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98-529: In 428, Armenian nobles petitioned Bahram V to depose Artaxias IV (r. 422); Bahram V (r. 420–438) abolished the Kingdom of Armenia and appointed Veh Mihr Shapur as marzban (governor of a frontier province, " margrave ") of the country, which marked the start of a new era known as the Marzpanate period ( Armenian : Մարզպանական Հայաստան – Marzpanakan Hayastan ), a period when marzbans , nominated by

196-608: A Lakhmid army, and won the favour of the nobles and priests, according to a long-existing popular legend, after withstanding a trial against two lions. Bahram V's reign was generally peaceful, with two brief wars—first against his western neighbours, the Eastern Roman Empire , and then against his eastern neighbours, the Kidarites , who were disturbing the Sasanian eastern provinces. It was also during his reign that

294-486: A counter-attack, where he successfully managed to repel them. As a reward, Kavadh I appointed him as the marzban of Armenia in 518. During this governorship, Mjej maintained religious peace. In 527, he repelled several other Hunnic invasions. In 548, he was succeeded by Gushnasp Bahram . Chihor-Vishnasp , a member of the Suren family and a relative of Khosrow I himself, was in 564 appointed as marzban . During this period,

392-755: A experienced rider to catch it. The legend of Bahram "the Wild ass" is based on lost Middle Persian records, such as the Khwaday-Namag ("Book of Lords"). The story of Bahram portrays that of a classic hunter king in Iranian literature, which is associated with the namesake god, known in Avestan as Verethragna . This type of ancient folklore goes back to at least the epic story of ancient Mesopotamian hero Gilgamesh . Later court poets often compared their overlord with ancient figures, such as Rostam or Bahram. In

490-467: A female gazelle into a male and a male into a female. Bahram accomplished this by shooting two arrows into the head of a female gazelle, thus giving her "antlers". He then shoot at a male, cutting off his antlers. Azadeh, horrified by this, cried out: "This art of yours is from the daevas [evil deities]". Bahram, enraged, threw her to the ground, and trampled her with his camel. The medieval historian al-Tha'labi (d. 1035/6) reports that al-Mundhir had

588-611: A frontier province, " margrave ") of the country. In 465, Adhur Gushnasp was appointed by the Sasanian emperor Peroz I (r. 459–484) as the marzban of Armenia, replacing Adhur Hormizd. In 475, the Mamikonian princess Shushanik , was murdered by her husband Prince Varsken , a recent convert to Zoroastrianism , because she refused to convert and wanted to stay Christian . Varsken was then executed by Vakhtang I , king of Iberia . Peroz I, eager to avenge Varsken, sent his general Shapur Mihran to Iberia. Vakhtang then appealed to

686-570: A great battle known as the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah . The Arabs then attacked Ctesiphon, and occupied it in early 637 . The Muslim military officer Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas quickly seized Valashabad and made a peace treaty with the inhabitants of Veh-Antiok-Xusrō and Veh-Ardashir . The terms of the treaty were that the inhabitants of Veh-Antiok-Xusrō were allowed to leave if they wanted to, but if they did not, they were forced to acknowledge Muslim authority, and also pay tribute ( jizya ). Later on, when

784-488: A humiliating defeat against Ardashir I . In 283, emperor Carus sacked the city uncontested during a period of civil upheaval. Some historians have claimed that Galerius marched on Ctesiphon and was able to capture it. However, this is never explicitly stated in any source and is still a matter of debate among scholars. Hence that he returned it to the Persian king Narses in exchange for Armenia and western Mesopotamia

882-616: A large group of nomadic pastrolists known as Zutt (Jats) from Sind were settled in the marshes of southern Iraq by the emperor. At the urging of the Zoroastrian priests and the Surenid minister ( wuzurg framadar ) Mihr Narseh , Bahram V began his reign with a systematic persecution of the Christians . The persecuted Christians fled to Roman territory, and were welcomed by the bishop of Constantinople, Atticus , who informed

980-462: A locked room which contains a depiction of seven princesses; hence the name Haft Paykar (seven beauties). Each of these princesses is from the seven different climes (the traditional Zoroastrian division of the Earth) and he falls in love with them. His father Yazdegerd I passes away and Bahram returns to Iran to claim his throne from pretenders. After some episodes he is recognized as shah and rescues

1078-464: A peace settlement. The Roman general Avidius Cassius captured Ctesiphon in 164 during another Parthian war, but abandoned it when peace was concluded. In 197, the emperor Septimius Severus sacked Ctesiphon and carried off thousands of its inhabitants, whom he sold into slavery. By 226, Ctesiphon was in the hands of the Sasanian Empire , who also made it their capital and had laid an end to

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1176-456: A pillar at the Oxus, which marked that the river constituted his empire's eastern frontier. In Iranian mythology , the Oxus is often considered the eastern extent of Iran. The heroic archer Arash shot an arrow to the fringe of Khorasan , landing at the Oxus, which thus marked the limit of the Iranian border. Another figure, Esfandiyar , thudded his spear onto the ground at Balkh , warning

1274-530: A pun on words, while trying to hunt the wild ass ( gūr ) he instead finds his tomb ( gūr ). Azadeh (meaning free) was a Roman-slave girl in al-Hira, known for her singing and harpist skills (she played the chang ). The young Bahram, during his time at the city, became her owner, and would take her with him whenever he went hunting. During one incident, Bahram bragged to Azadeh about his hunting skills and asked her to choose which gazelle he should shoot. Azadeh replied to him that true skill would be to transform

1372-482: A rich commercial metropolis, merging with the surrounding cities along both shores of the river, including the Hellenistic city of Seleucia . Ctesiphon and its environs were therefore sometimes referred to as "The Cities" ( Mahuza , Arabic : المدائن , romanized :  al-Mada'in ). In the late sixth and early seventh century, it was listed as the largest city in the world by some accounts. During

1470-403: A she-wolf in exchange for betraying his flock. He starts investigating the corrupt minister and from the multitude of complaints, he selects seven who tell him the injustice they have suffered. The minister is subsequently put to death and Bahram restores order and orders the seven domes to be converted to Zoroastrian fire temples . Bahram then goes hunting, but in a obscure manner disappears. As

1568-584: A skilled musician, who teaches her his craft. One day, word of a skilled female musician reaches Bahram, which leads him to search for her. Bahram eventually finds Dilaram, and asks for her forgiveness. She accepts, and they return to the Khawarnaq palace. Ctesiphon Ctesiphon ( / ˈ t ɛ s ɪ f ɒ n / TESS -if-on ; Middle Persian : 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 , Tyspwn or Tysfwn ; Persian : تیسفون ; ‹See Tfd› Greek : Κτησιφῶν , Attic Greek : [ktɛːsipʰɔ̂ːn] ; Syriac : ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ )

1666-566: Is Tisfun ( تیسفون ). Texts from the Church of the East 's synods referred to the city as Qṭēspōn ( Classical Syriac : ܩܛܝܣܦܘܢ ) or some times Māḥôzē ( Classical Syriac : ܡܚܘܙ̈ܐ ) when referring to the metropolis of Seleucia-Ctesiphon . In modern Arabic, the name is usually Ṭaysafūn ( طيسفون ) or Qaṭaysfūn ( قطيسفون ) or as al-Mada'in ( المدائن "The Cities", referring to Greater Ctesiphon). "According to Yāqūt [...], quoting Ḥamza,

1764-489: Is also likely to have never happened. In c.  325 and again in 410, the city, or the Greek colony directly across the river, was the site of church councils for the Church of the East . After the conquest of Antioch in 541, Khosrow I built a new city near Ctesiphon for the inhabitants he captured. He called this new city Veh-Antiok-Xusrō , or literally, "better than Antioch Khosrow built this". Local inhabitants of

1862-531: Is estimated to date between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD. It is located in what is now the Iraqi town of Salman Pak . Ctesiphon was founded in the late 120s BC. It was built on the site of a military camp established across from Seleucia by Mithridates I of Parthia . The reign of Gotarzes I saw Ctesiphon reach a peak as a political and commercial center. The city became the Empire's capital circa 58 BC during

1960-413: Is remembered as one of the most famous kings in Iranian history, due to his cancellation of taxes and public debt at celebratory events, his encouragement of musicians, and his enjoyment of hunting. He was succeeded by his son Yazdegerd II. According to the genealogy of the aristocratic Mikalids , the family was descended from Bahram. The Buyid King of Kings Adud al-Dawla ( r.  949–983 ) and

2058-532: Is remembered as one of the most famous kings in Iranian history, due to his cancellation of taxes and public debt at celebratory events, his encouragement of musicians, and his enjoyment of hunting. He was succeeded by his son Yazdegerd II ( r.  438–457 ). His theophoric name "Bahram" is the New Persian form of the Middle Persian Warahrān (also spelled Wahrām ), which is derived from

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2156-437: Is shrouded in mystery. According to the Persian poet Ferdowsi (d. 1020), Bahram died in his sleep; according to the poems Haft Peykar and Hasht-Behest , he disappeared in a cave whilst chasing an onager . According to other versions by early historians, Bahram either sunk in a swamp, fell into a deep hole, or drowned. The modern historian Richard Payne calls his death "no less ambiguous than that of his father." Bahram V

2254-942: Is the Taq Kasra , sometimes called the Archway of Ctesiphon . The Latin name Ctesiphon derives from Ancient Greek Ktēsiphôn ( Κτησιφῶν ). This is ostensibly a Greek toponym based on a personal name, although it may be a Hellenized form of a local name, reconstructed as Tisfōn or Tisbōn . In Iranian-language texts of the Sasanian era, it is spelled as Tyspwn , which can be read as Tīsfōn , Tēsifōn , etc. in Manichaean Parthian , in Middle Persian 𐭲𐭩𐭮𐭯𐭥𐭭 and in Christian Sogdian (in Syriac alphabet ) languages. The New Persian form

2352-586: Is the protagonist of Nizami Ganjavi's romantic epic Haft Peykar (also known as the " Bahramnameh "), written in 1197. The Seven Beauties were princesses, which—in Nizami's imagination—became Bahram's wives and each received her own residence in his palace. He visited them on a rotating basis, and they entertained him with exciting stories. He is also the focal point in the Hasht-Behesht ("Eight Paradises"), written by Amir Khusrau in ca. 1302. Bahram V

2450-686: The Arsacid line of Armenia was replaced by a marzban (governor of a frontier province, " margrave "), which marked the start of a new era in Armenia, known in Armenian historiography as the "Marzpanate period". Bahram V is a central figure in several of the most famous works in Persian literature . He is mentioned in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh ("Book of Kings") written between 977 and 1010, and he

2548-578: The Huns and the Armenian nobles, citing solidarity between Christians. After carefully weighing the decision, the Mamikonian prince Vahan Mamikonian agreed to revolt against the Sasanians. He defeated and killed Adhur Gushnasp, and thereafter declared Sahak II Bagratuni as the new marzban . He also kept repelling several Sasanian counter-attacks. In 482, Shapur Mihran began to become a big threat to

2646-562: The Kamsarakan family. Zarmihr shortly delivered the Armenian captives to Shapur Mihran, who delivered them to Izad Gushnasp , promising the Armenian captives to make Peroz spare them. However, an unexpected event changed the course of events: the death of the Sasanian king Peroz I in 484 in war against the Hephthalites , causing the withdrawal of the Sasanians in Armenia and recovery of Dvin and Vagharshapat . Struggling to suppress

2744-627: The Merv metropolis as pivot. The population also included Manicheans , a dualist church, who continued to be mentioned in Ctesiphon during Umayyad rule fixing their "patriarchate of Babylon" there. Much of the population fled from Ctesiphon after the Arab capture of the metropolis . However, a portion of Persians remained there, and some important figures of these people are known to have provided Ali with presents, which he, however, refused to take. In

2842-698: The Old Iranian Vṛθragna . The Avestan equivalent was Verethragna , the name of the old Iranian god of victory, whilst the Parthian version was *Warθagn . The name is transliterated in Greek as Baranes , whilst the Armenian transliteration is Vahagn/Vrām . The name is attested in Georgian as Baram and Latin as Vararanes Gororanes . Bahram V was born around 400; according to folklore, he

2940-564: The Oxus river and invaded the Sasanian realm, conquering the rich city of Marw and even reaching as far as westwards as Ray . Bahram was thus forced to pay tribute to the Kidarites, in order to stop their incursions into his empire. When he had made peace with the Romans in 422, he started preparing to deal with the Kidarites. Not only was Marw a rich city, but also an important trading spot on

3038-637: The Roman–Parthian Wars , Ctesiphon fell three times to the Romans , and later fell once during Sasanian rule. It was also the site of the Battle of Ctesiphon in 363 AD . After the Muslim invasion, the city fell into decay and was depopulated by the end of the eighth century, its place as a political and economic center taken by the Abbasid capital at Baghdad . The most conspicuous structure remaining today

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3136-598: The Scythian folk or soldiery quartered amongst them. Because of the Parthian power, therefore, Ctesiphon is a city rather than a village; its size is such that it lodges a great number of people, and it has been equipped with buildings by the Parthians themselves; and it has been provided by the Parthians with wares for sale and with the arts that are pleasing to the Parthians; for the Parthian kings are accustomed to spend

3234-599: The Shirvanshahs (861–1538) likewise claimed ancestry from Bahram. The Bahmanis of Deccan India also claimed descent from Bahram. Bahram is in Islamic-era literature often known by the epithet of Gur/Gōr ( Jur in Arabic sources), meaning " onager /wild ass", seemingly due to his fondness of hunting the animal. The onager was the fastest animal in the deserts of Central Asia , even causing difficulties for

3332-603: The Silk Road , which passed through Central Asia and continued through Iran to Europe. Bahram first went to the holy temple of Adur Gushnasp in Adurbadagan , where he prayed. He then proceeded to Armenia to recruit additional troops. Leaving his minister Mihr Narseh as his regent, Bahram passed through the mountain chain on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea , eventually reaching Merv. There his forces routed

3430-538: The Tarikh-i Akbari , Arif Qandahari compares the hunting skills of the Mughal emperor Akbar ( r.  1556–1605 ) with that of Bahram. He states that "Akbar emptied the land of wild asses and deer, which brought amazement and joy to the soul of Bahram Gur." Haft Peykar ( Persian : هفت پیکر ) also known as Bahramnameh ( بهرام‌نامه , The Book of Bahram ) is a famous romantic epic written in 1197 by

3528-577: The White Palace ( قصر الأبيض ), was located. The southern side of Ctesiphon was known as Asbānbar or Aspānbar, which was known by its prominent halls, riches, games, stables, and baths. Taq Kasra was located in the latter. The western side was known as Veh-Ardashir (meaning "the good city of Ardashir" in Middle Persian ), known as Mahoza by the Jews , Kokhe by the Christians, and Behrasir by

3626-569: The al-Rumiya town as the Abbasid capital city for a few months. It is believed to be the basis for the city of Isbanir in One Thousand and One Nights . The ruins of Ctesiphon were the site of a major battle of World War I in November 1915. The Ottoman Empire defeated troops of Britain attempting to capture Baghdad, and drove them back some 40 miles (64 km) before trapping

3724-572: The onager [hunter]"), was the Sasanian King of Kings ( shahanshah ) from 420 to 438. The son of the incumbent Sasanian shah Yazdegerd I ( r.  399–420 ), Bahram was at an early age sent to the Lahkmid court in al-Hira , where he was raised under the tutelage of the Lakhmid kings. After the assassination of his father, Bahram hurried to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon with

3822-410: The "Greeks", i.e the Romans. Sahak went to Ctesiphon to request for support; there the bureaucrats urged Sahak to withdraw his support for Artaxias IV, which he refused. Artaxias IV was ultimately deposed and imprisoned, while Armenia was transformed into a Sasanian frontier province , governed by a marzban (" margrave "). Sahak was also removed from his office, and a Nestorian Syrian named Bar Kiso

3920-515: The Arabs. Veh-Ardashir was populated by many wealthy Jews, and was the seat of the church of the Nestorian patriarch . To the south of Veh-Ardashir was Valashabad . Ctesiphon had several other districts which were named Hanbu Shapur, Darzanidan, Veh Jondiu-Khosrow, Nawinabad and Kardakadh. Severus Alexander advanced towards Ctesiphon in 233, but as corroborated by Herodian , his armies suffered

4018-673: The Armenian aristocracy was split between two parties, the national one which was headed by a member of the Mamikonian family, and a pro-Sasanian one, which was headed by a member of the Siunia family. Chihor Vishnasp harshly treated the Christian Armenians who were suspected of secretly siding with the Byzantines, and he also did the same with the rest of the Christian Armenian population. Claiming to exploit on

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4116-484: The British force and compelling it to surrender . Under Sasanian rule, the population of Ctesiphon was heavily mixed: it included Arameans , Persians , Greeks and Assyrians . Several religions were also practiced in the metropolis, which included Christianity , Judaism and Zoroastrianism . In 497, the first Nestorian patriarch Mar Babai I , fixed his see at Seleucia-Ctesiphon, supervising their mission east, with

4214-668: The Byzantine Emperor Heraclius surrounded the city, the capital of the Sassanid Empire, leaving it after the Persians accepted his peace terms. In 628, a deadly plague hit Ctesiphon, al-Mada'in and the rest of the western part of the Sasanian Empire, which even killed Khosrow's son and successor, Kavad II . In 629, Ctesiphon was briefly under the control of Mihranid usurper Shahrbaraz , but

4312-568: The Emperor of the persecution. The Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II was at the time deeply influenced by his religious sister Pulcheria , and had become more and more interested in Christianity. The Roman-Sasanian relationship already had some friction. The Sasanians had hired some Roman gold-diggers, but now refused to send them back; furthermore, they had also seized the properties of Roman merchants. So, when Sasanian ambassadors reached

4410-561: The Hun king that progressing further would mean an invasion of Iran. Bahram thus believed that he had restored the ancient borders of his realm. He appointed his brother Narseh as the governor of the surrounding region. Bahram also founded (or refounded) the city of Marw-i Rot , near the city of Marw. In order to demonstrate his appreciation to the Zoroastrian supreme god Ahura Mazda , Bahram bestowed most of his booty to Adur Gushnasp. Bahram V appointed Artaxias IV as king of Armenia in 422 at

4508-476: The Iranians from a famine. Once the country is stable, the shah searches for the seven princesses and wins them as his brides. His architect is ordered to construct seven domes for each of his new brides. The architect tells him that each of the seven climes is ruled by one of the seven planets (the classical planetary system of the Zoroastrian world) and advises him to assure good fortune by adorning each dome with

4606-416: The Iranians saw it as tribute, which proved that Rome was the deputy of Iran. Since the reign of Shapur II, the Iranians had to deal with nomadic invaders in the east known in scholarship as " Iranian Huns " (i.e. the Hephthalites , Kidarites , Chionites and Alchon Huns ). Starting with Yazdegerd I, a shift had begun in the political perspective of the Sasanian Empire, which (originally disposed towards

4704-578: The Iranians. Three times during the Marzpanic period, Iranian kings launched persecutions against Christianity in Armenia. The Iranians had tolerated the invention of the Armenian alphabet and the founding of schools, which they thought would encourage the spiritual separation of Armenia from the Byzantines, but on the contrary, the new cultural movement among the Armenians proved to be conducive to closer relations with Byzantium. Christianity became

4802-490: The Kidarites, killing their king in the process and capturing his wife. A general of Bahram pursued the Kidarites into Transoxiana and inflicted another defeat on them. The war was concluded in 427, with Bahram cementing his name as a great champion of Iran. The name of Bahram was long remembered amongst the people of the surrounding area; the Sogdian city of Bukhara would later mint coins with his image. Bahram erected

4900-538: The Muslims arrived at Ctesiphon, it was completely desolated, due to flight of the Sasanian royal family , nobles , and troops. However, the Muslims had managed to take some of troops captive, and many riches were seized from the Sasanian treasury and were given to the Muslim troops. Furthermore, the throne hall in Taq Kasra was briefly used as a mosque. Still, as political and economic fortune had passed elsewhere,

4998-415: The Parthian dynasty of Iran. Ctesiphon was greatly enlarged and flourished during their rule, thus turning into a metropolis, which was known by in Arabic as al-Mada'in , and in Aramaic as Mahoze. The oldest inhabited places of Ctesiphon were on its eastern side, which in Islamic Arabic sources is called "the Old City" ( مدينة العتيقة Madīnah al-'Atīqah ), where the residence of the Sasanians, known as

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5096-447: The Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi . A pre-Islamic story of Persian origin, it was dedicated to the ruler of Maragha , 'Ala' Al-Din korp Arslan. It is a romanticized biography of Bahram, who is born to Yazdegerd I after twenty years of childlessness and supplication to Ahura Mazda for a child. His adventurous life is already mentioned in the Shahnameh ("Book of Kings") of Ferdowsi, which Nizami regularly implies. Nizami primarily overlooks

5194-552: The Roman court to ask for the fugitives, Theodosius chose to break the peace and declare war , rather than giving them back. In the year 421, the Romans sent their general Ardaburius with an extensive contingent into Armenia. The Iranian general Narses engaged Ardaburius in battle, but was defeated and forced to retreat. Narses planned to attack Mesopotamia , a Roman province that had been left unguarded, and moved there, but Ardaburius foresaw his enemy's plan and intercepted him there. Ardaburius shortly received reinforcements and put

5292-420: The Sasanian Empire. They would continue to enjoy such as high status under Bahram's son and successor Yazdegerd II ( r.  438–457 ) as well. The influence of Bahram’s upbringing in the Arab urban center of al-Hira can be illustrated as follows: "It was to al-Hira that the Persian monarch was sent as a prince, to be educated. Here, he was taught music, among other Arab accomplishments. When he ascended to

5390-477: The Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon . Vahan quickly used the opportunity to regain control of Armenia. In the spring of 484, however, Shapur Mihran returned as the head of a new army and forced Vahan to flee to refuge near the Byzantine frontier, at Tao and Taron . During the same period, the Sasanian noble Zarmihr Karen from the Karenid family, was successful in another campaign against the Armenians, and managed to capture several of them, including noblemen from

5488-427: The Sasanian court, where the latter was taught law, archery, and equestrian arts. Since the death of the powerful Sasanian shah Shapur II (r. 309–379), the aristocrats and priests had expanded their influence and authority at the cost of the Sasanian government, nominating, dethroning, and murdering shahs, which included Yazdegerd I, who was murdered in 420. They now sought to stop the sons of Yazdegerd I from ascending

5586-434: The Sasanian emperor, governed eastern Armenia, as opposed to the western Byzantine Armenia which was ruled by several princes, and later governors, under Byzantine suzerainty. The Marzpanate period ended with the Arab conquest of Armenia in the 7th century, when the Principality of Armenia was established. An estimated 3,000,000 Armenians were under the influence of the Sasanian marzpans during this period. The marzban

5684-792: The Sasanian empire. Yazdegerd quickly subdued the rebellion at the Battle of Avarayr . The military success of the Iranians ensured that Armenia would remain part of the Sasanian empire for centuries to come. However, Armenian objections did not end until the Nvarsak Treaty , which guaranteed Armenia more freedom and freedom of religion ( Christianity ) under Sasanian rule. Sasanian government had produced gold, silver and bronze coins in Armenia. 813 of these coins were found in 34 regions in Armenia; being most of them found in Dvin (ancient city) and Gyumri . Most of these coins were silver coins. Bahram V Bahram V (also spelled Wahram V or Warahran V ; Middle Persian : 𐭥𐭫𐭧𐭫𐭠𐭭 ), also known as Bahram Gur ( New Persian : بهرام گور , "Bahram

5782-421: The Tigris River from the city of Ardashir. Ctesiphon is located approximately at Al-Mada'in , 35 km (22 mi) southeast of the modern city of Baghdad , Iraq , along the river Tigris. Ctesiphon measured 30 square kilometers, more than twice the surface of a 13.7-square-kilometer fourth-century imperial Rome . The archway of Chosroes ( Taq Kasra ) was once a part of the royal palace in Ctesiphon and

5880-404: The West) moved to the East. The shift may have been triggered by hostile tribes in eastern Iran. The war with the Iranian Huns may have reawakened the mythical rivalry between the mythological Iranian Kayanian rulers and their Turanian enemies, which is illustrated by Younger Avestan texts. While Bahram was occupied with the war with the Romans, his eastern neighbours—Kidarites —crossed

5978-430: The adventures of Bahram in the Shahnameh , or only mentions them briefly, while focusing on composing new information. He introduces the story by giving a description of the birth of Bahram and his upbringing in the court of the Lakhmid king al-Nu'man and his fabled palace Khawarnaq . Bahram, whose upbringing is entrusted to al-Nu'man, becomes a formidable huntsman. While wandering through the fabled palace, he discovers

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6076-442: The area called the new city Rumagan , meaning "town of the Romans" and Arabs called the city al-Rumiyya . Along with Weh Antiok, Khosrow built a number of fortified cities. After a campaign in 573, John of Ephesus wrote that no fewer than 292,000 persons had been deported from Dara , Apamia , and other Syrian towns to Veh-Antiokh. John would later cite a letter stating no more than 30,000 prisoners were deported. It's thought that

6174-425: The city went into a rapid decline, especially after the founding of the Abbasid capital at Baghdad in the 760s, and soon became a ghost town . Caliph Al-Mansur took much of the required material for the construction of Baghdad from the ruins of Ctesiphon. He also attempted to demolish the palace and reuse its bricks for his own palace, but he desisted only when the undertaking proved too vast. Al-Mansur also used

6272-404: The cohesiveness of the Iranian empire. The dispute appears to be based on Iranian military considerations of the time given that according to Acts 2:9 in the Acts of the Apostles there were Persians, Parthians and Medes (all Iranian tribes) among the first new Christian converts at Pentecost and Christianity has had a long history in Iran as a minority religion, dating back to the very early years of

6370-407: The color that is associated with each clime and planet. Bahram is skeptical but follows the advice of the architect. Each of the princesses reside in luxurious pavilions. On each visit, the shah visits the princesses on successive days of the week. Each princess relates to the shah a story matching the mood of her respective color. These seven stories comprise roughly half of the whole poem. While

6468-408: The command of the king, he persecuted the Christian Armenians and even built a fire-temple in Dvin. These actions soon resulted in a massive uprising in late 571 or early 572, which was led by Vardan III Mamikonian . On 23 February 572, the Armenian rebels seized Dvin, and had Chihor-Vishnasp killed. Sasanian king Yazdegerd II began to view Christianity in the Northern lands as a political threat to

6566-442: The empire; Mahgushnasp was the wastaryoshan salar ("chief agriculturalist"), which meant that he oversaw the affairs of the land tax; Kardar was the arteshtaran-salar ("chief of the warriors"), a rank, which according to the medieval historian al-Tabari (d. 923), was higher than that of spahbed ("army chief"). The power and influence of the Suren family thus spread over the administrative, financial, and military affairs of

6664-404: The end of Yazdegerd I's reign, the powerful Parthian House of Suren became powerful associates of the shah and played a key role in the affairs of the empire. This would continue under Bahram, where Suren power reached its zenith. Mihr Narseh served as the wuzurg framadar ("minister") of the shah, while his three sons also occupied high offices; Zurvandad served as the chief herbad of

6762-478: The faith. Nevertheless, the conversion to Christianity by Armenians in the North was of particular concern to Yazdegerd II. After a successful invasion of the Eastern Roman Empire, Yazdegerd began summoning Armenian nobles to Ctesiphon and reconverted them to Zoroastrianism (a faith many Armenians shared with Iranians prior to Christianity). This upset the Armenian population, and under the leadership of Vardan Mamikonian an army of 66,000 Armenians rebelled against

6860-445: The first number he gave is not to be taken literally. In 590, a member of the House of Mihran , Bahram Chobin repelled the newly ascended Sasanian ruler Khosrow II from Iraq, and conquered the region. One year later, Khosrow II, with aid from the Byzantine Empire , reconquered his domains. During his reign, some of the great fame of al-Mada'in decreased, due to the popularity of Khosrow's new winter residence, Dastagerd . In 627,

6958-405: The fortress of Nisibis under siege, but withdrew in the face of an advancing army under Bahram, who in turn besieged Theodosiopolis (probably Theodosiopolis in Osroene ). The peace treaty that ended the war (422) was negotiated by the magister officiorum Helio. It returned everything to the situation before the war ( status quo ante bellum ). Both parts agreed to reject Arab defectors of

7056-586: The foundation of Ctesiphon: In ancient times Babylon was the metropolis of Assyria ; but now Seleucia is the metropolis, I mean the Seleucia on the Tigris , as it is called. Nearby is situated a village called Ctesiphon, a large village. This village the kings of the Parthians were wont to make their winter residence, thus sparing the Seleucians, in order that the Seleucians might not be oppressed by having

7154-562: The head of the king in the flame upon the altar. The title of Bahram V on his coins was the typical Mazdēsn bay Warahrān šāhān šāh Ērān ud Anērān kēčihr az yazdān ("the Mazda-worshiping, divine Bahram, King of Kings of Iran(ians) and non-Iran(ians), whose image/brilliance is from the gods"). On some of rare coins minted in Pars , he is also seen with the title of kirbakkar ("beneficent"). Bahram died in 438; his manner of death

7252-578: The incident painted in the Khawarnaq palace at al-Hira. Nizami Ganjavi included the story in his Haft Peykar and had it slightly altered; Bahram orders one of his men to kill Fitna (her new name), but she persuades the officer to spare her and lie to Bahram of her death. The story is likewise mentioned in an altered version in the Hasht-Behest , where Azadeh's name has been changed to Dilaram (heart's ease). In this version Bahram abandons her after she makes him enraged. After days of walking, she finds

7350-650: The latter was shortly assassinated by the supporters of Khosrow II's daughter Borandukht . Ctesiphon then continued to be involved in constant fighting between two factions of the Sasanian Empire, the Pahlav (Parthian) faction under the House of Ispahbudhan and the Parsig (Persian) faction under Piruz Khosrow . In the mid-630s, the Muslim Arabs , who had invaded the territories of the Sasanian Empire, defeated them during

7448-622: The ninth century, the surviving Manicheans fled and displaced their patriarchate up the Silk Road, in Samarkand . A German Oriental Society expedition led by Oscar Reuther excavated at Ctesiphon in 1928–29 mainly at Qasr bint al-Qadi on the western part of the site. In winter of 1931–1932 a joint expedition of the German State Museums (Staatliche Museen zu Berlin) and The Metropolitan Museum of Art continued excavations at

7546-486: The nobles, and asked al-Mundhir I ibn al-Nu'man (who had succeeded his father al-Nu'man I) for military assistance, who agreed to help him. Bahram and al-Mundhir, at the head of an army of numerous soldiers, marched towards Ctesiphon, where Bahram promised that he would not reign like his father Yazdegerd I did. According to a long-existing popular legend written in the Shahnameh ("Book of Kings"), Bahram suggested that

7644-595: The original form was Ṭūsfūn or Tūsfūn, which was arabicized as Ṭaysafūn." The Armenian name of the city was Tizbon ( Տիզբոն ). Ctesiphon is first mentioned in the Book of Ezra of the Old Testament as Kasfia/Casphia (a derivative of the ethnic name Cas , and a cognate of Caspian and Qazvin ). It is also mentioned in the Talmud as Aktisfon. In another Talmudic reference it is written as Akistfon, located across

7742-494: The other part, as well as to guarantee liberty of religion in their territories. Furthermore, the Romans also agreed to pay the Iranians for the protection of the pass at the Sasanian city of Derbent in the Caucasus. Since the peace treaty of 387, Iran and Rome had agreed that both empires were obligated to cooperate in the defense of the Caucasus against nomadic attacks. While the Romans saw this payment as political subsidies,

7840-406: The reign of Orodes II . Gradually, the city merged with the old Hellenistic capital of Seleucia and other nearby settlements to form a cosmopolitan metropolis. The reason for this westward relocation of the capital could have been in part due to the proximity of the previous capitals ( Mithradatkirt , and Hecatompylos at Hyrcania ) to the Scythian incursions. Strabo abundantly describes

7938-479: The request of the nakharars , reportedly on the term that the Armenian prince called himself the Middle Persian name Ardashir. However, the newly appointed king lacked the character he needed to rule and attain respect amongst his countrymen. As a result he fell out with the nakharar , who wanted Bahram V to remove Artaxias IV and put it under the direct control of Iran. However, the annexation of Armenia

8036-709: The revolt of his brother Zarir , Peroz's successor, Balash (r. 484-488), needed the help of the Armenians: in exchange for military support, he agreed to sign the Nvarsak Treaty , which granted religious freedom to the Christians and the prohibition of Zoroastrianism in Armenia, including much greater autonomy for the nakharar . Vahan was also recognized as sparapet and the property of the Mamikonian family and its allies were returned. Between 515-516, several Hunnic tribes kept making incursions into Armenia—the Armenian nobleman Mjej I Gnuni then decided to organize

8134-411: The royal crown and attire should be placed between two lions, and the person who retrieved them by killing the wild animals should be recognized as the shah of Iran. Khosrow chose to pull out, whilst Bahram withstood the trial and won the throne. Bahram distrusted the nobles, who had been unreliable to the earlier Sasanian shahs, and thus chose instead to seek support from the Zoroastrian priesthood. He

8232-478: The security of Iberia, which made Vakhtang request Armenian aid. Vahan and Sahak shortly arrived to Iberia at the head of a big army, but were defeated in Akesga, where Sahak was killed. Vahan fled with the remnants of the Armenian army into the mountains, where he led guerrilla actions against the Sasanians, while Shapur Mihran managed to regain control of Armenia. However, Shapur Mihran was shortly ordered to return to

8330-440: The shah is busy with the seven brides, his evil minister takes over his kingdom. Bahram finds out that his realm is in turmoil, the royal treasury has been depleted and the neighboring kingdoms are posed to invade. He clears his mind first by going hunting. After returning from the hunt, he sees a suspended dog from a tree. The owner of the dog, who was a shepherd, tells the story of how his loyal guard dog had gained sexual favours by

8428-566: The site, focusing on the areas of Ma'aridh, Tell Dheheb, the Taq-i Kisra, Selman Pak and Umm ez-Za'tir under the direction of Ernst Kühnel. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, an Italian team from the University of Turin directed by Antonio Invernizzi and Giorgio Gullini  [ it ] worked at the part of the site on the other side of the Tigris, which they identified as Veh Ardashir. Work mainly concentrated on restoration at

8526-614: The state religion of Armenia in 301. In 387, Armenia was divided between the Sasanian Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire . The former established control in Eastern Armenia after the fall of the Arshakuni Armenian Kingdom in 428. In 428, Armenian nobles, nakharar , dissatisfied with the rule of Artaxias IV petitioned emperor Bahram V to depose him. Bahram V abolished the Kingdom of Armenia and appointed Veh Mihr Shapur as marzban (governor of

8624-478: The throne, one of his first edicts was to improve the status of musicians at the Persian court." Bahram V issued coins in gold, silver, copper and lead. They are (as usual in Sasanian numismatics) identifiable by his special headdress, in this case a mural crown topped with a korymbos resting on a crescent , and a round hairball in the king's neck. The reverse shows the usual fire-altar , watched by two attendants at its sides. A special variant for Bahram V shows

8722-477: The throne— Shapur IV , who was the eldest son of Yazdegerd I and governor of Armenia , quickly rushed to the Sasanian capital of Ctesiphon , and ascended the throne. He was, however, shortly after, murdered by the nobles and priests, who elected a son of Bahram IV , Khosrow , as shah. Bahram was informed about the news of Yazdegerd I's death when he was in the Arabian Desert —he opposed the decision of

8820-636: The winter there because of the salubrity of the air, but they summer at Ecbatana and in Hyrcania because of the prevalence of their ancient renown. Because of its importance, Ctesiphon was a major military objective for the leaders of the Roman Empire in their eastern wars. The city was captured by Rome four or five times in its history – three times in the 2nd century alone. The emperor Trajan captured Ctesiphon in 116, but his successor, Hadrian , decided to willingly return Ctesiphon in 117 as part of

8918-563: Was an ancient city in modern Iraq , on the eastern bank of the Tigris , about 35 kilometres (22 mi) southeast of Baghdad . Ctesiphon served as a royal capital of the Iranian empires for over eight hundred years, in the Parthian and Sasanian periods. Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire from 226–637 until the Muslim conquest of Persia in 651 AD. Ctesiphon developed into

9016-421: Was appointed in his stead. The Sasanians were cautious in their efforts to respect the nakharars , and only asserted their presence at the Armenian capital of Dvin , which was also the seat of the marzban . Not all of the former territory of the Armenian kingdom was made into a province; the Armenian districts of Parskahayk and Paytakaran were incorporated into the province to its south, Adurbadagan. At

9114-602: Was born in Rusan, close to the city of Spahan . He was the son of shah Yazdegerd I ( r.  399–420 ) and Shushandukht , a daughter of the Jewish exilarch . Richard Frye believes that Yazdegerd I's marriage to a daughter of the patriarch of the Jews is "probably folk tales", while Touraj Daryaee supports this story, stating that the Jews would see Bahram as a Jewish king due to his Jewish mother. Bahram, during his youth,

9212-423: Was entrusted only to an Armenian. Each nakharar had his own army, according to the extent of his domain. The "National Cavalry", or "Royal Force", was under the commander-in-chief. The tax collectors were all Armenians. The courts of justice and the schools were directed by the Armenian clergy. Several times, an Armenian nakharar became marzpan , as did Vahan Mamikonian in 485 after a period of rebellion against

9310-455: Was invested with supreme power, even imposing death sentences; but he could not interfere with the age-long privileges of the Armenian nakharars . The country as a whole enjoyed considerable autonomy. The office of Hazarapet , corresponding to that of Minister of the Interior, public works and finance, was mostly entrusted to an Armenian, while the post of Sparapet (commander-in-chief)

9408-462: Was sent to the Lakhmid court in al-Hira , where he was raised under the tutelage of the Lakhmid king al-Nu'man I ibn Imru' al-Qays (r. 390–418). According to the modern historian O. Klíma, Bahram was probably sent there due to a disagreement with his father, while Giusto Traina suggests he was possibly sent there to avoid court intrigues. At al-Hira, al-Nu'man provided Bahram with teachers from

9506-489: Was strongly opposed by the Armenian katholikos Sahak , who felt that the rule of a Christian was better than that of a non-Christian regardless of his character or ability. He hoped that the Roman emperor Theodosius II would help the Armenians after he had sorted out his own issues in his empire. Regardless, the nakharar did not heed to his words, and contacted Bahram V, chastising both Artaxias V and Sahak for supporting

9604-492: Was the first Sasanian shah to not be crowned by a noble, but by a chief priest ( mowbed ). Bahram married an Indian princess and received the port of Debal in Sind as a dowry, together with the adjacent territories. The Indus delta and the coast of Sind were of great commercial and strategic value at that time as well. Bahram also systematically pursued a policy of tribal resettlement in these coastal regions. For instance,

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