranza was a wealthy estate owner and governor of Coahuila, and he considered Villa little more than a bandit, despite his military successes. Villa viewed Carranza as

5928-506: The first time in U.S. Army history, Pershing's force fruitlessly pursued Villa until February 1917. Villa eluded them, but some of his senior commanders, including Colonel Candelario Cervantes, General Francisco Beltrán, Beltrán's son, Villa's second-in-command Julio Cárdenas , and a total of 190 of his men were killed during the expedition. The Carranza government and the Mexican population were against U.S. troops violating Mexican territories. There were several demonstrations of opposition to

6032-455: The garrison at Agua Prieta. About 3,500 fresh, veteran troops traveled through Arizona and New Mexico and arrived in the town in early October, bringing the total number of defenders to 6,500. Villa was completely unaware of this development; according to American correspondent and friend of Villa John W. Roberts , Villa believed the town was defended by only 1,200 soldiers. Additionally, concerned about bullets and artillery shells falling over

6136-423: The governor Villa retired from the position at the suggestion of Carranza, leaving Manuel Chao as governor. With so many sources of money, Villa expanded and modernized his forces, purchasing draft animals, cavalry horses, arms, ammunition, mobile hospital facilities (railroad cars and horse ambulances staffed with Mexican and foreign volunteer doctors, known as Servicio sanitario ), and other supplies, and rebuilt

6240-530: The heart of Huerta's regime in Zacatecas . After Villa captured the strategic prize of Torreón, Carranza ordered Villa to break off action south of Torreón and instead to divert to attack Saltillo . He threatened to cut off Villa's coal supply, immobilizing his supply trains, if he did not comply. This was seen widely as an attempt by Carranza to divert Villa from a direct assault on Mexico City in order to allow Carranza's forces under Obregón, driving in from

6344-427: The hills as a thief. Eventually, he became a member of a bandit band where he went by the name "Arango". In 1898 he was arrested for gun and mule theft. In 1902, the rurales , the crack rural police force of President Porfirio Díaz , arrested Pancho for stealing mules and for assault. Because of his connections with the powerful Pablo Valenzuela, who allegedly had been a recipient of goods stolen by Villa/Arango, he

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6448-405: The horsemen an easy target for Calles' machine guns. The front trenches were manned by units led by another future president of Mexico, Col. Lázaro Cárdenas . Villa's horsemen were decimated by machine-gun fire and land mines . The few who managed to make it near the trenches encountered electrified barbed wire . The charge collapsed and the attack was a failure. Villa wanted to continue with

6552-423: The land to Carranza in the hope of ending the hostility between the two. Carranza refused to reach any compromise with Villa, and ordered that 5000 members of the División del Norte be sent to Zacatecas to assist in its capture. A Constitutionalist general had recently staged an attack that had failed due to the superior artillery of the federal forces. Villa believed that sending troops to assist would only lead to

6656-653: The last four existed only on paper and in reality the Constitutionalist army was made up of only the Northwest Corps (renamed the Army of Operations) under Álvaro Obregón , the Northeast Corps under Pablo González , and the Central Corps under Pánfilo Natera . When fighting broke out in 1914 between the Constitutionalists (Carranza, Obregón, etc.) and the Conventionalists (Villa and Zapata) following

6760-474: The leader of the anti-re-electionists, Abraham González , reached out to Villa to join the movement. Villa captured a large hacienda, then a train of Federal Army soldiers, and the town of San Andrés. He went on to beat the Federal Army in Naica, Camargo, and Pilar de Conchos, but lost at Tecolote. Villa met in person with Madero in March 1911, as the struggle to oust Díaz was ongoing. Although Madero had created

6864-439: The legitimate president of Mexico and leader of the revolution. Initially Villa and Zapata were successful, jointly occupied Mexico City and forced Carranza and his supporters to flee to Veracruz . The tide, however, began to turn in early 1915 and culminated in Villa's defeat at the Battle of Celaya in April of that year. As a result, by October 1915 Villa was in control of only his home state of Chihuahua , which left him just

6968-416: The moment to the civilian First Chief. Obregón saw Villa "as a bandit who would not keep his promises." Villa broke with Carranza in September 1914 and issued a manifesto. Once Huerta was ousted, the power struggle between factions of the revolution came into the open. The revolutionary caudillos convened the Convention of Aguascalientes , attempting to sort out power in the political sphere rather than on

7072-466: The only result of the inquiry was the finding that Bierce most likely survived after Ojinaga and died in Durango. John Reed , who graduated from Harvard in 1910 and became a leftist journalist, wrote magazine articles that were highly important in shaping Villa's epic image for Americans. Reed spent four months embedded with Villa's army and published vivid word portraits of Villa, his fighting men, and

7176-444: The other led by Talamantes and Contreras' former deputy, Severianco Ceniceros. As governor of Chihuahua, Villa raised more money for a drive to the south against Huerta's Federal Army by various methods. He printed his own currency and decreed that it could be traded and accepted at par with gold Mexican pesos. He forced the wealthy to give loans to fund the revolutionary war machinery. He confiscated gold from several banks, and in

7280-458: The port and oil fields of Tampico to enable German ships to dock there, but Villa rejected the offer. German agents tried to interfere in the Mexican Revolution but were unsuccessful. They attempted to plot with Victoriano Huerta to assist him to retake the country and, in the infamous Zimmermann Telegram to the Mexican government, proposed an alliance with the government of Venustiano Carranza. There were documented contacts between Villa and

7384-451: The propaganda needs of both Carranza and Wilson and has to be taken into account. Second Battle of Agua Prieta [REDACTED] Conventionists [REDACTED] Constitutionalists The Second Battle of Agua Prieta , 1 November 1915, was fought between the forces of Pancho Villa and those of the future President of Mexico , Plutarco Elías Calles , a supporter of Venustiano Carranza , at Agua Prieta , Sonora , as part of

7488-471: The properties from their owners and then distribute them to the revolutionaries at some future date. According to a story recounted by Villa, he told Madero at a banquet in Ciudad Juárez after the victory in 1911, "You, sir [Madero], have destroyed the revolution... It's simple: this bunch of dandies have made a fool of you, and this will eventually cost us our necks, yours included." This proved to be

7592-711: The raid was conducted because of the U.S. government's official recognition of the Carranza regime and for the loss of lives in battle due to defective cartridges purchased from the U.S., They attacked a detachment of the 13th Cavalry Regiment (United States) , burned the town, and seized 100 horses and mules and other military supplies. Eighteen Americans and about 80 Villistas were killed. Other attacks in U.S. territory allegedly were carried out by Villa, but none of these attacks were confirmed to have been carried out by Villistas. These were: As result of Villa's raid on Columbus, President Wilson had to take action. Publicly it

7696-530: The railroad south of Chihuahua City. He also recruited fighters from Chihuahua and Durango and created a large army known as the Division del Norte (Division of the North) , the most powerful and feared military unit in all of Mexico. The rebuilt railroad transported Villa's troops and artillery south, where he defeated the Federal Army forces in a series of battles at Gómez Palacio , Torreón , and eventually at

7800-497: The remains of his Division del Norte on a raid on the American town of Columbus in New Mexico. Some sources attribute the raid to American support for Carranza, while others point to the fact that some Columbus residents had cheated Villa out of money he had paid for armaments. This decision proved to be both a tactical and strategic failure; with Villa's forces were repelled by the town's defenders who inflicted heavy casualties on

7904-478: The revolution and committed crimes which were later attributed to Villa. After years of public and documented support for Villa's fight, the United States refused to allow more arms to be supplied to his army, and allowed Carranza's troops to be relocated over U.S. railroads in the Second Battle of Aguaprieta . Woodrow Wilson believed that supporting Carranza was the best way to expedite establishment of

8008-549: The revolution. Villa also decreed that after the completion of the revolution the land would be redistributed, away from the hands of the oligarchy, to revolutionary veterans, former owners of the land from before the hacendados took the land, and the state itself in equal parts. These motions accompanied with gifts and cost reductions for poorer sections of the state represented large changes from previous revolutionary governments, and led to large support for Villa in significant portions of Chihuahua's population. After four weeks as

8112-455: The revolution. The Army of the convention was constituted with the alliance of Villa and Zapata, and a civil war of the winners ensued. Although both Villa and Zapata were defeated in their attempt to advance an alternative state power, their social demands were copied (in their way) by their adversaries (Obregón and Carranza). Carranza and Alvaro Obregón retreated to Veracruz , leaving Villa and Zapata to occupy Mexico City. Although Villa had

8216-429: The revolutionary forces in the north under "First Chief" Carranza and his Plan of Guadalupe. The period 1913–1914 was the time of Villa's greatest international fame and military and political success. Through this time Villa focused on accessing funding from wealthy hacendados and raised money using methods such as forced assessments on hostile hacienda owners and train robberies. In one notable escapade, after robbing

8320-774: The rich in order to give to the poor. He had even at some point kept a butcher's shop for the purpose of distributing to the poor the proceeds of his innumerable cattle raids." Villa was a brilliant tactician on the battlefield, which translated to political support. In 1913, local military commanders elected him provisional governor of the state of Chihuahua against the wishes of First Chief Carranza, who wished to name Manuel Chao instead. As Governor of Chihuahua, Villa recruited more experienced generals, including Toribio Ortega, Porfirio Talamantes, and Calixto Contreras, to his military staff and achieved more success than ever. Villa's secretary, Pérez Rul, divided his army into two groups, one led by Ortega, Contreras, and Orestes Pereira and

8424-399: The same power structure, including the recently defeated Federal Army, was retained. The rebel forces, including Villa, were demobilized, and Madero called on the men of action to return to civilian life. Orozco and Villa demanded that hacienda land seized during the violence bringing Madero to power be distributed to revolutionary soldiers. Madero refused, saying that the government would buy

8528-454: The same result unless he was to lead the attack himself. Carranza declined to rescind the order as he did not want Villa to receive the credit as the victor of Zacatecas. Upon receiving Carranza's refusal Villa resigned from his post, which further led to the majority of revolutionary generals rallying behind Villa. Felipe Ángeles and the rest of Villa's staff officers argued for Villa to withdraw his resignation, and proceed to attack Zacatecas,

8632-502: The siege of the strategic border city of Ciudad Juárez . Villa and Pascual Orozco attacked instead, capturing the city after two days of fighting, thus winning the first Battle of Ciudad Juárez in 1911. Facing a series of defeats in many places, Díaz resigned on 25 May 1911, afterward going into exile. However, Madero signed the Treaty of Ciudad Juárez with the Díaz regime, under which

8736-463: The state, Chihuahua Governor Abraham González, Villa returned to military service under Madero to fight the rebellion led by his former comrade Orozco. Although Orozco appealed with him to join his rebellion, Villa again gave Madero key military victories. With 400 cavalrymen, he captured Parral from the Orozquistas and then joined forces in the strategic city of Torreón with the Federal Army under

8840-513: The support of politicians and generals, including Pablo González , Álvaro Obregón , and Villa. The movement collectively was called the Ejército Constitucionalista de México ( Constitutionalist Army of Mexico ). The Constitucionalista adjective was added to stress the point that Huerta legally had not obtained power through lawful avenues laid out by Mexico's Constitution of 1857 . Until Huerta's ouster, Villa joined with

8944-485: The town and its inhabitants. This actually ended up causing the attack to fail, as his men almost immediately turned to looting and rape rather than fighting, which allowed the defending forces to reorganize and drive the Villistas out. While most sources state that the searchlights that illuminated the battlefield for Calles' machine guns were on the Mexican side of the border, Villa strongly believed that they were on

9048-529: The town that had been placed there by the Carrancistas. Once darkness has fallen he made some feints at various locations in order to hide the direction of his main attack. Shortly after midnight, on November 2, he launched his frontal assaults from the east and south of Agua Prieta. As the Villista cavalry was charging towards the trenches, however, two searchlights illuminated the battlefield, making

9152-658: The victims of violence. In Namiquipa , Villa sought to punish civilians who had formed a home guard, but when they learned Villa's men were approaching the village men took to the hills, leaving their families behind. Villa rounded up the wives and allowed his soldiers to rape them. The story of the rapes in Namiquipa was spread throughout Chihuahua. Some historians have contended that crimes that he did not commit have been attributed to him; in addition, his enemies always told false stories to increase his status as an "evil person", since there were cases of bandits who were not part of

9256-494: The visit, Villa became incensed at Obregón and called for a firing squad to execute him immediately. Obregón soothed him and Villa dismissed the squad. Villa allowed Obregón to leave by train to Mexico City, but then Villa attempted to stop the train and bring Obregón back to Chihuahua. The telegram was not received or was ignored, and Obregón arrived safely in the capital. Even though Obregón had his differences with Carranza, his two visits with Villa convinced him to remain loyal for

9360-463: The west via Guadalajara , to take the capital first. This was an expensive and disruptive diversion for the División del Norte . Villa's enlisted men were not unpaid volunteers but paid soldiers, earning the then enormous sum of one peso per day. Each day of delay cost thousands of pesos. Disgusted but having no practical alternative, Villa complied with Carranza's order and captured the less important city of Saltillo, and proceeded to give control of

9464-475: The women soldaderas , who were a vital part of the fighting force. Reed's articles were collected as Insurgent Mexico and published in 1914 for an American readership. Reed includes stories of Villa confiscating cattle, corn, and bullion and redistributing them to the poor. President Woodrow Wilson knew some version of Villa's reputation, saying he was "a sort of Robin Hood [who] had spent an eventful life robbing

9568-486: Was a Mexican revolutionary and prominent figure in the Mexican Revolution . He was a key figure in the revolutionary movement that forced out President Porfirio Díaz and brought Francisco I. Madero to power in 1911. When Madero was ousted by a coup led by General Victoriano Huerta in February 1913, Villa joined the anti-Huerta forces in the Constitutionalist Army led by Venustiano Carranza . After

9672-621: Was a stopgap to keep the Constitutionalists united prior to the defeat of the Federal Army. The pact was ostensibly an updating of Carranza's narrow Plan of Guadalupe , adding radical language about land distribution and sanctions for the Roman Catholic Church for its support of Huerta. Neither Villa nor Carranza took the provisions of the pact seriously, one which was for Carranza to renew the flow of ammunition to Villa and supply coal so his troops could be transported by train. The truce between Villa and Carranza held long enough for

9776-501: Was able to collect more revenue than Villa. In 1915, Villa was forced to abandon the capital after a number of incidents involving his troops, which helped pave the way for the return of Carranza and his followers. To combat Villa, Carranza sent his ablest general Obregón north, who defeated Villa in a series of battles. Meeting at the Battle of Celaya in the Bajío, Villa and Obregón first fought from 6 to 15 April 1915, and Villa's army

9880-490: Was about to be executed by firing squad, he made appeal to Generals Emilio Madero and Raul Madero , brothers of President Madero. Their intervention delayed the execution until the president could be contacted by telegraph, and he ordered Huerta to spare Villa's life but imprison him. Villa first was imprisoned in Belem Prison , in Mexico City. While in prison he was tutored in reading and writing by Gildardo Magaña ,

9984-401: Was announced that General Pershing would be sent to Mexico to capture Villa. In a private order to General Pershing, Pershing was told to cease the search for Villa once Villa's armies had been broken up. President Wilson sent 5,000 U.S. Army soldiers under the command of General Frederick Funston, who oversaw John Pershing as he pursued Villa through Mexico. Employing aircraft and trucks for

10088-428: Was decisively defeated by Constitutionalist general Álvaro Obregón in summer 1915, and the U.S. aided Carranza directly against Villa in the Second Battle of Agua Prieta . Much of Villa's army left after his defeat on the battlefield and because of his lack of resources to buy arms and pay soldiers' salaries. Angered at the U.S. aid to Carranza, Villa conducted a raid on the border town of Columbus, New Mexico to goad

10192-409: Was defeated badly, suffering 4,000 killed and 6,000 captured. Obregón engaged Villa again at the Battle of Trinidad, which was fought between 29 April and 5 June 1915, where Villa suffered another huge loss. In October 1915, Villa crossed into Sonora , the main stronghold of Obregón and Carranza's armies, where he hoped to crush Carranza's regime. However, Carranza had reinforced Sonora, and Villa again

10296-453: Was defeated badly. Rodolfo Fierro , a loyal officer and cruel hatchet man, was killed while Villa's army was crossing into Sonora. After losing the Battle of Agua Prieta in Sonora, an overwhelming number of Villa's men in the Division del Norte were killed and 1,500 of the army's surviving members soon turned on him, accepting an amnesty offer from Carranza. "Villa's army [was] reduced to

10400-410: Was made between Zapata's forces and Villa's. Zapata was sympathetic to Villa's hostile views of Carranza and told Villa he feared Carranza's intentions were those of a dictator and not of a democratic president. Fearing that Carranza was intending to impose a dictatorship, Villa and Zapata broke with him. Carranza opposed the agreements of the convention, which rejected his leadership as "first chief" of

10504-426: Was no longer known as Arango but Francisco "Pancho" Villa after his paternal grandfather, Jesús Villa. However, others claim he appropriated the name from a bandit from Coahuila . He was known to his friends as La Cucaracha or ("the cockroach"). Until 1910, Villa is said to have alternated episodes of thievery with more legitimate pursuits. At one point he was employed as a miner, but that stint did not have

10608-658: Was portrayed as a hero in the U.S. media, made business arrangements with Hollywood, and did not object to the 1914 U.S. naval occupation of Veracruz . Villa's observation was that the occupation merely hurt Huerta. Villa opposed the armed participation of the United States in Mexico, but he did not act against the Veracruz occupation in order to maintain the connections in the U.S. that were necessary to buy American cartridges and other supplies. The German consul in Torreón made entreaties to Villa, offering him arms and money to occupy

10712-441: Was repulsed at Columbus by a small cavalry detachment, albeit after doing a lot of damage. His theater of operations was limited mainly to western Chihuahua. He was persona non grata with Mexico's ruling Carranza constitutionalists and was the subject of an embargo by the U.S., so communication or further shipments of arms between the Germans and Villa would have been difficult. A plausible explanation for contacts between Villa and

10816-699: Was spared the death sentence sometimes imposed on captured bandits. Pancho Villa was forcibly inducted into the Federal Army , a practice often adopted under the Diaz regime to deal with troublemakers. Several months later, he deserted and fled to the neighboring state of Chihuahua. He tried to work as a butcher in Hidalgo del Parro but was forced out of business by the Terrazas-Creel monopoly. In 1903, after killing an army officer and stealing his horse, he

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