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60-619: The Selective En bloc Redevelopment Scheme , or SERS for short, is an urban redevelopment strategy employed by the Housing and Development Board in Singapore in maintaining and upgrading public housing flats in older estates in the city-state. Launched in August 1995, it involves a small selection of specific flats in older estates which undergo demolition and redevelopment to optimise land use, as opposed to upgrading of existing flats via

120-529: A variance from cities. North America: Europe: Asia: Central America: Eminent domain Eminent domain , also known as land acquisition , compulsory purchase , resumption , resumption / compulsory acquisition , or expropriation , is the compulsory acquisition of private property for public use . It does not include the power to take and transfer ownership of private property from one property owner to another private property owner without

180-546: A Government work". Local government authorities (such as City or District councils) are also empowered under the same section to acquire land for "local work for which it has financial responsibility." In the Bahamas, the Acquisition of Land Act operates to permit the acquisition of land where it is deemed likely to be required for a public purpose. The land can be acquired by private agreement or compulsory purchase (s7 of

240-445: A general or a special law which authorizes expropriation for the public benefit or the national interest, duly qualified by the legislator. The expropriated party may protest the legality of the expropriation action before the ordinary courts of justice and shall, at all times, have the right to indemnification for patrimonial harm actually caused, to be fixed by mutual agreement or by a sentence pronounced by said courts in accordance with

300-619: A matter of Australian law, all land was originally owned by the Crown before it was sold, leased or granted and that, through the act of compulsory acquisition, the Crown is "resuming" possession. In New Zealand, the Public Works Act 1981 outlines the powers of the state in relation to land used for public purposes. Under Section 16 of the Public Works Act 1981 the Minister is "empowered to acquire under this Act any land required for

360-523: A mine seized during World War II). In most takings owners are not compensated for a variety of incidental losses caused by the taking of their property that, though incurred and readily demonstrable in other cases, are deemed by the courts to be noncompensable in eminent domain. The same is true of attorneys' and appraisers fees. But as a matter of legislative grace rather than constitutional requirement some of these losses (e.g., business goodwill) have been made compensable by state legislative enactments, and in

420-581: A natural or de facto monopoly , and an essential service of public utility. The most famous nationalization in Italy was the 1962 nationalization of the electrical power sector . Article 33.3 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 allows forced expropriation ( expropiación forzosa ) only where justified on the grounds of public utility or social interest and subject to the payment of appropriate compensation as provided for in law. The right of

480-420: A partial taking provides economic benefits specific to the remainder, those must be deducted, typically from severance damages. Some elements of value, such as a business's connection to the location and the goodwill of the public , are only compensable in a few jurisdictions; where they are not, fair market value may be less than the value of the location to the current user. The practice of condemnation came to

540-499: A right over the property of others, but for ends of public utility, to which ends those who founded civil society must be supposed to have intended that private ends should give way. But, when this is done, the state is bound to make good the loss to those who lose their property. The exercise of eminent domain is not limited to real property . Condemnors may also take personal property, even intangible property such as contract rights, patents , trade secrets , and copyrights . Even

600-466: A single building to entire new neighborhoods or "new town in town" projects. Redevelopment also refers to state and federal statutes which give cities and counties the authority to establish redevelopment agencies and give the agencies the authority to attack problems of urban decay . The fundamental tools of a redevelopment agency include the authority to acquire real property, the power of eminent domain, to develop and sell property without bidding and

660-664: A state or municipality to buy property when it is determined to be of "particular public interest" is regulated in Expropriationslagen (1972:719). The government purchases the property at an estimated market value plus a 25% compensation. The law also states that the property owner shall not suffer economic harm because of the expropriation. After his victory in 1066, William the Conqueror seized virtually all land in England. Although he maintained absolute power over

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720-459: A statute was passed granting commissioners of sewers in Lincolnshire the power to take land without compensation. After the early 16th century, however, Parliamentary takings of land for roads, bridges, etc. generally did require compensation. The common practice was to pay 10% more than the assessed value. However, as the voting franchise was expanded to include more non-landowners, the bonus

780-499: A valid public purpose. This power can be legislatively delegated by the state to municipalities, government subdivisions, or even to private persons or corporations, when they are authorized to exercise the functions of public character. The most common uses of property taken by eminent domain have been for roads, government buildings and public utilities . Many railroads were given the right of eminent domain to obtain land or easements in order to build and connect rail networks. In

840-427: Is a real estate niche, in which investors purchase failing golf courses. Investors then subdivide the golf course into individual plots of lands. They then resell the plots of land for builders, or build on the plots then resell it to residential home buyers. This process is usually done with the assistance of a real estate broker . The main challenge of this niche is the difficulties that investors face in requesting

900-697: Is available to the landowner, with the Lands Tribunal for Scotland dealing with any disputes arising from the value of compensation. As in England and Wales, the law of compulsory purchase in Scotland is complex. The current statutes regulating compulsory purchase include: the Lands Clauses Consolidation (Scotland) Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 19); the Acquisition of Land (Authorisation Procedure) (Scotland) Act 1947 ; and

960-705: Is compensated with a price agreed or stipulated by an appropriate person. Where agreement on price cannot be achieved, the value of the taken land is determined by the Upper Tribunal . The operative law is a patchwork of statutes and case law. The principal acts are the Lands Clauses Consolidation Act 1845 ( 8 & 9 Vict. c. 18), the Land Compensation Act 1961 , the Compulsory Purchase Act 1965 ,

1020-412: Is used to describe the formal act of exercising the power to transfer title or some lesser interest in the subject property. The constitutionally required "just compensation" in partial takings is usually measured by fair market value of the part taken, plus severance damages (the diminution in value of the property retained by the owner [remainder] when only a part of the subject property is taken). Where

1080-452: The Dutch jurist Hugo Grotius in 1625, which used the term dominium eminens ( Latin for "supreme ownership") and described the power as follows: The property of subjects is under the eminent domain of the state, so that the state or those who act for it may use and even alienate and destroy such property, not only in the case of extreme necessity, in which even private persons have

1140-603: The Federal Court has extended the states' power to resume property to any form of physical property. For the purposes of section 51(xxxi), money is not property that may be compulsorily acquired. The Commonwealth must also derive some benefit from the property acquired, that is, the Commonwealth can "only legislate for the acquisition of Property for particular purposes". Accordingly, the power does not extend to allow legislation designed merely to seek to extinguish

1200-886: The Land Acquisitions Act of 1966, to carry out the Selective En Bloc scheme. This power invokes the principle of eminent domain as with most urban redevelopment projects. In April 2020, to deal with the COVID-19 pandemic in foreign worker dormitories, it was announced that HDB blocks in Bukit Merah which had been purchased as part of the SERS would be used to temporarily house those foreign workers who were well and worked in critical services. Redevelopment Variations on redevelopment include: Redevelopment projects can be small or large ranging from

1260-798: The Land Compensation (Scotland) Act 1963 . The Scottish Law Commission considered the current state of the law of compulsory purchase and advocated reforms in its Discussion Paper on Compulsory Purchase . Such reforms have yet to be made by the Scottish Parliament . In Australia, section 51(xxxi) of the Australian Constitution permits the Commonwealth Parliament to make laws with respect to "the acquisition of property on just terms from any State or person for any purpose in respect of which

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1320-568: The Land Compensation Act 1973 , the Acquisition of Land Act 1981 , part IX of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 , the Planning and Compensation Act 1991 , and the Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act 2004 . In Scotland , eminent domain is known as compulsory purchase. The development of powers of compulsory purchase originated in the railway mania of the Victorian period . Compensation

1380-524: The Main Upgrading and Interim Upgrading Programmes . To date, 82 SERS sites have been announced, of which 77 were completed. The implementation of SERS also depends on the availability of replacement sites and the Government's financial resources. It will be replaced by Voluntary Early Redevelopment Scheme (VERS) in 20 years time. Only 4% of HDB flats have been identified for SERS since it

1440-400: The "acquisition or requisition of property" (Schedule VII, Entry 42, List III). It is this provision that has been interpreted as being the source of the state's "eminent domain" powers. The provisions relating to the right to property were changed a number of times. The 44th amendment of 1978 deleted the right to property from the list of Fundamental Rights. A new article, Article 300-A,

1500-511: The Act). Under section 24 of the Acquisition of Land Act, the purchaser may purchase the interest of the mortgagee of any land acquired under the Act. To do so, the purchaser must pay the principal sum and interest, together with costs and charges plus 6 months’ additional interest. In Canada, expropriation is governed by federal or provincial statutes. Under these statutory regimes, public authorities have

1560-631: The American colonies with the common law . When it came time to draft the United States Constitution , differing views on eminent domain were voiced. The Fifth Amendment to the Constitution requires that the taking be for a "public use" and mandates payment of "just compensation" to the owner. In federal law, Congress can take private property directly (without recourse to the courts) by passing an Act transferring title of

1620-659: The Chinese form of eminent domain, are constitutionally permitted as necessary for the public interest, and if compensation is provided. The 2019 Amendment of the Land Administration Law of China spells out rather detailed guidelines, guaranteeing farmers and those displaced greater financial security. The Constitution of India originally provided for the Fundamental Right to property under Articles 19 and 31. Article 19 guaranteed to all citizens

1680-708: The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) provides that just compensation has to be paid in cases of expropriation. In France , the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen similarly mandates just and preliminary compensation before expropriation; and a déclaration d'utilité publique is commonly required, to demonstrate a public benefit. Notably, in 1945, by decree of General Charles de Gaulle based on untried accusations of collaboration with

1740-579: The Nazi occupier, the Renault company was expropriated from Louis Renault posthumously and nationalised as Régie Nationale des Usines Renault , without compensation. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany states in its Article 14 (3) that "an expropriation is only allowed for the public good" and just compensation must be made. It also provides for the right to have the amount of

1800-466: The Parliament has power to make laws." This has been construed as meaning that just compensation may not always include monetary or proprietary recompense, rather it is for the court to determine what is just. It may be necessary to imply a need for compensation in the interests of justice, lest the law be invalidated. Property subject to resumption is not restricted to real estate as authority from

1860-609: The Royal Decree n.2359 of 1865. Also other national and regional laws may apply, not always giving full compensation to the owner. Expropriation can be total (the whole property is expropriated) or partial; permanent or temporary. The article 42 of the Italian Constitution and the article 834 of the Italian Civil Code state that any private goods can be expropriated for public utility. Furthermore,

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1920-521: The Territory government to acquire land subject to Native Title, effectively extinguishing the Native Title interest in the land. Kirby J in dissent, along with a number of commentators, viewed this as a missed opportunity to comment on the exceptional nature of powers of resumption exercised in the absence of a public purpose limitation. The term resumption is a reflection of the fact that, as

1980-639: The U.S. may be partially covered by provisions of the federal Uniform Relocation Assistance Act . Since the 1990s, the Zimbabwean government under Robert Mugabe has seized a great deal of land and homes of mainly white farmers in the course of the land reform movement in Zimbabwe . The government argued that such land reform was necessary to redistribute the land to Zimbabweans dispossessed of their lands during colonialism . These farmers were never compensated for this seizure. In China , "requisitions",

2040-537: The [former] owner. In theory, this is supposed to put the owner in the same position pecuniarily that he would have been in had his property not been taken. But in practice courts have limited compensation to the property's fair market value, considering its highest and best use. But though rarely granted, this is not the exclusive measure of compensation; see Kimball Laundry Co. v. United States (business losses in temporary takings) and United States v. Pewee Coal Co. (operating losses caused by government operations of

2100-534: The agencies' own appraisal figures because the displaced people are often unaware of their legal rights and lack the will and the funds to mount a proper legal defense in a valuation trial. Those who do so usually recover more in compensation than what is offered by the redevelopment agencies. The controversy over misuse of eminent domain for redevelopment reached a climax in the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court's 2005 decision in Kelo v. City of New London , which ruled that

2160-413: The article 2 of the Constitution binds Italian citizens to respect their "mandatory duties of political, economic and social solidarity". The implementation of the eminent domain follows two principles: Nazionalizzazione ("nationalization"), instead, is provided for by article 43 of the Constitution; it transfers to governmental authority and property a whole industrial sector, if it is deemed to be

2220-539: The authority and responsibility of relocating persons who have interests in the property acquired by the agency. The financing/funding of such operations might come from government grants, borrowing from federal or state governments and selling bonds and from tax increment financing . Other terms sometimes used to describe redevelopment include urban renewal (urban revitalization). While efforts described as urban revitalization often involve redevelopment, they do not always involve redevelopment as they do not always involve

2280-463: The compensation checked by a court. Esproprio – or more formally espropriazione per pubblica utilità ("expropriation for public utility") – in Italy takes place within the frame of civil law , as an expression of the potere ablatorio ( ablative power). The law regulating expropriation is the D.P.R. n.327 of 2001, amended by D.Lgs. n.302 of 2002; it supersedes the old expropriation law,

2340-611: The country's history most recently during the renationalization of YPF . which resulted in the expropriation of 51% of the energy company 's shares. Brazil's expropriation laws are governed by the Presidential Decree No. 3365 of June 21, 1941. Art. 19, No. 24, of the Chilean Constitution says in part, "In no case may anyone be deprived of his property, of the assets affected or any of the essential faculties or powers of ownership, except by virtue of

2400-556: The demolition of any existing structures but may instead describe the rehabilitation of existing buildings or other neighborhood improvement initiatives. A new example of other neighborhood improvement initiatives is the funding mechanism associated with high carbon footprint air quality urban blight . Assembly Bill AB811 is the State of California 's answer to funding renewable energy and allows cities to craft their own sustainability action plans. These cutting edge action plans needs

2460-460: The eminent domain action. Takings may be of the subject property in its entirety (total take) or in part (part take), either quantitatively or qualitatively (either partially in fee simple or, commonly, an easement, or any other interest less than the full fee simple title). The term "eminent domain" was taken from the legal treatise De jure belli ac pacis ( On the Law of War and Peace ), written by

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2520-448: The expropriating authority by bringing a claim before the court or an administrative body appointed by the governing legislation. In Panama, the government must pay a fair amount of money to the owner of the property to be expropriated. Most states use the term eminent domain , but some U.S. states use the term appropriation or expropriation (Louisiana) as synonyms for the exercise of eminent domain powers. The term condemnation

2580-638: The funding structure; which can easily come forward through redevelopment funding. Some redevelopment projects and programs have been incredibly controversial including the Urban Renewal program in the United States in the mid-twentieth century or the urban regeneration program in Great Britain. Controversy usually results either from the use of eminent domain , from objections to the change in use or increases in density and intensity on

2640-602: The general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified private redevelopment plans as a permissible " public use " under the Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment . The Kelo decision was widely denounced and remains the subject of severe criticism. Remedial legislation to restrict the use of eminent domain for private development has been enacted or introduced in a number of states. Golf course redevelopment , also known as golf course conversion

2700-581: The government appears to have acted unfairly, the action can be challenged in a court of law by citizens. Land acquisition in India is currently governed by the Right to Fair Compensation and Transparency in Land Acquisition, Rehabilitation and Resettlement Act, 2013 , which came into force on 1 January 2014. Until 2013, land acquisition in India was governed by Land Acquisition Act of 1894 . However

2760-575: The land, he granted fiefs to landholders who served as stewards, paying fees and providing military services. During the Hundred Years' War in the 14th century, Edward III used the Crown's right of purveyance for massive expropriations. Chapter 28 of Magna Carta required that immediate cash payment be made for expropriations. As the king's power was broken down in the ensuing centuries, tenants were regarded as holding ownership rights rather than merely possessory rights over their land. In 1427,

2820-412: The mid-20th century, a new application of eminent domain was pioneered, in which the government could take the property and transfer it to a private third party for redevelopment. This was initially done only to a property that has been deemed "blighted" or a "development impediment", on the principle that such properties had a negative impact upon surrounding property owners, but was later expanded to allow

2880-531: The new LARR (amendment) ordinance 31 December 2014 diluted many clauses of the original act. The liberalisation of the economy and the Government's initiative to set up special economic zones have led to many protests by farmers and have opened up a debate on the reinstatement of the fundamental right to private property. In many European nations, the European Convention on Human Rights provides protection from an appropriation of private property by

2940-492: The previous owner's title. The states and territories' powers of resumption on the other hand are not so limited. The section 43(1) of the Lands Acquisition Act 1998 (NT) grants the Minister the power to acquire land 'for any purpose whatever'. The High Court of Australia interpreted this provision literally, relieving the Territory government of any public purpose limitation on the power. This finding permitted

3000-404: The right to "acquire, hold and dispose of property". Article 31 provided that "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." It also provided that compensation would be paid to a person whose property had been "taken possession of or acquired" for public purposes. In addition, both the state government as well as the union (federal) government were empowered to enact laws for

3060-477: The right to acquire private property for public purposes, so long as the acquisition is approved by the appropriate government body. Once a property is taken, an owner is entitled to "be made whole" by compensation for: the market value of the expropriated property, injurious affection to the remainder of the property (if any), disturbance damages, business loss, and special difficulty relocating. Owners can advance claims for compensation above that initially provided by

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3120-571: The rights and freedoms of others. This right is expanded by Article 1 of the First Protocol to the Convention, which states that "Every natural person or legal person is entitled to the peaceful enjoyment of his possessions." Again, this is subject to exceptions where state deprivation of private possessions is in the general or public interest , is in accordance with law, and, in particular, to secure payment of taxes . Settled case-law of

3180-767: The site or from disagreement on the appropriate use of taxpayer funds to pay for some element of the project. Urban redevelopment in the United States has been controversial because it can displace poor and lower middle class residents, often transferring residents' land and homes to developers for free or a below-market-value price. This is done on the condition that the developer will use that land to construct new commercial and residential developments. The residents displaced by redevelopment are often undercompensated, and some (notably month-to-month tenants and business owners) are not compensated at all. Historically, redevelopment agencies have been buying many properties in redevelopment areas for prices below fair market value, or even below

3240-449: The state. Article 8 of the Convention provides that "Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home, and his correspondence" and prohibits interference with this right by the state, unless the interference is in accordance with law and necessary in the interests of national security , public safety, economic well-being of the country, prevention of disorder or crime, protection of health or morals, or protection of

3300-568: The subject property directly to the government. In such cases, the property owner seeking compensation must sue the United States for compensation in the U.S. Court of Federal Claims. The legislature may also delegate the power to private entities like public utilities or railroads, and even to individuals. The U.S. Supreme Court has consistently deferred to the right of states to make their own determinations of "public use". In Argentina expropriations are governed by federal law 21.499 of January 17, 1977. It has been used in many locations throughout

3360-582: The taking of a professional sports team 's franchise has been held by the California Supreme Court to be within the purview of the "public use" constitutional limitation, although eventually, that taking (of the Oakland Raiders ' NFL franchise) was not permitted because it was deemed to violate the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. A taking of property must be accompanied by payment of "just compensation" to

3420-457: The taking of any private property when the new third-party owner could develop the property in such a way as to bring in increased tax revenues to the government. Some jurisdictions require that the taker make an offer to purchase the subject property, before resorting to the use of eminent domain. However, once the property is taken and the judgment is final, the condemnor owns it in fee simple , and may put it to uses other than those specified in

3480-402: Was added to the constitution to provide, "No person shall be deprived of his property save by authority of law." Thus, if a legislature makes a law depriving a person of his property, it will not be unconstitutional. The aggrieved person shall have no right to move the court under Article 32. Thus, the right to property is no longer a fundamental right, though it is still a constitutional right. If

3540-469: Was eliminated. In spite of contrary statements found in some American law, in the United Kingdom, compulsory purchase valuation cases were tried by juries well into the 20th century, such as Attorney-General v De Keyser's Royal Hotel Ltd (1919). In England and Wales , and other jurisdictions that follow the principles of English law , the related term compulsory purchase is used. The landowner

3600-616: Was launched in 1995. All residents displaced by the redevelopment works are offered a new 99-year lease in new flats constructed nearby. These residents have the privilege to select their units prior to public release of the remaining units, are compensated financially, and are given subsidised prices for their new flats. The scheme also gives residents the opportunity to continue living near their kin and neighbours, thereby retaining kinship bonds and strengthening community ties. The Selective En bloc Redevelopment Scheme has attracted opposition and controversy. The national government has power, under

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