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74-536: The Sebek-khu Stele , also known as the Stele of Khu-sobek , is an inscription in honour of a man named Sebek-khu (Khu-sobek), who lived during the reign of Senusret III (reign: 1878 – 1839 BC) discovered by John Garstang in 1901 outside Khu-sobek's tomb at Abydos, Egypt , and now housed in the Manchester Museum . The text is largely about Khu-sobek's life, and is historically important because it records

148-623: A lingua franca throughout the Nubian Kingdoms, and had a creolized form for trade among the different peoples in Nubia. Nubian Greek was unique in that it adopted many words from both Coptic Egyptian and Nubian ; Nubian Greek's syntax also evolved to establish a fixed word order. The following is an example of Nubian Greek language: ⲟⲩⲧⲟⲥ ⲉⲥⲧⲓⲛ ⲁⲇⲁⲩⲉⲗ ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲙⲱⲥⲉⲥ ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲩ, ⲃⲁⲥⲓⲗⲉⲩ ⲛⲟⲩⲃⲇⲏⲥ, ⲁⲣⲟⲩⲁ, ⲙⲁⲕⲣⲟ Οὗτός ἐστιν ἀδαύελ Βασιλεύ Μώσες Γεωργίου, Βασιλεύ Νουβδῆς, Ἀρουά, Μακρό This

222-470: A Year 39 hieratic control note was recovered on a white limestone block from: ...a securely defined deposit of construction debris produced from the building of the Senwosret III mortuary temple. The fragment itself is part of the remnants of the temple construction. This deposit provides evidence for the date of construction of the mortuary temple of Senwosret III at Abydos. Wegner stresses that it

296-800: A common identity, which has been celebrated in poetry, novels, music, and storytelling. Nubians in modern Sudan include the Danagla around Dongola Reach, the Mahas from the Third Cataract to Wadi Halfa, and the Sikurta around Aswan. These Nubians write using their own script. They also practice scarification : Mahas men and women have three scars on each cheek, while the Danaqla wear these scars on their temples. Younger generations appear to be abandoning this custom. Nubia's ancient cultural development

370-564: A second language. Neolithic settlements have been found in the central Nubian region dating back to 7000 BC, with Wadi Halfa believed to be the oldest settlement in the central Nile valley. Parts of Nubia, particularly Lower Nubia , were at times a part of ancient Pharaonic Egypt and at other times a rival state representing parts of Meroë or the Kingdom of Kush . By the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (744 BC–656 BC), all of Egypt

444-412: A small genetic distance. These findings in addition to multiple cross cemetery relatives that the analyses have revealed indicate that people of both the R and S cemeteries were part of the same population despite the archaeological and anthropological differences between the two burials showing social stratification. The study found some difference in Y haplogroups profiles between the two cemeteries with

518-425: Is 105 meters square and 78 meters high. The total volume was approximately 288,000 cubic meters. The pyramid was built of a core of mud bricks . They were not made a consistent size implying that standardized moulds were not used. The burial chamber was lined with granite. Above the vaulted burial chamber was a second relieving chamber that was roofed with five pairs of limestone beams each weighing 30 tons. Above this

592-557: Is a series of 6 songs as part of the archive of papyri from Illahun . It is suggested by Adolf Erman that they were written and composed for the king in a town south of Memphis . The songs outline the responsibilities of the king and embody kingship ideology in the Middle Kingdom . This ideology includes protecting the unity of the two kingdoms , extending the borders of Egypt, striking fear in Egyptian enemies, and ensuring

666-463: Is not my son, he was not born to me. Now my majesty has had an image made of my majesty, at this border which my majesty has made, in order that you maintain it, in order that you fight for it. The Sebek-khu Stele , dated to the reign of Senusret III (reign: 1878 – 1839 BC), records the earliest known Egyptian military campaign in the Levant. The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow

740-644: Is often decorated with symbols connected with the family inside, or popular motifs such as geometric patterns, palm trees, or the evil eye that wards away bad luck. Nubians invented the Nubian vault , a type of curved surface forming a vaulted structure. Autosomal DNA has been extensively studied in recent years, and some of the findings are as follows: 2008 results of an analysis by Hisham Y. Hassan of modern Sudanese entitled Chromosome Variation Among Sudanese: Restricted Gene Flow, Concordance With Language, Geography, and History included 39 Nubians found to be of

814-591: Is the great King Moses Georgios, the King of Nobatia, Alodia, Makuria A plethora of frescoes created between 800–1200   AD in Nubian cities such as Faras depicted religious life in the courts of the Nubian Kingdoms; they were made in Byzantine art style. Nubian Greek titles and government styles in Nubian Kingdoms were based on Byzantine models; even with Islamic encroachments and influence into Nubian territory,

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888-424: Is unlikely that Amenemhat III, Senusret's son and successor, would still be working on his father's temple nearly four decades into his own reign. He notes that the only possible explanation for the block's existence at the project is that Senusret III had a 39-year reign, with the final 20 years in coregency with his son Amenemhat III . Since the project was associated with a project of Senusret III, his Regnal Year

962-596: The Asiatics . His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched Retenu ", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be Shechem and "Retenu" or " Retjenu " are associated with ancient Syria . His final campaign, which was in his Year 19, was less successful because the king's forces were caught due to the Nile being lower than normal. They had to retreat and abandon their campaign in order to avoid being trapped in

1036-760: The Egyptian language , belongs to the Afroasiatic family. She bases this on its sound inventory and phonotactics , which, she argues, are similar to those of the Afroasiatic languages and dissimilar from those of the Nilo-Saharan languages. Claude Rilly proposes, based on its syntax, morphology, and known vocabulary, that Meroitic, like the Nobiin language, belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of

1110-713: The Kushites formed the kingdom of Meroë , which was ruled by a series of legendary Candaces or Queens. Mythically, the Candace of Meroë was able to intimidate Alexander the Great into retreat with a great army of elephants, while historical documents suggest that the Nubians defeated the Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar , resulting in a favorable peace treaty for Meroë. The kingdom of Meroë also defeated

1184-542: The Paleolithic around 300,000 years ago. By about 6000 BC, peoples in the region had developed an agricultural economy. In their history, they adopted the Egyptian hieroglyphic system. Ancient history in Nubia is categorized according to the following periods: A-Group culture (3700–2800 BC), C-Group culture (2300–1600 BC), Kerma culture (2500–1500 BC), Nubian contemporaries of the New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC),

1258-672: The Twenty-fifth Dynasty (1000–653 BC), Napata (1000–275 BC), Meroë (275 BC–300/350 AD), Makuria (340–1317 AD), Nobatia (350–650 AD), and Alodia (600s–1504 AD). Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late Pleistocene era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation. Several scholars have argued that

1332-566: The 1956 independence of Sudan from Egypt, Nubia and the Nubian people became divided between Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan. Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages , Eastern Sudanic languages that is part of the Nilo-Saharan family . The Old Nubian language is attested from the 8th century AD, and is the oldest recorded language of Africa outside of the Afroasiatic family. Nubia consisted of four regions with varied agriculture and landscapes. The Nile river and its valley were found in

1406-677: The 1960s, when the Aswan High Dam was built on the Nile, flooding ancestral lands. Most Nubians nowadays work in Egyptian and Sudanese cities. Whereas Arabic was once only learned by Nubian men who travelled for work, it is increasingly being learned by Nubian women who have access to school, radio and television. Nubian women are working outside the home in increasing numbers. During the Yom Kippur War of 1973, Egypt employed Nubian people as Code talkers . Nubians have developed

1480-552: The African origins of the Egyptian civilisation derived from pastoral communities which emerged in both the Egyptian and Sudanese regions of the Nile Valley in the fifth millennium BCE. Various biological anthropological studies have shown close, biological affinities between the predynastic southern, Egyptian and the early Nubian populations. Frank Yurco (1996) remarked that depictions of pharonic iconography such as

1554-530: The Afro-Asiatic family, noting: "The Irem-list also provides a similar inventory to Kush, placing this firmly in an Eastern Sudanic zone. These Irem/Kush-lists are distinctive from the Wawat-, Medjay-, Punt-, and Wetenet-lists, which provide sounds typical to Afroasiatic languages." It is also uncertain to which language family the ancient Meroitic language is related. Kirsty Rowan suggests that Meroitic, like

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1628-531: The Baqt required Nubians to maintain a mosque for Muslim visitors and residents. This, and with the following Ottoman occupation of Lower Nubia in the 1560s, led to the kingdom and Christian Nubian society to disappear. The former Makurian territories south of the 3rd cataract, including the former capital Dongola, had been annexed by the Islamic Funj Sultanate by the early 16th century. Over time,

1702-685: The Eastern Sudan branch were spoken by the people of Kerma, those further south along the Nile, to the west, and those of Saï (an island to the north of Kerma), but that Afro-Asiatic (most likely Cushitic) languages were spoken by other peoples in Lower Nubia (such as the Medjay and the C-Group culture) living in Nubian regions north of Saï toward Egypt and those southeast of the Nile in Punt in

1776-504: The Eastern Sudanic branch, possibly ancestral to the later Meroitic language , which Rilly also suggests was Nilo-Saharan. Rilly also considers evidence of significant early Afro-Asiatic influence, especially Berber, on Nobiin to be weak (and where present, more likely due to borrowed loanwords than substrata), and considers evidence of substratal influence on Nobiin from an earlier now extinct Eastern Sudanic language to be stronger. Julien Cooper (2017) suggests that Nilo-Saharan languages of

1850-530: The Eastern dessert. Based partly on an analysis of the phonology of place names and personal names from the relevant regions preserved in ancient texts, he argues that the terms from "Kush" and "Irem" (ancient names for Kerma and the region south of it respectively) in Egyptian texts display traits typical of Eastern Sudanic languages, while those from further north (in Lower Nubia) and east are more typical of

1924-455: The Egyptian pharaohs were. Nubian pyramids were built at Gebel Barkal, at Nuri (across the Nile from Gebel Barkal), at El Kerru, and at Meroe , south of Gebel Barkal. Modern Nubian architecture in Sudan is distinctive, and typically features a large courtyard surrounded by a high wall. A large, ornately decorated gate, preferably facing the Nile, dominates the property. Brightly colored stucco

1998-561: The Kenzi ( Kenzi/Mattokki-speaking ), Faddicca ( Nobiin-speaking ), Halfawi ( Nobiin-speaking ), Sukkot ( Nobiin-speaking ), Mahas ( Nobiin-speaking ), and Danagla ( Andaandi-speaking ). Throughout history various parts of Nubia were known by different names, including Ancient Egyptian : tꜣ stj "Land of the Bow", tꜣ nḥsj , jꜣm " Kerma ", jrṯt , sṯjw , wꜣwꜣt , Meroitic : akin(e) "Lower "Nubia", and Greek Aethiopia . The origin of

2072-501: The Nilo-Saharan family. The Axumite Empire of Ethiopia engaged in a series of invasions that culminated in the capture of the Nubian capital of Meroë in the middle of the 4th century AD, signaling the end of independent Nubian Pagan kingdoms. The Axumites then sent missionaries to the Nubia to establish similar Syrian-based Christianity like in Ethiopia, but were competing with Egyptian-based Christianity, who eventually established

2146-537: The Nubian Greek society that had already been present in Lower Nubia for three centuries. Nubian Greek culture followed the pattern of Egyptian Greek and Byzantine Greek civilization, expressed in Nubian Greek art and Nubian Greek literature. The earliest attestations of Nubian Greek literature come from the 5th century ; the Nubian Greek language resembles Egyptian and Byzantine Greek ; it served as

2220-646: The Nubian Greeks saw Constantinople as their spiritual home. Nubian Greek culture disappeared after the Muslim conquest of Nubia around 1450   AD. The descendants of the ancient Nubians still inhabit the general area of what was ancient Nubia . They currently live in what is called Old Nubia, mainly located in modern Egypt and Sudan. Nubians have been resettled in large numbers (an estimated 50,000 people) away from Wadi Halfa North Sudan in to Khashm el Girba – Sudan and some moved to Southern Egypt since

2294-401: The Nubians gradually converted to Islam, beginning with the Nubian elite. Islam was mainly spread via Sufi preachers that settled in Nubia in the late 14th century onwards. By the sixteenth century, most of the Nubians were Muslim. Ancient Nepata was an important religious centre in Nubia. It was the location of Gebel Barkal , a massive sandstone hill resembling a rearing cobra in the eyes of

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2368-401: The Nubians, through which he is thought to have made safe the southern frontier, preventing further incursions into Egypt. Another great stela from Semna dated to the third month of Year 16 of his reign mentions his military activities against both Nubia and Canaan . In it, he admonished his future successors to maintain the new border that he had created: Year 16, third month of winter:

2442-591: The Persians, and later Christian Nubia defeated the invading Arab armies on three different occasions resulting in the 600 year peace treaty of Baqt , the longest lasting treaty in history. The fall of the kingdom of Christian Nubia occurred in the early 1500s resulting in full Islamization and reunification with Egypt under the Ottoman Empire, the Muhammad Ali dynasty, and British colonial rule. After

2516-696: The R cemetery individuals were of a higher social class than the cemetery S individuals. The study analyzed the data they obtained along with other published ancient and modern samples from Africa and West Eurasia. The genetic profile of the sampled Christian-era Nubians was found to be a mixture between West Eurasian and Sub Saharan Dinka -related ancestries. The samples were estimated to have approximately 60% West Eurasian related ancestry that likely came from ancient Egyptians but ultimately resembles that found in Bronze or Iron Age Levantines. They also carried approximately 40% Dinka-related ancestry. The study commented that

2590-688: The S cemetery having more west Asian clades. the difference was found to be insignificant, and the study viewed it as likely to be a statistical fluctuation and not evidence of heterogeneity among males from the two cemeteries. Regarding modern Nubians, despite their superficial resemblance to the Kulubnarti Nubians on the PCA, they were not found to be descended from Kulubnarti Nubians without additional later admixtures. modern Nubians were found to have an increase in Sub-Saharan ancestry along with

2664-477: The ancient inhabitants. Egyptian priests declared it to be the home of the ancient deity Amun , further enhancing Nepata as an ancient religious site. This was the case for both Egyptians and Nubians. Egyptian and Nubian deities alike were worshipped in Nubia for 2,500 years, even while Nubia was under the control of the New Kingdom of Egypt. Nubian kings and queens were buried near Gebel Barkal, in pyramids as

2738-526: The authority of the Coptic Church in the area, and founded new Nubian Christian kingdoms, such as Nobatia , Alodia , and Makuria . Tribal nomads like the Beja , Afar , and Saho managed to remain autonomous due to their uncentralized nomadic nature. These tribal peoples would sporadically inflict attacks and raids on Axumite communities. The Beja nomads eventually Hellenized and integrated into

2812-429: The body is idealized as forever young and muscular, in the more classical pharaonic fashion. Scholars could only make assumptions about the reasons why Senusret III chose to have himself portrayed in such a unique way, and polarized on two diverging opinions. Some argue that Senusret wanted to be represented as a lonely and disenchanted ruler, human before divine, consumed by worries and by his responsibilities. At

2886-426: The centre of power for Nubia and cultural links with other parts of Africa gained greater influence. Today, Nubians practice Islam . To a certain degree, Nubian religious practices involve a syncretism of Islam and traditional folk beliefs. In ancient times, Nubians practiced a mixture of traditional religion and Egyptian religion. Prior to the spread of Islam, many Nubians practiced Christianity. Beginning in

2960-936: The construction of the High Dam in Egypt which flooded their ancestral lands. Additionally, a group known as the Midob live in northern Darfur , a group named Birgid in Central Darfur and several groups known as the Hill Nubians who live in Northern Kordofan in Haraza and a few villages in the northern Nuba Mountains in South Kordofan state. The main Nile Nubian groups from north to south are

3034-633: The earliest known Egyptian military campaign in Canaan (or elsewhere in Asia). The text reads "His Majesty proceeded northward to overthrow the Asiatics. His Majesty reached a foreign country of which the name was Sekmem (...) Then Sekmem fell, together with the wretched Retenu ", where Sekmem (s-k-m-m) is thought to be Shechem . Senusret III Senusret III was the son of Senusret II and Khenemetneferhedjet I , also called Khenemetneferhedjet I Weret (

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3108-620: The early inhabitants of the Nubia region, during the C-Group and Kerma cultures, were speakers of languages belonging to the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively, of the Afroasiatic family . More recent research instead suggests that the people of the Kerma culture spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of the Eastern Sudanic branch and that the peoples of the C-Group culture to their north spoke Cushitic languages. They were succeeded by

3182-483: The early inhabitants of the central Nile valley, believed to be one of the earliest cradles of civilization . In the southern valley of Egypt, Nubians differ culturally and ethnically from Egyptians , although they intermarried with members of other ethnic groups, especially Arabs . They speak Nubian languages as a mother tongue, part of the Northern Eastern Sudanic languages , and Arabic as

3256-468: The eighth century, Islam arrived in Nubia. Though Christians and Muslims (primarily Arab merchants at this period) may have lived peacefully together, Arab armies often invaded Christian Nubian kingdoms. An example of this being Makuria, where in 651 an Arab army invaded, but was repulsed, and a treaty known as the Baqt was signed, preventing further Arab invasions in exchange for 360 slaves each year. Notably,

3330-458: The elder ). Three wives of Senusret III are known for certain. These are Itakayt , Khenemetneferhedjet II and Neferthenut , all three mainly known from their burials next to the pyramid of the king at Dahshur . Several daughters are known, although they also are attested only by the burials around the king's pyramid and their exact relation to the king is disputable. These include Sithathor , Menet , Senetsenebtysy , and Meret . Amenemhat III

3404-498: The existing archaeological , linguistic , biological anthropological and genetic evidence had determined the founding populations of Ancient Egyptin areas such as Naqada and El-Badari to be the descendants of longtime inhabitants in Northeastern Africa which included Egypt, Nubia and the northern Horn of Africa. The linguistic affinities of early Nubian cultures are uncertain. Some research has suggested that

3478-426: The first Nubian language speakers, whose tongues belonged to another branch of Eastern Sudanic languages within the Nilo-Saharan phylum. A 4th-century AD victory stela commemorative of Axumite king Ezana contains inscriptions describing two distinct population groups dwelling in ancient Nubia: a "red" population and a "black" population. Although Egypt and Nubia have a shared pre-dynastic and pharaonic history,

3552-518: The following Y Chromosome Haplogroups: Sirak et al. 2021 obtained and analyzed the whole genomes of 66 individuals from the site of Kulubnarti situated between the 2nd and 3rd cataract and dated to the Christian period between 650 and 1000 CE. The samples were obtained from two cemeteries, R and S. Grave materials between the two cemeteries did not differ, but physical analyses of the remains found differences in morbidity and mortality indicating that

3626-658: The gold mines. Trade in exotic goods from other parts of Africa (ivory, animal skins) passed to Egypt through Nubia. Modern Nubians speak Nubian languages . They belong to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan phylum . But there is some uncertainty regarding the classification of the languages spoken in Nubia in antiquity. There is some evidence that Cushitic languages were spoken in parts of Lower (northern) Nubia , an ancient region which straddles present-day Southern Egypt and Northern Sudan , and that Eastern Sudanic languages were spoken in Upper and Central Nubia, before

3700-614: The hostile Nubian territory. Such was his forceful nature and immense influence that Senusret III was worshipped as a deity in Semna by later generations. Jacques Morgan, in 1894, found rock inscriptions near Sehel Island documenting his digging of a canal. Senusret III erected a temple and town in Abydos , and another temple in Medamud . His court included the viziers Nebit , and Khnumhotep . Ikhernofret worked as treasurer for

3774-609: The important trade routes within its territories. Nubia's trade links with Egypt led to Egypt's domination over Nubia during the New Kingdom period. The emergence of the Kingdom of Meroe in the 8th century BC led to Egypt being under the control of Nubian rulers for a century, although they preserved many Egyptian cultural traditions. Nubian kings were considered pious scholars and patrons of the arts, copying ancient Egyptian texts and even restoring some Egyptian cultural practices. After this, Egypt's influence declined greatly. Meroe became

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3848-499: The king at Abydos. Sobekemhat was treasurer too and buried at Dahshur. Senankh cleared the canal at Sehel for the king. Horkherty was king's acquaintance. A double-dated papyrus in the Berlin Museum shows Year 20 of his reign next to Year 1 of his son, Amenemhat III ; generally, this is presumed to be a proof for a coregency with his son, which should have been started in this year. According to Josef W. Wegner ,

3922-405: The king is depicted at different ages and, in particular, on the aged ones he sports a strikingly somber expression: the eyes are protruding from hollow eye sockets with pouches and lines under them, the mouth and lips have a grimace of bitterness, and the ears are enormous and protruding forward. In sharp contrast with the even-exaggerated realism of the head and, regardless of his age, the rest of

3996-416: The king made his southern boundary at Heh. I have made my boundary further south than my fathers. I have added to what was bequeathed me. (...) As for any son (i.e., successor) of mine who shall maintain this border which my Majesty has made, he is my son born to my Majesty. The true son is he who champions his father, who guards the border of his begetter. But he [who] abandons it, who fails to fight for it, he

4070-593: The names Nubia and Nubian are contested. Based on cultural traits, some scholars believe Nubia is derived from the Ancient Egyptian : nbw "gold", although there is no such usage of the term as an ethnonym or toponym that can be found in known Egyptian texts; the Egyptians referred to people from this area as the nḥsj.w . The Roman Empire used the term "Nubia" to describe the area of Upper Egypt and northern Sudan The prehistory of Nubia dates to

4144-407: The north and central parts of Nubia, allowing farming using irrigation. The western Sudan had a mixture of peasant agriculture and nomadism. Eastern Sudan had primarily nomadism, with a few areas of irrigation and agriculture. Finally, there was the fertile pastoral region of the south, where Nubia's larger agricultural communities were located. Nubia was dominated by kings from clans that controlled

4218-589: The opposite, other scholars suggested that the statues originally would convey the idea of a dreadful tyrant able to see and hear everything under his strict control. More recently, it has been suggested that the purpose of such peculiar portraiture was not to represent realism, but rather, to reveal the perceived nature of royal power at the time of Senusret's reign. Senusret is a major character in Christian Jacq 's historical fiction series The Mysteries of Osiris . Some biblical scholars consider Senusret

4292-455: The pharaoh mentioned in Genesis 39-47, who elevated Joseph to a high administrative post, answerable directly to him. Colchis Nubians Nubians ( / ˈ n uː b i ən z , ˈ n j uː -/ ) ( Nobiin : Nobī, Arabic : النوبيون ) are a Nilo-Saharan speaking ethnic group indigenous to the region which is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt . They originate from

4366-411: The results reflect deep biological connections among the populations of the Nile Valley and further confirm the presence of West Eurasian ancestry in the Nile valley prior to Arab migrations. The two cemeteries showed minimal differences in their West Eurasian/Dinka ancestry proportions, formed a genetic clade with each other in relation to other populations, and had a small FST value of 0.0013 reflecting

4440-426: The royal crowns, Horus falcons and victory scenes were concentrated in the Upper Egyptian Naqada culture and A-Group Lower Nubia . He further elaborated that "Egyptian writing arose in Naqadan Upper Egypt and A-Group Lower Nubia, and not in the Delta cultures, where the direct Western Asian contact was made, [which] further vitiates the Mesopotamian-influence argument". In 2023, Christopher Ehret reported that

4514-463: The site, there is a town that houses administrators and priests dedicated to the cult of the late king. The mountain where the tomb is located was known as "The Mountain of Anubis" and was used as a conceptual link of Senusret and the gods. The design of the tomb is likely symbolically representing the descent of the sun into the realm of Osiris . It would later develop into a center for funerary complexes and would include 11 kings whose rules date from

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4588-499: The south. They then converted to Islam during the Islamization of the Sudan region . Today, Nubians in Egypt primarily live in southern Egypt , especially in Kom Ombo and Nasr al-Nuba ( Arabic : نصر النوبة ) north of Aswan , and large cities such as Cairo , while Sudanese Nubians live in northern Sudan, particularly in the region between the city of Wadi Halfa on the Egypt–Sudan border and al Dabbah . Some Nubians were forcibly moved to Khashm el Girba and New Halfa upon

4662-485: The spread of Eastern Sudanic languages even further north into Lower Nubia. Peter Behrens (1981) and Marianne Bechhaus-Gerst (2000) suggest that the ancient peoples of the C-Group and Kerma civilizations spoke Afroasiatic languages of the Berber and Cushitic branches, respectively. They propose that the Nilo-Saharan Nobiin language today contains a number of key pastoralism related loanwords that are of Berber or proto-Highland East Cushitic origin, including

4736-474: The success of his subjects. Though there is not a strong difference of hymns to living kings or dead kings, there is indication that these hymns were to be sung by the king's subjects while he was alive. A hymn reads "may he live for ever and eternity." He was often compared to Sekhmet in the hymns because of his iron fist and conquering of enemies. The cult of the king after his passing lasted for roughly 3 centuries at South Abydos . Senusret's pyramid complex

4810-430: The terms for sheep/goatskin, hen/cock, livestock enclosure, butter and milk. This in turn, is interpreted to suggest that the C-Group and Kerma populations, who inhabited the Nile Valley immediately before the arrival of the first Nubian speakers, spoke Afroasiatic languages. Claude Rilly (2010, 2016) and Julien Cooper (2017) on the other hand, suggest that the Kerma peoples (of Upper Nubia) spoke Nilo-Saharan languages of

4884-475: The thirteenth century and the Second Intermediate Period . The construction dates and inscriptions further suggest a coregency between Senusret III and Amenemhat III , according to Wegner and Dieter Arnold . It shows that the construction of the temple was likely finished during the reign of Amenemhet III rather than he ordered the construction. Senusret III is well known for his distinctive statues, which are almost immediately recognizable as his. On them,

4958-412: The two histories diverge with the fall of Ancient Egypt and the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 332 BC. At this point, the area of land between the 1st and the 6th cataract of the Nile became known as Nubia. Egypt was conquered first by the Persians and named the Satrapy (Province) of Mudriya, and two centuries later by the Greeks and then the Romans. During the latter period, however,

5032-424: Was a third mudbrick vault. There has been speculation that Senusret was not necessarily buried at his pyramid, but rather in his sophisticated funerary complex in Abydos . Under this interpretation, his pyramid would be a cenotaph . The Mortuary Temple at Abydos is 30m below the surface and extends below for 180m. It is located on the base of high desert cliffs and is focused on a subterranean royal tomb. Near

5106-440: Was built north-east of the Red Pyramid of Dashur . It far surpassed those from the early twelfth dynasty in size, grandeur, and underlying religious conceptions. The complex of pyramids was constructed in 2 phases. Originally, it was designed to follow Old Kingdom pyramids which included the structure itself, an eastern pyramid temple, and a stone wall encircling the complex. The second phase included an outer brick wall which

5180-763: Was influenced by its geography. It is sometimes divided into Upper Nubia and Lower Nubia. Upper Nubia was where the ancient Kingdom of Napata (the Kush) was located. Lower Nubia has been called "the corridor to Africa" , where there was contact and cultural exchange between Nubians, Egyptians, Greeks, Assyrians, Romans, and Arabs. Lower Nubia was also where the Kingdom of Meroe flourished. The languages spoken by modern Nubians are based on ancient Sudanic dialects. From north to south, they are: Kenuz, Fadicha (Matoki), Sukkot, Mahas, Danagla. Kerma, Nepata, and Meroe were Nubia's largest population centres. The rich agricultural lands of Nubia supported these cities. Ancient Egyptian rulers sought control of Nubia's wealth, including gold, and

5254-718: Was most likely a son of the king. Other sons are not known. The tomb of Mereret was found partly robbed but a pectoral of Senusret III, her father, was missed by the tomb robbers. Senusret III cleared a navigable canal through the first cataract of the Nile River, (this was different from the Canal of the Pharaohs , which apparently, Senusret III also tried to build). He also relentlessly pushed his kingdom's expansion into Nubia (from 1866 to 1863 BC) where he erected massive river forts including Buhen , Semna , Shalfak and Toshka at Uronarti . He carried out at least four major campaigns into Nubia in his Years 8, 10, 16, and 19. His Year 8 stela at Semna documents his victories against

5328-640: Was presumably used to date the block, rather than Year 20 of Amenemhat III. Wegner interprets this as an implication that Senusret was still alive in the first two decades of his son's reign. Wegner's hypothesis is rejected by some scholars, such as Pierre Tallet and Harco Willems; according to them, it is more likely that such a coregency never occurred, and that the Year 39 control note still refers to Amenemhat III, who may have ordered some additions to Senusret's monuments. The "Cycle of Songs in Honor of Senwosret III"

5402-404: Was surrounded by 6 smaller pyramids for the royal queens. There is also an underground gallery with further burials for royal women. Here were found the treasures of Sithathor and queen Mereret . The final, seventh, pyramid served as the king's ka pyramid with a statue of himself inside for worship. There was also a southern temple, however this has since been destroyed. Senusret's pyramid

5476-465: Was united with Nubia, extending down to what is now Khartoum . However, in 656 BC the native Twenty-sixth Dynasty regained control of Egypt. As warriors, the ancient Nubians were famous for their skill and precision with the bow and arrow . In the Middle Ages , the Nubians converted to Christianity and established three kingdoms: Nobatia in the north, Makuria in the center, and Alodia in

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