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138-527: The Nvarsak Treaty was concluded after the previous Sasanian shahanshah Peroz I ( r.  459–484 ) was killed by the Hephthalites amid Armenian guerrilla efforts. This treaty ensured religious freedom and autonomy for Armenians. The conditions of the treaty were as follows: Following the treaty, Vahan Mamikonian was appointed as hazarapet and later marzban (" margrave ") of Armenia. The Armenian cavalry led by Vahan supported Balash against

276-523: A casus belli against the Byzantines by trying to take advantage of a disagreement between his Lakhmid clients and the Byzantine clients Ghassanids , who both claimed ownership of the lands south of Palmyra , near the old Strata Diocletiana . His attempt was, however, thwarted when the Byzantines successfully equivocated the problem. Subsequently, Khosrow accused Justinian of trying to bribe

414-544: A martyr . Varsken's policies were unacceptable to the Iberian king Vakhtang I ( r.  447/49–502/22 ), who had him killed and then revolted against Iran in 482. Almost simultaneously, the Armenians rebelled under the leadership of Vahan Mamikonian , a nephew of Vardan. In the same year, the marzban of Armenia, Adhur Gushnasp was defeated and killed by Vahan's forces, who installed Sahak II Bagratuni as

552-500: A Byzantine army was sent to support the people of Lazica, effectively ending the established truce and thus continuing the Lazic Wars. Sometime later, Khosrow, who was keen to wrest Dara from Byzantine control, and would do so even if he risked to break the truce they had made regarding Mesopotamia, tried to capture it by tricking them; he sent one of highest officials, Izadgushasp , as a diplomat to Constantinople , but in reality

690-461: A Mazdakite, the religious sect that Kavad originally supported but now had withdrawn his support from. Although Siyawush was a close friend of Kavad and had helped him escape from imprisonment, the latter did not try to prevent his execution, seemingly with the purpose of restricting Siyawush's immense authority as the head of the Sasanian army, a post which was disliked by the other nobles. Siyawush

828-692: A council took place in Gundeshapur, where Nestorianism was announced as the official doctrine of the church. Peroz was notable for founding many cities. According to The History of the Country of Albania , Peroz ordered his vassal the Caucasian Albanian king Vache II to have the city of Perozapat ("the city of Peroz" or "Prosperous Peroz") built. However, this is unlikely as the Kingdom of Caucasian Albania had been abolished by Peroz after

966-488: A daughter, who would later marry Peroz's son Kavad I ( r.  488–496, 498/9–531 ). Due to Peroz's defeat, a law was allegedly made that forbade pursuit of a withdrawing army. His wars against the Hephthalites have been described as "foolhardy" in both contemporary and modern historiography. His defeat and death introduced a period of political, social and religious tumult. The empire reached its lowest ebb:

1104-505: A fourth class to this hierarchy between the nobles and the peasants, called the dehqans . The dehqans were small land owning citizens of the Sasanian Empire and were considered lower nobility. Khosrow promoted honest government officials based on trust and honesty, rather than corrupt nobles and magi. The small landowning deghans were favored over the high nobles because they tended to be more trustworthy and owed their loyalty to

1242-651: A future priest ( herbed ). Furthermore, he would observe the Middle Persian translation of the Avesta , the Zend . Afterwards, he would be schooled in riding, archery, polo ( chovgan ) and military creativity. In c.  520 , Kavad, in order to secure the succession of Khosrow, whose position was threatened by rival brothers and the Mazdakite sect, proposed that Emperor Justin I adopt him. The proposal

1380-953: A minor official in Justinian's court, there were 12 points to the treaty, stated in the following passage: 1. Through the pass at the place called Tzon and through the Caspian Gates the Persians shall not allow the Huns or Alans or other barbarians access to the Roman Empire, nor shall the Romans either in that area or on any other part of the Persian frontier send an army against the Persians. 2. The Saracen allies of both states shall themselves also abide by these agreements and those of

1518-658: A reinvigorated empire at war with the Byzantines , Khosrow I signed a peace treaty with them in 532, known as the Perpetual Peace , in which the Byzantine emperor Justinian I paid 11,000 pounds of gold to the Sasanians. Khosrow then focused on consolidating his power, executing conspirators, including his uncle Bawi . Dissatisfied with the actions of the Byzantine clients and vassals, the Ghassanids , and encouraged by Ostrogoth envoys from Italy , Khosrow violated

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1656-485: A renaissance of the Sasanian Empire, which spread philosophic beliefs as well as trade goods from the far east to the far west. The internal reforms under Khosrow were much more important than those on the exterior frontier. The subsequent reforms resulted in the rise of a bureaucratic state at the expense of the great noble families, strengthening the central government and the power of the Shahanshah. The army too

1794-448: A slightly different method of taxation based on the amount of producing trees that the land contained. These tax reforms of Khosrow were the stepping stone which enabled subsequent reforms in the bureaucracy and the military to take place. The hallmark of Khosrow's bureaucratic reform was the creation of a new social class. Before, the Sasanian Empire consisted of only three social classes, magi, nobles and peasants/commoners. Khosrow added

1932-669: A suppressing a revolt by Vache II in the mid-460s. The city was seemingly founded by Peroz himself after the removal of the ruling family in Caucasian Albania. Due to its more secure location, it was made the new residence of the Iranian marzbans . Peroz also founded Shahram Peroz ( Ardabil ) in Adurbadagan ; Ram Peroz near Ray; and Rowshan Peroz between Gurgan and Derbent. The basilica of Bolnisi Sioni in Iberia

2070-624: A surprise attack on the Iranians, defeating them at the Battle of Nerseapate, near Maku . Vahan retreated to the mountains once more, close to the Byzantine border. He hoped that the Iranians would not pursue and attack him there, in order to avoid risking a conflict with the Byzantines. However, after a night march, Zarmihr Hazarwuxt attacked the Armenian camp and managed to capture several princesses. Vahan and most of his men withdrew further into

2208-637: A winged, triple-crescent crown, which was the third crown of Peroz, indicating that the Hephthalite king considered himself to be the legitimate ruler of Iran. Peroz imposed a poll tax on his subjects to raise the ten mule packs of silver, and secured the release of Kavad before he mounted his third campaign. Besides Caucasian Albania, the two other Iranian provinces in the Caucasus—Armenia and Iberia —were also dissatisfied with Zoroastrian Sasanian rule. In Armenia, Yazdegerd II's policy of integrating

2346-457: Is F. Altheim. The tax reforms, which were started under Kavad I and completely implemented by Khosrow, greatly strengthened the royal court. Prior to Khosrow and Kavad's reigns, a majority of the land was owned by seven Parthian families : Suren , Waraz, Karen , Ispahbudhan , Spandiyadh , Mihran and Zik. These great landowners enjoyed tax exemptions from the Sasanian empire, and were tax collectors within their local provincial areas. With

2484-582: Is a testimony of the growing Sasanian influence there. It was constructed in 478/479 in the southern part of the country, which had fallen under the local control of the Mihranids of Gugark. The iconography of the basilica showed Iranian characteristics, while its inscription , written in Old Georgian , mentions Peroz: [With the help of the H]oly Trinity, the foundation of this holy church

2622-564: Is included in a legendary romantic story narrated by the 13th-century Iranian historian Ibn Isfandiyar . The story begins with Peroz dreaming about a beautiful woman whom he falls in love with. Peroz then sends one of his relatives who is also a close friend, Mihrfiruz from the Mihran family, to find her. Mihrfiruz finds the woman and discovers her to be the daughter of the Mihranid general Ashtad Mihran. Peroz marries her and, at her request, lays

2760-565: Is not known. Leo responded to the Iranian activity by reinforcing his borders with them, which included the fortification of Callinicum in Syria . Since the Byzantine–Iranian peace treaty of 387 , both empires had agreed that they were obligated to cooperate in the defense of the Caucasus against nomadic attacks from the northern steppes. The Iranians took the major role in this, while

2898-573: Is rendered in Greek as Chosroes ( Χοσρόης ) and in Arabic as Kisra . Besides his personal name, he is widely known in sources by his epithet of Anushirvan ("the Immortal Soul"), a New Persian rendering of Middle Persian anūšag-ruwān . He received this title after his death to distinguish him from Khosrow II . It referred to his religious reforms and promotion of the prosperity of

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3036-546: Is reported by both Dinawari (d. 896) and al-Tabari (d. 923). The latter reported that Peroz had the tower tied to fifty elephants and three hundred men linked together and dragged it in front of his men, while he walked behind the tower, feigning not to have violated his grandfather's peace treaty. Akhshunwar, unwilling to face Peroz directly, had a large trench dug across the battleground, concealing it with shrubbery and loose wood, and positioning his forces behind it. Charging at Akhshunwar's forces, Peroz and his army fell into

3174-487: Is transliterated in Greek as Perozes ( Περόζης ). The Georgian transliteration of the name, Pˊerozh/Pˊeroz , was introduced into Georgian twice; through its Middle Iranian form (Parthian/Middle Persian) and in the New Persian form. The Armenian transliteration, Peroz ( Պերոզ ), follows the exact same spelling as the Middle Persian original. The name Peroz had already been in use by members of

3312-439: The shahanshah was now a client of the Hephthalites and was compelled to pay tribute, while the nobility and clergy exerted great influence and authority over the nation, being able to act as king-makers. The magnates—most notably Sukhra and Shapur Mihran —elected Peroz's brother, Balash , as the new shahanshah . Order would first be restored under Peroz's son Kavad I ( r.  488–496, 498/9–531 ), who reformed

3450-465: The shahanshah was now a client of the Hephthalites and was compelled to pay tribute; while the nobility and clergy exerted great influence and authority over the nation, being able to act as king-makers. According to Payne, "No other event in the history of the Sasanian dynasty so clearly vitiated the pretensions of [the Iranian Empire], and contemporaries were aghast at the foolhardiness of

3588-486: The dux Mesopotamiae would be withdrawn from the fortress of Dara to the city of Constantina . The two rulers would recognize once again each other as equal and pledged mutual assistance. Khosrow initially refused to hand back the two Lazic forts, while demanding the return of the two other forts the Byzantines had captured in Sasanian Armenia. Justinian at first agreed, but soon changed his mind, causing

3726-469: The Bactrian language (the language of Tokharistan), the local ruler of the city of Rob (between Kabul and Balkh ) Kirdir-Warahran, is given the honorific titles of "glorious through Hormizd" and "true to Peroz", which seemingly indicates that he shifted his allegiance between the two brothers. According to the contemporary Armenian historians Elishe and Ghazar Parpetsi , Peroz was notably supported by

3864-553: The Codex Sprenger 30 describes Hormizd as the "braver and better", while describing Peroz as "more learned in religion". Both brothers seemingly attempted to gain the support of the powers of the neighbouring eastern region of Tokharistan/Bactria in their struggle. The region was then controlled by the Kidarites , along with some of their local vassals, such as the Hephthalites. According to three contemporary letters in

4002-773: The First Turkic Khaganate destroyed the Hephthalites in 560. Since Bahram I ( r.  271–274 ), the Sasanian monarchs had primarily resided in Gundeshapur in southern Iran, due to its convenient position between the Iranian plateau and the Mesopotamian plain. Due to the increasing importance of the Tigris - Euphrates floodplains , the main residence of the shahanshah was moved to Ctesiphon after Peroz. Peroz, like all other Sasanian rulers,

4140-649: The Göktürks , he finally put an end to the Hephthalite Empire , which had inflicted a handful of defeats on the Sasanians in the 5th century, killing Khosrow's grandfather Peroz I . To the south, Iranian forces led by Wahrez defeated the Aksumites and conquered Yemen . Khosrow I was known for his character, virtues and knowledge. During his ambitious reign, he continued his father's project of making major social, military, and economic reforms, promoting

4278-533: The House of Mihran , one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran , while later Persian sources instead report that Peroz fled to the Hephthalites and enlisted their help. This version, however, has been called "legendary" and "somewhat fanciful" by modern historians. The modern historians Parvaneh Pourshariati , Shapur Shahbazi and Michael Bonner prefer the Armenian version, with the latter suggesting that

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4416-532: The Iranian calendar was reformed; the New Year ( Nowruz ) and the epagomenal from the month Frawardin were moved to the month Adur . Unlike his father, Peroz did not attempt to convert the Caucasian Albanians and Armenians to Zoroastrianism. Nevertheless, persecutions of Christians and Jews were reported to have occurred during Peroz's reign. While Jewish accounts claim Iranian fanaticism as

4554-492: The Iranologist Khodadad Rezakhani was probably a title used by the Hephthalite kings, similar to other contemporary Central Asian titles such as Ikhshid and Afshin . In order to halt the Hephthalite expansion, Peroz attacked them in 474, but was ambushed and captured near the border of Gurgan . He was ransomed by Zeno, who helped him restore good relations between the Sasanians and

4692-469: The Roman Empire than in pursuing war against Iran. The Byzantine envoys Rufinus , Hermogenes , Alexander and Thomas found Khosrow in a more conciliatory disposition than his father, and an agreement was soon reached. Justinian would pay 110 centenaria (11,000 pounds) of gold, ostensibly as a contribution to the defence of the Caucasus passes against the barbarians living beyond, and the base of

4830-548: The Sasanian kings . At the time of his death, the Sasanian Empire had reached its greatest extent since Shapur II , stretching from Yemen in the west to Gandhara in the east. He was succeeded by his son Hormizd IV . Khosrow is the New Persian variant of his name used by scholars; his original name was Middle Persian , Husraw , itself derived from Avestan Haosrauuah ("he who has good fame"). The name

4968-429: The late antique and medieval periods. On Peroz's coinage the traditional Sasanian titulature of shahanshah (" King of Kings ") is omitted, and only the two aspects of kay Pērōz ("King Peroz") are displayed. One of Peroz's seals demonstrates that the traditional titulature was still used, which indicates that coins do not with certainty display the full formal titulature of the Sasanian monarchs. The use of

5106-647: The Alkhans in Gandhara, and by the Hephthalites in Sogdia. According to Bactrian chronicles , Mehama was subsequently promoted to the position of "governor of the famous and prosperous king of kings Peroz". However, a power vacuum followed in Tokharistan, which allowed Mehama to gain autonomy, or possibly even independence. Peroz's war with the Hephthalites is reported by two contemporary sources—the account of

5244-726: The Arabs that had been killed during the attack. His request was, however, ignored. This incident, along with the support by an emissary from the Ostrogoth king Vitiges , and the Armenians living in Byzantine territory being dissatisfied with their rule, encouraged Khosrow to renew the war against the Byzantines. Justinian's ceaseless wars in North Africa and Italy must have contributed to Khosrow's aspirations as well. Justinian, informed of Khosrow's intention for war, tried to dissuade him, but to no avail. In May 540, Khosrow invaded

5382-789: The Armeno-Iberian frontier region of Gugark . A member of the Mihranids of Gugark , Varsken was born a Christian, but when he travelled to the Iranian court in 470, he converted to Zoroastrianism and shifted his allegiance from the Christian Iberian monarchy to the Sasanian Empire. As a reward for his conversion, he was given the viceroyalty of Albania and a daughter of Peroz in marriage. Espousing his pro-Iranian position, he attempted to force his family to convert to Zoroastrianism, including his first wife Shushanik (a daughter of Vardan), whom he eventually killed, which made her

5520-516: The Aswaran cavalry which was very limited and created shortages in well trained soldiers. Now that the dehqan class was considered nobility, they were able to join the cavalry force and boosted the number of cavalry force significantly. The military reform focused more on organization and training of troops. The cavalry was still the most important aspect of the Iranian military, with foot archers being less important, and mass peasant forces being on

5658-554: The Blue Faction—which was supported by Justinian—lose against the rival Greens. Khosrow extracted tribute from Apamea and other Byzantine towns, at which point Justinian called off his truce and prepared to send his commander Belisarius to move against the Sasanians. In spring 541, Khosrow brought his army north to Lazica on request of the Lazic king Gubazes II to repel the Byzantines from his territory. The fortress of Petra

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5796-624: The Byzantine Empire, which declined. He then offered peace to the king of the Kidarites, Kunkhas, and offered his sister in marriage, but sent a woman of low status instead. After some time Kunkhas found about Peroz's deception, and in turn attempted to trick him, by requesting him to send military experts to strengthen his army. When a group of 300 military experts arrived at the court of Kunkhas at Balaam (possibly Balkh), they were either killed or disfigured and sent back to Iran, with

5934-514: The Byzantine Empire. Khosrow I represents the epitome of the philosopher king in the Sasanian Empire. Upon his ascent to the throne, Khosrow did not restore power to the feudal nobility or the magi, but centralized his government. Khosrow's reign is considered to be one of the most successful within the Sasanian Empire. The peace agreement between Rome and Iran in 531 gave Khosrow the chance to consolidate power and focus his attention on internal improvement. His reforms and military campaigns marked

6072-543: The Byzantine envoys were to be hostages of Khosrow as an assurance that the Byzantines would honor the agreement. However, before departing, Khosrow went to the port of Antioch, Seleucia Pieria , where he bathed in the Mediterranean Sea . He then told the envoys that he wished to visit the city of Apamea out of interest, which they reluctantly allowed him, with the condition that he would leave for his domains afterwards. There he held chariot races, where he made

6210-507: The Byzantine historian Procopius and the Syriac text of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite . However, both sources are marred by errors and oversights. According to Pseudo-Joshua, Peroz fought three wars with the Hephthalites, but he only briefly mentions them. Procopius' report, although detailed, has only two wars. Many modern historians agree that he fought the Hephthalites three times. With

6348-422: The Byzantines contributed roughly 500 pounds (230 kg) of gold at irregular intervals. The Byzantines saw this payment as a contribution to their mutual defense, but the Iranians saw it as tribute which established Byzantium as a subordinate of Iran. Since the foundation of the Sasanian Empire, its rulers had demonstrated the sovereignty and power of their realm through collection of tribute, particularly from

6486-401: The Byzantines, and his attitude deteriorated towards them. Mahbod, who had along with Siyawush acted as the diplomats of the negotiations, accused the latter of purposely sabotaging the negotiations. Further accusations were made towards Siyawush, which included the reverence of new deities and having his dead wife buried, which was a violation of Iranian laws. Siyawush was thus most likely

6624-453: The Byzantines. Retaliating for Iran's plot with Ardaburius, Leo stopped the payments. Repeated negotiations failed to resolve the issue. The Byzantines also appealed for the return of the city of Nisibis , which had been ceded to Iran as part of a treaty in 363. Tensions continued to increase until the accession of the Byzantine emperor Zeno ( r.  474–491 ) in 474, who resumed payment to Iran and also ransomed Peroz from captivity by

6762-536: The Christian nobility into the bureaucracy by forcing them to convert to Zoroastrianism had resulted in a large-scale rebellion in 451, led by the Armenian military leader Vardan Mamikonian . Although the Sasanians defeated the rebels at the Battle of Avarayr , the impact of the rebellion was still felt, and tensions continued to grow. Meanwhile, in Iberia, Peroz had favoured Varsken , the viceroy ( bidaxsh ) of

6900-544: The Hephthalites. According to Procopius, Akhshunwar demanded that Peroz prostrate before him in exchange for his release. Following the advice of his priests, Peroz met Akhshunwar at dawn and pretended to prostrate before him, while in reality he was doing it before the rising sun, i.e. Mithra , the sun god. In the late 470s or early 480s, Peroz launched a second campaign, which ended in his defeat and capture once more; he offered to pay thirty mule packs of silver drachms in ransom, but could only pay twenty. Unable to raise

7038-493: The Hephthalites. Regardless, war almost erupted in the early 480s, when some Tayy clients of the Sasanians made incursions into Byzantine territory due to suffering from a two-year drought. The Iranian general Qardag Nakoragan, who was stationed at the frontier, quickly pacificed the Tayy raiders and ensured peace with the Byzantines. Since the reign of Shapur II ( r.  309–379 ), Iran had to deal with nomadic invaders in

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7176-668: The House of Karen, Sukhra's family claimed descent from the mythological heroes Karen and Tus, who had saved Iran after its king Nowzar had been killed by the Turanian Afrasiab , which Payne calls "in circumstances too similar to those of Peroz's death for the resemblance to be coincidental." According to the Iranologist Ehsan Yarshater , some of the Iranian–Turanian battles that are described in

7314-525: The Iranian army. Peroz responded by allowing the Huns to pass through the Darial Gorge , and they subsequently ravaged Albania. The two kings negotiated an accord; Vache II would return his mother (Peroz's sister) and daughter to Peroz, while he would receive the 1,000 families he had originally been given by his father as his share of the inheritance. Vache II abdicated in 462, leaving Albania kingless until 485, when Vachagan III ( r.  485–510 )

7452-581: The Jews may have expected the country to become Jewish now with the coming of the Messiah. According to the modern historian Eberhard Sauer, Sasanian monarchs only persecuted other religions when it was in their urgent political interests to do so. Peroz supported the new Christian sect of Nestorianism as the official doctrine of the Iranian Christian church . In 484, shortly before Peroz's death,

7590-458: The Kidarite coins, and displayed Peroz wearing his second crown. The legend of the coin displayed his name and title in Bactrian. The following year (467), an Iranian embassy journeyed to Constantinople, where the victory over the Kidarites was announced. An Iranian embassy sent to the Chinese Northern Wei dynasty in 468 may have done the same. The Kidarites continued to rule in Gandhara, and possibly Sogdia . They were eventually conquered by

7728-433: The Lakhmid ruler al-Mundhir III ibn al-Nu'man ( r.  503–554 ) through his diplomat Summus, and also that he had emboldened some Huns to make incursions into Iran. The Ghassanid ruler al-Harith ibn Jabalah ( r.  528–569 ) invaded Mundhir's territory and carried off rich booty. Khosrow complained to Justinian about this incident, and requested that the stolen riches be returned to him, including payment for

7866-508: The Mazdakites. A debate was arranged, where not only the Zoroastrian priesthood, but also the Christian and Jewish ones slandered Mazdak and his followers. According to the Shahnameh ("The Book of Kings"), written several centuries later by the medieval Persian poet Ferdowsi , Kavad had Mazdak and his supporters sent to Khosrow, who had his supporters killed by burying their heads in a walled orchard, with only their feet being visible. Khosrow then summoned Mazdak to look at his garden, saying

8004-409: The Persian account may yield some authenticity, with Peroz enlisting Hephthalite aid through the Mihranids. Elishe and Ghazar give two slightly different accounts of Peroz's struggle against Hormizd. According to the former, Peroz was aided by his Mihranid tutor Raham Mihran , who in 459 captured and executed Hormizd, and then crowned Peroz as shahanshah . The same account is given by Ghazar, with

8142-480: The Persians shall not attack the Romans, nor those of the Romans the Persians. 3. Roman and Persian merchants of all kinds of goods, as well as similar tradesmen, shall conduct their business according to the established practice through the specified customs posts. 4. Ambassadors and all others using the public post to deliver messages, both those traveling to Roman and those to Persian territory, shall be honoured each according to his status and rank and shall receive

8280-444: The Prophets and Kings and the Shahnameh ("Book of Kings") of the medieval Persian epic of Ferdowsi (d. 1020), give much information regarding Khosrow's reforms, and thus most likely drew both of their information from the Middle Persian history book Khwaday-Namag ("Book of Lords"). Other works were made independently, such as the Sirat Anushirwan , which was reportedly an autobiography made by Khosrow himself, and survives in

8418-451: The Sasanian family in the 3rd-century, namely by the Kushano-Sasanian ruler Peroz I Kushanshah . When Peroz's father Yazdegerd II ( r.  438–457 ) died in 457, he had reportedly not designed a successor and instead—according to the medieval historian al-Tha'alibi —entrusted the task to the elite and the leading marzbans ( margraves ). Civil war soon followed; Yazdegerd II's eldest son Hormizd III declared himself king at

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8556-438: The Sasanians. Peroz's reign marks the latest possible date for the completion of the Great Wall of Gorgan , whose construction had started in the late 4th-century. Additional fortifications were later made to the wall, possibly as late as the reigns of Kavad I and Khosrow I. The wall, stretching from the Caspian coast to Pishkamar , was the largest of its time, and the biggest Iranian investment in military infrastructure in

8694-424: The Shah for their position in the bureaucracy. The rise of deghans became the backbone of the empire because they now held the majority of land and positions in local and provincial administration. The reduction of power of the great families improved the empire. This was because previously, each great family ruled a large chunk of land and had their own king. The name Shahanshah, meaning King of Kings, derived from

8832-418: The Shahnameh, and thus the story may report some form of contemporary memory. In 531, while the Iranian army was besieging Martyropolis , Kavad became ill and died. Khosrow succeeded him, but due to his domestic position being insecure, he wanted to make peace with the Byzantines, who themselves under Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) were perhaps already more focused on recovering the lost western half of

8970-400: The Turanians in the east. It is probable that it was during this period that legendary and epic texts were collected by the Sasanians, including the legend of the Iranian hero-king Fereydun (Frēdōn in Middle Persian), who divided his kingdom between his three sons: his eldest son Salm received the empire of the west, Rome ; the second eldest Tur received the empire of the east, Turan; and

9108-587: The agreement (that is to say, if they engage in tax-dodging, so-called), they shall be hunted down by the officers of the frontier and handed over for punishment together with the merchandise which they are carrying, whether Assyrian or Roman. 6. If anyone during the period of hostilities defected either from the Romans to the Persians or from the Persians to the Romans and if he should give himself up and wish to return to his home, he shall not be prevented from so doing and no obstacle shall be put in his way. But those who in time of peace defect and desert from one side to

9246-418: The agreement to be broken off. In summer 532, however, a new embassy by Hermogenes and Rufinus managed to persuade Khosrow for a full exchange of the occupied forts, as well as for allowing the exiled Iberian rebels to either remain in the Byzantine Empire or return safely to their homes. Sometime during the early reign of Khosrow, he had to deal with his eldest brother Kawus , who ruled as governor-king of

9384-428: The appropriate attention. They shall be sent back without delay, but shall be able to exchange the trade goods which they have brought without hindrance or any impost. 5. It is agreed that Saracen and all other barbarian merchants of either state shall not travel by strange roads but shall go by Nisibis and Daras, and shall not cross into foreign territory without official permission. But if they dare anything contrary to

9522-560: The army in Iberia implies that Peroz may have recalled his father, Mihran, to participate in his Hephthalite war. Vahan retreated with the rest of his forces to the mountains in Tayk , from where they engaged in guerrilla warfare . Shapur Mihran restored Sasanian rule in Armenia, but was summoned to the court in Ctesiphon, resulting in Vahan regaining control of over the Armenian capital of Dvin , where he fortified himself. In 483, Iranian reinforcements arrived under Zarmihr Hazarwuxt, who laid siege to Dvin. Heavily outnumbered, Vahan mounted

9660-580: The bishop, Khosrow took advantage of the occasion and captured the city, which was shortly sacked. Germanus , the cousin of Justinian, sent the bishop of Beroea , Megas, to negotiate with Khosrow. Regardless, Khosrow continued his expedition, threatening the city of Hierapolis , whose custodians swiftly paid him 2,000 pounds or 910 kilograms of silver to leave the city untouched. After receiving additional pleas by Megas, Khosrow agreed to end his expedition in return for ten centenaria . While Megas went back to Antioch to inform Germanus of Khosrow's demands,

9798-417: The bottom of the spectrum. Khosrow made four military districts with a spahbed , or general, in charge of each district. Before the reforms of Khosrow, the general of the Iranians ( Eran-spahbed ) controlled the military of the entire empire. The four zones consisted of Mesopotamia in the west, the Caucasus region in the north, the Persian Gulf in the central and southwest region, and Central Asia in

9936-470: The central government treasury. The fixed tax that Khosrow implemented created a more stable form of income for the treasury. Because the tax did not vary, the treasury could easily estimate the year's revenue. Prior to Khosrow's tax reforms, taxes were collected based on the yield that the land had produced. The new system calculated and averaged taxation based on the water rights for each piece of property. Lands which grew date palms and olive trees used

10074-420: The city of Ray in northern Iran, while Peroz fled to the northeastern part of the empire and began raising an army in order to claim the throne for himself. The brothers' mother, queen Denag , temporarily ruled as regent of the empire from its capital, Ctesiphon . According to eastern sources, Peroz was more worthy for the throne than Hormizd, who they refer to as "unfair". Only the anonymous source known as

10212-478: The commander at Daras should deal with the offense. 11. If a city causes damage to or destroys the property of a city of the other side not in legitimate hostilities and with a regular military force but by guile and theft (for there are such godless men who do these things to provide a pretext for war), it was agreed that the judges stationed on the frontiers of both states should make a thorough investigation of such acts and punish them. If these prove unable to check

10350-520: The counsel of the aristocracy and the clergy, Peroz prepared in Gurgan for a third campaign against the Hephthalites. Ghazar highlights the opposition amongst his men towards the campaign, stating that the Iranian forces were demoralised at the prospect of facing the Hepthalites to the point of near mutiny. Peroz left his brother Balash in charge of the empire, launching his Hephthalite campaign at

10488-469: The damage that neighbours are inflicting on each other, it was agreed that the case should be referred to the general of the East on the understanding that if the dispute were not settled within six months and the plaintiff had not recovered his losses, the offender should be liable to the plaintiff for a double indemnity. It was agreed that if the matter were not settled in this way, the injured party should send

10626-561: The destructive xyonan of the Iranian accounts or the marauding barbarians of the Roman historians, the Hun kingdoms of post-Iranian Central Asia were city-based, tax-raising, ideologically innovative states the kings of kings found themselves hard pressed to unseat." The loss of the Armenian cavalry contingent after the revolt of Armenia in 451 weakened Sasanian efforts to keep their eastern enemies in check. The Sasanian efforts were disrupted in

10764-409: The domains of the Byzantines; he avoided the fortress of Circesium , and instead approached Zenobia , where he made a lukewarm attempt to persuade the fortress to surrender, which proved unsuccessful. He then proceeded to Sura and killed its commander Arsaces in battle. Demoralized by the death of their commander, the residents sent their bishop to parley with Khosrow. Feigning to accept the plea of

10902-500: The early 5th century by the Kidarites, who forced Yazdegerd I ( r.  399–420 ), Bahram V ( r.  420–438 ), and/or Yazdegerd II to pay them tribute. Although this did not trouble the Iranian treasury, it was nevertheless humiliating. Yazdegerd II eventually refused to pay tribute, which would later be used as a justification for the war that the Kidarites declared against Peroz in c. 464. Peroz lacked enough manpower to fight, and therefore asked for financial aid from

11040-566: The east known as " Iranian Huns " and made up of Hephthalites, Kidarites, Chionites and Alkhans . They seized Tokharistan and Gandhara from Shapur II and his Kushano-Sasanian clients, and eventually Kabul from Shapur III ( r.  383–388 ). Archaeological , numismatic , and sigillographic evidence demonstrates that the Huns ruled a realm just as refined as that of the Sasanians. They swiftly adopted Iranian imperial symbolism and titulature, such as imitating Sasanian imperial coinage . The modern historian Richard Payne states: "Far from

11178-560: The east. This new quadripartition of the Empire not only created a more efficient military system but also "[administration] of a vast, multiregional, multicultural, and multiracial empire". During Khosrow's reign, a "list" for equipment for the cavalry ( aswaran ) was written. The list comprised a helmet, a gorget, a chain mail shirt, a lamellar coat or cuirass, leg armour, gauntlets, sword, shield, two bows with spare strings, 30 arrows, axe or mace, and horse armour. Sasanian bullae showing

11316-474: The empire and defeated the Hephthalites, reconquering Khorasan. By 560, Peroz had been avenged by his grandson Khosrow I ( r.  531–579 ), who in collaboration with the First Turkic Khaganate , destroyed the Hephthalites. "Peroz" is a Middle Persian name, meaning "victorious". It is attested in Parthian as Pērōž , whilst its New Persian form is Pīrūz (Arabicized form: Fīrūz ). Peroz

11454-493: The empire, the military was dependent on the feudal lords of the great families to provide soldiers and cavalry. Each family would provide their own army and equipment when called by the Shahanshah. This system was replaced with the emergence of the lower deghan nobility class, who was paid and provided by the central government. The main force of the Sasanian army was the Aswaran cavalry. Previously only nobles could enlist into

11592-510: The exception that the Mihranid is named Ashtad Mihran, and was not the tutor, but rather foster father of Peroz. During the dynastic struggle between Peroz and Hormizd III, the Arsacid king of Caucasian Albania , Vache II ( r.  440–462 ), took advantage of the tumultuous situation and declared independence. He allowed the Huns into the city of Derbent , and with their aid attacked

11730-523: The fact that there were many feudal kings in Sasanian Iran with the Shahanshah as the ruler of them all. Their fall meant their power was redirected to the central government and all taxes now went to the central government rather than to the local nobility. Major reforms to the military made the Iranian army capable of fighting sustained wars, battling on multiple fronts, and deploy itself faster. Prior to Khosrow's reign, much like other aspects of

11868-405: The fall of the Kidarites, their former subjects–the Hephthalites, who were based in eastern Tokharistan–took advantage of the power vacuum, extending their rule over all of Tokharistan. Their capital was most likely near the city of Kunduz in eastern Tokharistan, which the medieval scholar al-Biruni calls War-Waliz. The Hephthalite king is often given the name of Akhshunwar , which according to

12006-412: The following; "You will find trees there that no-one has ever seen and no-one ever heard of even from the mouth of the ancient sages." Mazdak, seeing his followers corpses, screamed and passed out. He was afterwards executed by Khosrow, who had his feet fastened on a gallows , and had his men shoot arrows at him. The validity of the story is uncertain; Ferdowsi used much earlier reports of events to write

12144-431: The fortunes" for "forcing him to kill a brother like Kawus." Another danger to Khosrow's rule was that of his uncle Bawi , who along with other members of the Iranian aristocracy, became involved in a conspiracy in which they tried to overthrow Khosrow and make Kavad, the son of Khosrow's brother Jamasp, the shah of Iran. Upon learning of the plot, Khosrow executed all his brothers and their offspring, along with Bawi and

12282-656: The foundations of the city of Amol in Tabaristan . Khosrow I Khosrow I (also spelled Khosrau , Khusro or Chosroes ; Middle Persian : 𐭧𐭥𐭮𐭫𐭥𐭣𐭩 ; New Persian : خسرو [ xosˈroʊ̯ ]), traditionally known by his epithet of Anushirvan ( انوشيروان [ ænuːʃi:rˈvɔːn ] "the Immortal Soul"), was the King of Kings of the Sassanian Empire from 531 to 579. He was the son and successor of Kavad I ( r.  488–496, 498/9–531 ). Inheriting

12420-496: The four spahbeds show that horses were still fully armoured during this period and heavy cavalry tactics were still used by the Sasanian cavalry. It is highly likely that the stirrup had been introduced to the Sasanian cavalry two centuries before Khosrow's reforms (and are mentioned in Bivar (1972) ), and a "stirrupped" foot position can be seen on the Sasanian bullae and at Taq-e-Bostan. In 539 Khosrow had originally attempted to gain

12558-402: The god of victory. Peroz and Shapur II ( r.  309–379 ) were the only two Sasanian monarchs to regularly mint gold coins. The Austrian historian and numismatist Nikolaus Schindel has suggested that gold coins were generally not used in daily lives, but instead used as a form of donation given to high-ranking Iranian magnates by the shahanshah , seemingly during festivities. Peroz

12696-429: The guilty party shall make good the damage. 8. Henceforth, the Persians shall not complain to the Romans about the fortification of Daras. But in future neither state shall fortify or protect with a wall any place along the frontier, so that no occasion for dispute shall arise from such an act and the treaty be broken. 9. The forces of one state shall not attack or make war upon a people or any other territory subject to

12834-483: The head of a large army in 484. When Akhshunwar learned of Peroz's campaign, he sent his deputy with the following message "You concluded peace with me in writing, under seal, and you promised not to make war against me. We defined common frontiers not to be crossed with hostile intent by either party." A tower erected as a boundary marker near the Oxus by Peroz's grandfather, Bahram V, was destroyed by Peroz. This event

12972-478: The important position of spahbed of the West, i.e. the Sasanian Empire's southwestern regions (Khwarwaran). Following the tradition of the aristocratic or upper-class families, Khosrow would have started at school ( frahangestān ) between the age of five and seven. There he would learn to write and would learn the yashts , Hadokht , Bayān Yasn and Vendidad , following the same pattern of schooling made for

13110-402: The information that Kunkhas did this due to Peroz's false treaty. Around this time, Peroz allied himself with the Hephthalites and other Huns, such as Mehama , the ruler of Kadag in eastern Tokharistan. With their help, he finally vanquished the Kidarites in 466, and brought Tokharistan briefly under Sasanian control, issuing gold coins at Balkh. The style of the gold coin was largely based on

13248-545: The king of kings." Taking advantage of the weakened Sasanian authority in the east, the Nezak Huns seized the region of Zabulistan . Peroz was the last shahanshah to mint unique gold coins in the Indian region of Sindh , which indicates that the region was lost around the same period. The Iranian magnate Sukhra quickly raised a new army and prevented the Hephthalites from achieving further success. A member of

13386-473: The latter approached Beroea, which he had sacked. In June, Khosrow reached Antioch, where he offered its citizens to not attack the city in return for ten centenaria . His offer was rejected, and as a result he captured and sacked the city. Justinian sued for peace, and made a treaty with Khosrow that the Iranians would withdraw back to their domains in return for a payment of 50 centenaria plus 5 centenaria extra each year. Part of treaty also included that

13524-440: The latter would stop by Dara, and with the aid of his large crew, he would seize the city. However, this plan was prevented by a former adviser of Belisarius named George, who demanded that if Izadgushasp should enter the city he should have only twenty members of his crew with him. Izadgushasp then left the city and continued his journey to Constantinople, where he was amicably welcomed by Justinian, who gave him some gifts. In 549

13662-446: The lower classes. Powerful families saw this as a tactic to weaken their lineage and advantages, which was most likely the case. Kavad used the movement as a political tool to curb the power of the nobility and clergy. With the nobility and clergy weakened, Kavad was able to make reforms with less difficulty. With the reforms roaring by the 520s, he no longer had any use for Mazdak. As a result, he officially withdrew his support from

13800-470: The medieval Persian epic Shahnameh ('The Book of Kings') were seemingly based on the Hephthalite wars of Peroz and his successors. Peroz's brother, Balash, was elected as shahanshah by the Iranian magnates, most notably Sukhra and Shapur Mihran. Order was restored under Kavad I, who reformed the empire and defeated the Hephthalites, reconquering Khorasan. Peroz was avenged by his grandson Khosrow I ( r.  531–579 ), who in collaboration with

13938-437: The mid-460s, the Byzantines discovered that their general Ardaburius had been secretly corresponding with the Iranian court, urging Peroz to attack the Byzantines, with the promise of military support and presumably also intelligence. Ardaburius's letters were intercepted and given to Byzantine emperor Leo I ( r.  457–474 ), who had him removed from office and summoned to the capital, Constantinople . Ardaburius's fate

14076-424: The mountains. An unexpected turn of events changed the tide of the war: Peroz's death in 484 during his war with the Hephthalites caused the Iranian army to withdraw from Armenia. Peroz's brother and successor, Balash, made peace with Vahan, and appointed him as hazarapet (minister) and later as marzban of Armenia. Peace was likewise made in Iberia, where Vakhtang was able to resume his rule. Against

14214-400: The mythological Kayanian title of kay , first used by Peroz's father Yazdegerd II, was due to a shift in the political perspective of the Sasanian Empire. Originally disposed towards the west, this now changed to the east. This shift, which had already started under Yazdegerd I and Bahram V, reached its zenith under Peroz I and his father. It may have been triggered by the aggression of

14352-507: The new marzban . Peroz sent an army under Zarmihr Hazarwuxt of the House of Karen to Armenia, while another army led by the Sasanian general Mihran, of the Mihranid family, was sent to Iberia. During the summer, an army led by Shapur Mihran, the son of Mihran, inflicted a defeat on a combined Armenian-Iberian army at Akesga, resulting in the death of Sahak II Bagratuni and Vahan's brother Vasak, while Vakhtang fled to Byzantine-controlled Lazica . The role of Shapur Mihran in command of

14490-560: The northern province of Padishkhwargar . Unlike Khosrow, he was a Mazdakite (or at least had strong Mazdakite sympathies), and thus had their support as the candidate for the throne. Kawus asserted to be the legitimate heir of the throne due to his older age. He was, however, defeated by Khosrow's forces and taken to Ctesiphon , where Khosrow summoned the priests and urged Kawus to make confessions and ask for forgiveness, so that he could be released. Kawus refused, preferring death, forcing Khosrow to have him killed. Khosrow reportedly "cursed

14628-422: The other aristocrats who were involved. Khosrow also ordered the execution of Kavad, who was still a child, and was away from the court, being raised by Adergoudounbades . Khosrow sent orders to kill Kavad, but Adergoudounbades disobeyed and brought him up in secret, until he was betrayed to the shah in 541 by his own son, Bahram. Khosrow had him executed, but Kavad, or someone claiming to be him, managed to flee to

14766-403: The other shall not be received, but every means shall be used to return them, even against their will, to those from whom they fled. 7. Those who complain that they have suffered some hurt at the hands of subjects of the other state shall settle the dispute equitably, meeting at the border either in person or through their own representatives before the officials of both states, and in this manner

14904-410: The other, but without inflicting or suffering injury shall remain where they are so that they too might enjoy the peace. 10. A large force, beyond what is adequate to defend the town, shall not be stationed at Daras, and the general of the East shall not have his headquarters there, in order that this not lead to incursions against or injury to the Persians. It was agreed that if some such should happen,

15042-433: The outbreak of the Mazdakite revolution, there was a great uprising of peasants and lower-class citizens who grabbed large portions of land under egalitarian values. As a result of this there was great confusion on land possession and ownership. Khosrow surveyed all the land within the empire indiscriminately and began to tax all land under a single program. Tax revenues that previously went to the local noble family now went to

15180-584: The peace treaty and declared war against the Byzantines in 540. He sacked the major city of Antioch and deported its population to Persia. In 541, he invaded Lazica and made it an Iranian protectorate, thus initiating the Lazic War . In 545, the two empires agreed to halt the wars in Mesopotamia and Syria while continuing to fight in Lazica. A truce was made in 557, and by 562 a Fifty-Year Peace Treaty

15318-529: The people who lived on the Roman border. Khosrow I was reportedly born between 512 and 514 at Ardestan , a town located in the Spahan province in central Iran. The town, dating back to the Achaemenid period, thrived during Khosrow's age, and also included a fire temple , which was said to be founded by the mythological Kayanian king Kay Bahman , from whom the Sasanians claimed their descent. Khosrow

15456-614: The previous truce between Justinian and Khosrow was disregarded and full war broke out once again between Iranians and Romans. The last major decisive battle of the Lazic wars came in 556 when Byzantine general Martin defeated a massive Sasanian force led by an Iranian nakhvaegan (field marshal). Negotiations between Khosrow and Justinian opened in 556, leading to the Fifty-Year Peace Treaty in 562 in which Iranians would leave Lazica in return for an annual payment of gold. According to ancient historian Menander Protector,

15594-556: The realm and probably also connected him with the mythical immortal king Kay Khosrow (both were remembered as pious kings and "restorers" of the faith). Other variants of the name are Anoshirvan , Anushiravan and Nowshīrvān . Khosrow was also known by the epithets Dādgar ("Dispenser of Justice") and, in Islamic times, 'Adel ("the Just"). Many sources dating to the Islamic era, such as al-Tabari 's Arabic History of

15732-606: The reason behind the persecutions, Iranian accounts accuse the Jews of abusing the Zoroastrian priests. The modern historian Jacob Neusner suggested that there may be some truth in the Iranian accounts, and that the Jews may had done it due to anticipating the coming of the Messiah , who was to arrive 400 years after the destruction of the Second Temple (dated by the rabbis in 68 AD, thus in 468). He further adds that

15870-480: The region was lost around the same period. Albeit a devout Zoroastrian , Peroz supported the newly established Christian sect of Nestorianism , and just before his death, it was declared the official doctrine of the Iranian church . Peroz's wars against the Hephthalites have been described as "foolhardy" in both contemporary and modern historiography . His defeat and death introduced a period of political, social and religious tumult. The empire reached its lowest ebb;

16008-638: The rest, he sent his youngest son, Kavad , to the Hephthalite court in 482 as a hostage until this balance was paid. Payne notes that "The sums involved were modest in comparison with late antique diplomatic subsidies or state revenues. But rumors of a caravan delivering tribute from the Iranian court to the Huns spread across the Iran and the Mediterranean worlds, as far as Sidonius Apollinaris in Gaul ." After this, Akhshunwar minted coins of himself wearing

16146-520: The rule of his elder brother and incumbent king Hormizd III ( r.  457–459 ), eventually seizing the throne after a two-year struggle. His reign was marked by war and famine. Early in his reign, he successfully quelled a rebellion in Caucasian Albania in the west, and put an end to the Kidarites in the east, briefly expanding Sasanian rule into Tokharistan , where he issued gold coins with his likeness at Balkh . Simultaneously, Iran

16284-444: The sharing of wealth, women and property, an archaic form of communism . Mazdakism not only consisted of theological and cosmological aspects, but also political and social impacts, which was to the disadvantage of the nobility and clergy. According to modern historians Touraj Daryaee and Matthew Canepa , sharing women was most likely an overstatement and defamation deriving from Mazdak's decree that loosened marriage rules to help

16422-426: The title of kay . Peroz depicted himself with three different crowns on his coins. The first consists of a diadem , a crown with crenellations in the middle, and the korymbos , with a moon crescent at the front. The second crown is similar to the first, with the exception that crenellations have been extended to the back of the cap. On the third crown, two wings are added, which is a reference to Verethragna ,

16560-408: The trench, but subsequently either died of hunger in a cleft in a mountain or was killed and eaten by wild animals in a forest. The main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of Khorasan − Nishapur , Herat and Marw were now under Hephthalite rule. Peroz's retinue, including his daughter Perozdukht and his priests, were captured by Akhshunwar. Perozdukht was married to Akhshunwar, and bore him

16698-454: The trench, where they were killed. Their bodies were not recovered by the Iranians. The Iranian dead included many distinguished aristocrats, including four of Peroz's sons or brothers. The site of the battle is uncertain; according to the modern historian Klaus Schippmann, it took place in present-day Afghanistan, possibly near Balkh. Pseudo-Joshua, who portrays Peroz in a hostile manner, proposed that Peroz may have been able to escape from

16836-582: The tribes on the eastern frontier. The war against the Hunnic tribes may have awakened the mythical rivalry existing between the Iranian Kayanian rulers and their Turanian enemies, which is demonstrated in the Younger Avesta . This conflict between Iran and its eastern enemies may have resulted in the adoption of the title of kay , used by the Iranian mythical kings in their war against

16974-444: The unrest there, he was defeated and killed in his third war with the Hephthalites in 484, who seized the main Sasanian cities of the eastern region of Khorasan − Nishapur , Herat and Marw . Taking advantage of the weakened Sasanian authority in the east, the Nezak Huns subsequently seized the region of Zabulistan . Peroz was the last shahanshah to mint unique gold coins in the Indian region of Sindh , which indicates that

17112-564: The uprising of a pretender named Zarer (son or brother of Peroz). This Sasanian Empire -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This article related to a treaty is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Peroz I Peroz I ( Middle Persian : 𐭯𐭩𐭫𐭥𐭰 , romanized:  Pērōz ) was the Sasanian King of Kings ( shahanshah ) of Iran from 459 to 484. A son of Yazdegerd II ( r.  438–457 ), he disputed

17250-405: The welfare of the people, increasing state revenues, establishing a professional army, and founding or rebuilding many cities, palaces, and much infrastructure. He was interested in literature and philosophy, and under his reign, art and science flourished in Iran. He was the most distinguished of the Sasanian kings, and his name became, like that of Caesar in the history of Rome , a designation of

17388-488: The work of Miskawayh (932–1030). Khosrow is also mentioned in several Greek sources, such as the ones of Procopius , Agathias and Menander Protector , who all give important information regarding Khosrow's management of the Irano-Roman wars . Syriac authors, such as John of Ephesus and Zacharias Rhetor also include Khosrow in their work, offering a perception of the consequences that his expeditions brought on

17526-540: The youngest, Iraj , received the heartland of the empire, Iran. Influenced by these tales of the Kayanians, the Sasanians may have believed themselves to be the heirs of the Fereydun and Iraj, and so possibly considered both the Byzantine domains in west and the eastern domains of the Hephthalites as belonging to Iran. The Sasanians may therefore have been symbolically asserting their rights over these lands by assuming

17664-618: Was afterwards captured by Khosrow's forces , and a protectorate was established over the country. At the same time, Belisarius arrived in Mesopotamia and began besieging the city of Nisibis . Although Belisarius had greatly outnumbered the city garrison, the city was too well fortified and he was forced to ravage the country around the Nisibis, subsequently getting recalled back west. After successful campaigns in Armenia, Khosrow

17802-437: Was an adherent of Zoroastrianism . According to al-Tabari, Peroz "displayed just rule and praiseworthy conduct, and showed piety," which according to Schippmann, indicates that he was most likely amenable to the demands of the Zoroastrian clergy. Under Peroz, the Zoroastrian sect of Zurvanism was seemingly rejected, although he retained the staunch Zurvanite Mihr-Narseh as his minister ( wuzurg framadar ). Under Peroz,

17940-475: Was encouraged once again to attack Syria. Khosrow turned south towards Edessa and besieged the city . Edessa was now a much more important city than Antioch was, and the garrison which occupied the city was able to resist the siege. The Iranians were forced to retreat from Edessa, but were able to forge a five-year truce with the Byzantine Empire in 545. Three years into the five-year truce (548), rebellion against Sasanian control broke out in Lazica. In response,

18078-454: Was executed, and his office was abolished. Despite the breakdown of the negotiations, it was not until 530 that full-scale warfare on the main eastern frontier broke out. In the intervening years, the two sides preferred to wage war by proxy, through Arab allies in the south and Huns in the north. Mazdak was the name of a chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism , which opposed violence, and called for

18216-490: Was initially greeted with enthusiasm by the Byzantine Emperor and his nephew, Justinian , but Justin's quaestor , Proclus, opposed the move, due to the concern of Khosrow possibly later try to take over the Byzantine throne. The Byzantines instead made a counter-proposal to adopt Khosrow not as a Roman, but a barbarian. In the end the negotiations did not come to a consensus. Khosrow reportedly felt insulted by

18354-547: Was installed on the throne by Peroz's brother and successor Balash ( r.  484–488 ). Peroz also freed some of the Armenian aristocrats who had been jailed by his father in the aftermath of the Armenian uprising in 451. The previous year (461), Iran suffered from a severe drought, which caused a large-scale famine that would last until 467. Early in Peroz's reign, tensions began to rise between Iran and Byzantium . In

18492-401: Was laid in the twentieth [y]ear of [the reign of] King Pero[z] and was completed fifteen years [later]. God will have mercy on whoever worships here. And God will also have me[r]cy on whoever will pray for Bishop Davit‛, the builder of this holy church. [Amen.] Although the basilica was not commissioned by Peroz, the builders of Bolnisi Sioni might have been inspired by the royal constructions of

18630-459: Was made. In 572, Justin II , the successor of Justinian, broke the peace treaty and sent a Byzantine force into the Sasanian region of Arzanene . The following year, Khosrow besieged and captured the important Byzantine fortress-city of Dara , which led Justin II to insanity. The war lasted till 591, outliving Khosrow. Khosrow's wars were not only based in the west. To the east, in an alliance with

18768-421: Was reorganized and tied to the central government rather than local nobility allowing greater organization, faster mobilization and a far greater cavalry corps. Reforms in taxation provided the empire with stability and a much stronger economy, allowing prolonged military campaigns as well as greater revenues for the bureaucracy. Khosrow's tax reforms have been praised by several scholars, the most notable of whom

18906-438: Was suffering from a seven-year famine. He soon clashed with the former subjects of the Kidarites, the Hephthalites , who possibly had previously helped him to gain his throne. He was defeated and captured twice by the Hephthalites and lost his recently acquired possessions. In 482, revolts broke out in the western provinces of Armenia and Iberia , led by Vahan Mamikonian and Vakhtang I respectively. Before Peroz could quell

19044-483: Was the youngest son of Kavad I , the ruling Sasanian shah. His mother was an Ispahbudhan princess, who was the sister of the leading Iranian general Bawi . The Ispahbudhan were one of the Seven Great Houses of Iran that formed the elite aristocracy of the Sasanian Empire . They in particular enjoyed such a high status that they were acknowledged as "kin and partners of the Sasanians". The family also held

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