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61-459: Shūsaku Endō ( 遠藤 周作 , Endō Shūsaku , March 27, 1923 – September 29, 1996) was a Japanese author who wrote from the perspective of a Japanese Catholic . Internationally, he is known for his 1966 historical fiction novel Silence , which was adapted into a 2016 film of the same name by director Martin Scorsese . He was the laureate of several prestigious literary accolades, including

122-534: A personal ordinariate with two other countries, Australia and the Philippines . The Catholic Church in Japan is organised into 15 dioceses, 3 of which are classified as metropolitan dioceses that head each of the 3 ecclesiastical provinces in the country. The Catholic Church is involved in religious education in Japan, providing learning opportunities to both Catholic and non-Catholic students. According to

183-447: A distinct type of wetland, shares many biogeochemical characteristics with other wetlands. Like all wetlands, they play an important role in nutrient cycling because they are located at the interface of aerobic (oxic) and anaerobic (anoxic) environments. Most wetlands have a thin top layer of oxygenated soil in contact with the atmosphere or oxygenated surface waters. Nutrients and minerals may cycle between this oxidized top layer and

244-458: A fen directly is particularly damaging because it lowers the water table. A lower water table can increase aeration and dry out peat, allowing for aerobic decomposition or burning of the organic matter in peat. Draining a fen indirectly by decreasing its water supply can be just as damaging. Disrupting groundwater flow into the fen with nearby human activities such as quarrying or residential development changes how much water and nutrients enter

305-592: A fen, especially its pH, are directly influenced by the type of rocks its groundwater supply contacts. pH is a major factor in determining fen species composition and richness, with more basic fens called "rich" and more acidic fens called "poor." Rich fens tend to be highly biodiverse and harbor a number of rare or endangered species, and biodiversity tends to decrease as the richness of fen decreases. Fens tend to be found above rocks that are rich in calcium, such as limestone . When groundwater flows past calcareous (calcium-rich) rocks like limestone ( calcium carbonate ),

366-464: A fuel. Pollutants can alter the chemistry of fens and facilitate invasion by invasive species . Common pollutants of fens include road salts, nutrients from septic tanks , and runoff of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides. Shakespeare used the term "fen-sucked" to describe the fog (literally: rising from marshes) in King Lear , when Lear says, "Infect her beauty, You fen-sucked fogs drawn by

427-671: A gradient from poor to rich, with bogs at the poor end, extremely rich fens at the rich end, and poor fens in between. In this context, "rich" and "poor" refer to the species richness, or how biodiverse a fen or bog is. The richness of these species is strongly influenced by pH and concentrations of calcium and bicarbonate. These factors assist in identifying where along the gradient a particular fen falls. In general, rich fens are minerotrophic , or dependent on mineral-rich groundwater, while bogs are ombrotrophic , or dependent on precipitation for water and nutrients. Poor fens fall between these two. Rich fens are strongly minerotrophic; that is,

488-412: A large proportion of their water comes from mineral-rich ground or surface water. Fens that are more distant from surface waters such as rivers and lakes, however, are more rich than fens that are connected. This water is dominated by calcium and bicarbonate, resulting in a slightly acidic to slightly basic pH characteristic of rich fens. These conditions promote high biodiversity. Within rich fens, there

549-536: A major determinant of fen biota and biogeochemistry . Fen soils are constantly inundated because the water table is at or near the surface. The result is anaerobic (oxygen-free) soils due to the slow rate at which oxygen diffuses into waterlogged soil. Anaerobic soils are ecologically unique because Earth's atmosphere is oxygenated, while most terrestrial ecosystems and surface waters are aerobic. The anaerobic conditions found in wetland soils result in reduced , rather than oxidized , soil chemistry. A hallmark of fens

610-418: A pH of approximately 5.5 to 4. Peat in poor fens tends to be thicker than that of rich fens, which cuts off vegetation access to the mineral-rich soil underneath. In addition, the thicker peat reduces the influence of mineral-rich groundwater that buffers the pH. This makes the fen more ombrotrophic, or dependent on nutrient-poor precipitation for its water and nutrients. Poor fens may also form in areas where

671-673: A priest who has apostatized, "Father, it was not by us that you were defeated, but by this mudswamp, Japan." In Endō's stage version of this story, The Golden Country , this official also says: "But the mudswamp too has its good points, if you will but give yourself up to its comfortable warmth. The teachings of Christ are like a flame. Like a flame they set a man on fire. But the tepid warmth of Japan will eventually nurture sleep." Thus, many of Endō's characters are allegories . He may not be embraced by fellow Christians—Catholics, in particular. Some of his characters (many of whom are allegories) may reference non-Western religions. While not

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732-601: A small amount dissolves and is carried to the fen supplied by the groundwater. When calcium carbonate dissolves, it produces bicarbonate and a calcium cation according to the following equilibrium: CaCO 3 + H 2 CO 3 ↽ − − ⇀ Ca 2 + + 2 HCO 3 − {\displaystyle {\ce {CaCO3 + H2CO3 <=> Ca^2+ + 2HCO3^-}}} where carbonic acid (H 2 CO 3 )

793-696: A type of wetland, but its use is generally limited to the southern United States. Third, different languages use different terms to describe types of wetlands. For instance, in Russian, there is no equivalent word for the term swamp as it is typically used in North America. The result is a large number of wetland classification systems that each define wetlands and wetland types in their own way. However, many classification systems include four broad categories that most wetlands fall into: marsh , swamp, bog , and fen. While classification systems differ on

854-551: A wetland is. Almost all of the phosphorus that arrives in a wetland does so through sediments or plant litter from other ecosystems. Along with nitrogen, phosphorus limits wetland fertility. Under basic conditions like those found in extremely rich fens, calcium will bind to phosphate anions to make calcium phosphates , which are unavailable for uptake by plants. Mosses also play a considerable role in aiding plants in phosphorus uptake by decreasing soil phosphorus stress and stimulating phosphatase activity in organisms found below

915-519: Is a large amount of variability. The richest fens are the extreme rich (marl) fens, where marl deposits are often build up. These are often pH 7 or greater. Rich and intermediate rich fens are generally neutral to slightly acidic, with a pH of approximately 7 to 5. Rich fens are not always very productive; at high calcium concentrations, calcium ions bind to phosphate anions, reducing the availability of phosphorus and decreasing primary production. Rich bogs with limited primary production can stabilize with

976-470: Is a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Methanogenic archaea that reside in the anaerobic layers of peat combine carbon dioxide and hydrogen gas to form methane and water. This methane can then escape into the atmosphere and exert its warming effects. Peatlands dominated by brown mosses and sedges such as fens have been found to emit a greater amount of methane than Sphagnum -dominated peatlands such as bogs. Fens play an important role in

1037-419: Is abundant in peat. When the organic matter in peat is decomposed in the absence of oxygen, ammonium is produced via ammonification . In the oxidized surface layer of the wetland, this ammonium is oxidized to nitrite and nitrate by nitrification . The production of ammonium in the reduced layer and its consumption in the top oxidized layer drives upward diffusion of ammonium. Likewise, nitrate production in

1098-458: Is difficult for a number of reasons. First, wetlands are diverse and varied ecosystems that are not easily categorized according to inflexible definitions. They are often described as a transition between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems with characteristics of both. This makes it difficult to delineate the exact extent of a wetland. Second, terms used to describe wetland types vary greatly by region. The term bayou , for example, describes

1159-478: Is estimated that there are approximately 1.1 million square kilometers of fens worldwide, but quantifying the extent of fens is difficult. Because wetland definitions vary regionally, not all countries define fens the same way. In addition, wetland data is not always available or of high quality. Fens are also difficult to rigidly delineate and measure, as they are located between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Rigidly defining types of wetlands, including fens,

1220-420: Is greater than decomposition, which results in the accumulation of organic matter as peat. Resident mosses usually carry out decomposition within the fen, and temperate fens are often driven by plant roots' decomposition. These peat stores sequester an enormous amount of carbon. Nevertheless, it is difficult to determine whether fens net take up or emit greenhouse gases . This is because fens emit methane, which

1281-576: Is produced by the dissolution of carbon dioxide in water. In fens, the bicarbonate anion produced in this equilibrium acts as a pH buffer, which keeps the pH of the fen relatively stable. Fens supplied by groundwater that doesn't flow through minerals and act as a buffer when dissolved tend to be more acidic. The same effect is observed when groundwater flows through minerals with low solubility, such as sand. In extreme rich fens, calcium carbonate can precipitate out of solution to form marl deposits. Calcium carbonate precipitates out of solution when

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1342-746: Is reported that Endo would re-read Greene's novel The End of the Affair before beginning a new work of his own. The Syusaku Endo Literature Museum , in Sotome, Nagasaki, is devoted to the writer's life and works. Catholicism in Japan The Catholic Church in Japan is part of the worldwide Catholic Church , under the spiritual leadership of the pope in Rome . As of 2021, there were approximately 431,100 Catholics in Japan (0.34% of

1403-499: Is strongly tied to Christianity if not Catholicism. Endō has been called "a novelist whose work has been dominated by a single theme ... belief in Christianity". Others have said that he is "almost by default ... [labeled] a 'Japanese Catholic author' struggling to 'plant the seeds of his adopted religion' in the 'mudswamp' of Japan". He often likened Japan to a swamp or fen . In the novel Silence , an official tells

1464-404: Is that a significant portion of their water supply is derived from groundwater (minerotrophy). Because hydrology is the dominant factor in wetlands, the chemistry of the groundwater has an enormous effect on the characteristics of the fen it supplies. Groundwater chemistry, in turn, is largely determined by the geology of the rocks that the groundwater flows through. Thus, the characteristics of

1525-621: The Akutagawa Prize and the Order of Culture , and was inducted into the Roman Catholic Order of St. Sylvester by Pope Paul VI . Together with Junnosuke Yoshiyuki , Shōtarō Yasuoka , Junzo Shono , Hiroyuki Agawa , Ayako Sono (also Catholic), and Shumon Miura , Endō is categorized as part of the " Third Generation " (that is, the third major group of Japanese writers to appear after World War II ). Soon after Endō

1586-840: The Akutagawa Prize for Shiroi Hito (White Men). Endō married Okada Junko in 1955. They had one son, Ryūnosuke, born in 1956. Endō lectured at at least two Tokyo universities. In 1956, he was hired as an instructor at Sophia University , and Seijo University assigned him the role of "Lecturer on the Theory of the Novel" in 1967. He was considered a novelist not a university professor, however. Throughout his life bouts of disease plagued him, and he spent two years in hospital at one point. In 1952, while studying in France, he came down with pleurisy in Paris. A return visit in 1960 prompted another case of

1647-698: The Japanese Government to participate in the Top Global University Project and receive financial assistance to boost globalisation in Japan and foster research. Other Catholic universities in Japan include Nanzan University ( Nagoya , Aichi ) and the Elisabeth University of Music ( Hiroshima , Hiroshima ). Founded in 1986, the Committee for Promoting Canonisation , which is directly affiliated with

1708-759: The Meiji Restoration was Christianity re-established in Japan. The Catholic Bishops' Conference of Japan is the Japanese episcopal conference , which serves as the main decision-making body of the Church in Japan. The current President of the CBCJ is Isao Kikuchi. The Catholic Church in Japan is divided into three ecclesiastical provinces with a total of 15 dioceses , three of which are metropolitan archdioceses. Japan has no military ordinariate compared with its neighbour South Korea . However, it does share

1769-719: The Okavango Delta in Botswana and the highland slopes in Lesotho . Fens can also be found at the colder latitudes of the Southern Hemisphere. They are found in New Zealand and southwest Argentina, but the extent is much less than that of the northern latitudes. Locally, fens are most often found at the intersection of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, such as the headwaters of streams and rivers. It

1830-493: The Sakoku period of Japanese isolationism. Some of the groups of martyrs and individual martyrs were later canonised and venerated as saints in the Church's liturgical calendar . There are some minor differences between the mass in Japan and the mass in other countries. For example, before Communion , most languages quote from the centurion of Matthew 8 ("Lord, I am not worthy that you should enter under my roof, but only say

1891-430: The cycling of nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus due to the lack of oxygen (anaerobic conditions) in waterlogged organic fen soils. Fens have historically been converted to agricultural land. Aside from such conversion, fens face a number of other threats, including peat cutting, pollution, invasive species, and nearby disturbances that lower the water table in the fen, such as quarrying. Interrupting

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1952-432: The partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the solution falls. The decrease in carbon dioxide partial pressure is caused by uptake by plants for photosynthesis or direct loss to the atmosphere. This reduces the availability of carbonic acid in solution, shifting the above equilibrium back towards the formation of calcium carbonate. The result is the precipitation of calcium carbonate and the formation of marl. Fen, being

2013-609: The Catholic Bishops' Conference of Japan, Japan has a total of 828 Catholic educational institutions. The Church operates different types of schools, which can be seen below: The Jesuit Sophia University in Chiyoda , Tokyo is listed in the Times Higher Education and QS Global University rankings, and is considered one of the top private universities in Japan. It is one of 37 universities selected by

2074-696: The Southern Cross , a personal ordinariate within the Catholic Church originally created as a means for Anglicans to enter communion with Rome while maintaining their patrimony, has also begun to form in Japan. As of 2015, it has two congregations. Christian missionaries arrived with Francis Xavier and the Jesuits in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many daimyōs in Kyushu . It soon met resistance from

2135-594: The Standing Committee of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of Japan, is responsible for promoting Japan's canonisation efforts and recognition of its martyrs . Its main objectives are to support local dioceses in promoting cases for canonisation, support canonisation promoted by the Conference, and promotion devotions to Japanese Catholic martyrs. All Catholic martyrs in Japan, both native Japanese and foreign missionaries, were persecuted and killed during

2196-811: The accumulation of mosses and mycorrhiza , which promote phosphorus cycling and can support the growth of new vegetation and bacteria. Brown mosses (family Amblystegiaceae ) and sedges (genus Carex ) are the dominant vegetation. However, an accumulation of mosses such as Sphagnum can lead to the acidification of the rich fen, potentially converting it into a poor fen. Compared to poor fens, rich fens have higher concentrations of bicarbonate, base cations (Na , Ca , K , Mg ), and sulfate . Poor fens are, in many ways, an intermediate between rich fens and bogs. Hydrologically, they are more similar to rich fens than to bogs, but regarding vegetation composition and chemistry, they are more similar to bogs than rich fens. They are much more acidic than their rich counterparts, with

2257-432: The aunt instigated the initiation. Endō first attended Waseda University for the stated purpose of studying medicine, but later decided to switch to the literature programme at Keio University . His studies were interrupted by the war, during which he worked in a munitions factory and also contributed to literary journals. In 1968, he would later become chief editor of one of these, the prestigious Mita Bungaku . Endō

2318-556: The continuous input of groundwater stimulates production. Bogs , which lack this input of groundwater , have much lower primary production. Carbon from all types of wetlands, including fens, arrives mostly as organic carbon from either adjacent upland ecosystems or by photosynthesis in the wetland itself. Once in the wetland, organic carbon generally has three main fates: oxidation to CO 2 by aerobic respiration , burial as organic matter in peat, or decomposition to methane . In peatlands, including fens, primary production by plants

2379-406: The exact criteria that define a fen, there are common characteristics that describe fens generally and imprecisely. A general definition provided by the textbook Wetlands describes a fen as "a peat-accumulating wetland that receives some drainage from surrounding mineral soil and usually supports marsh like vegetation." Three examples are presented below to illustrate more specific definitions for

2440-756: The fen. This can make the fen more ombrotrophic (dependent on precipitation), which results in acidification and a change in water chemistry. This directly impacts the habitat of these species, and many signature fen species disappear. Fens are also threatened by invasive species , fragmentation , peat cutting, and pollution. Non-native invasive species, such as the common buckthorn in North America, can invade fens and outcompete rare fen species, reducing biodiversity. Habitat fragmentation threatens fen species, especially rare or endangered species that are unable to move to nearby fens due to fragmentation. Peat cutting, while much more common in bogs, does happen in fens. Peat cut from fens has many uses, including burning as

2501-549: The flow of mineral-rich water into a fen changes the water chemistry, which can alter species richness and dry out the peat. Drier peat is more easily decomposed and can even burn. Fens are distributed around the world, but are most frequently found at the mid-high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. They are found throughout the temperate zone and boreal regions, but are also present in tundra and in specific environmental conditions in other regions around

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2562-459: The global nitrogen cycle due to the anaerobic conditions found in their soils, which facilitate the oxidation or reduction of one form of nitrogen to another. Most nitrogen arrives in wetlands as nitrate from runoff , in organic matter from other areas, or by nitrogen fixation in the wetland. There are three main forms of nitrogen found in wetlands: nitrogen in organic matter, oxidized nitrogen ( nitrate or nitrite ), and ammonium . Nitrogen

2623-554: The groundwater supplying the fen flows through sediments that don't dissolve well or have low buffering capacity when dissolved. Species richness tends to be lower than that of rich fens but higher than that of bogs. Poor fens, like bogs, are dominated by Sphagnum mosses, which acidify the fen and decrease nutrient availability. One of the many threats that fens face is conversion to agricultural lands. Where climates are suitable, fens have been drained for agricultural use alongside crop production, grazing , and hay making . Draining

2684-552: The highest office holders of Japan. Emperor Ōgimachi issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect. Beginning in 1587, with imperial regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1620 it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming hidden Christians ( 隠れキリシタン , kakure kirishitan ) , while others died. Only after

2745-424: The main focus of his works, a few of Endō's books mention Kakure Kirishitans (hidden Christians). Endō preferred to use the term "かくれ切支丹" instead of the more common "かくれキリシタン" . His books reflect many of his childhood experiences, including the stigma of being an outsider, the experience of being a foreigner, the life of a hospital patient, and the struggle with tuberculosis. However, his books mainly deal with

2806-413: The moral fabric of life. His Catholic faith can be seen at some level in all of his books and it is often a central feature. Most of his characters struggle with complex moral dilemmas, and their choices often produce mixed or tragic results. His work is often compared to that of Graham Greene , with whom he shared a mutual admiration: Greene himself labeled Endō one of the finest writers alive, while it

2867-410: The moss cover. Helophytes have been shown to bolster phosphorus cycling within fens, especially in fen reestablishment, due to their ability to act as a phosphorus sink, which prevents residual phosphorus in the fen from being transferred away from the it. Under normal conditions, phosphorus is held within soil as dissolved inorganic phosphorus, or phosphate , which leaves trace amounts of phosphorus in

2928-699: The nation. The main liturgical rites employed in Japan are those of the Latin Church . The current apostolic nuncio , who serves as the Holy See 's diplomatic ambassador and delegate to the local church in Japan, is Archbishop Francisco Escalante Molina . Christianity was introduced to Japan by the Jesuits , such as the Spaniard St. Francis Xavier and the Italian Alessandro Valignano . Portuguese Catholics founded

2989-429: The oxidized layer and nitrate consumption in the reduced layer by denitrification drives downward diffusion of nitrate. Denitrification in the reduced layer produces nitrogen gas and some nitrous oxide , which then exit the wetland to the atmosphere. Nitrous oxide is a potent greenhouse gas whose production is limited by nitrate and nitrite concentrations in fens. Nitrogen, along with phosphorus, controls how fertile

3050-464: The port of Nagasaki , considered at its founding to be an important Christian center in the Far East , though this distinction is now obsolete. There is a modern Japanese translation of the whole Bible by Federico Barbaro , an Italian missionary. Nowadays, many Japanese Catholics are ethnic Japanese from Brazil and Peru and naturalized Filipino Japanese . The Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of

3111-442: The presence of peat. In The Biology of Peatlands fens are defined by the following criteria: A further distinction is made between open and wooded fens, where open fens have canopy cover less than 10% and wooded fens have 10–25% canopy cover. If tall shrubs or trees dominate, the wetland is instead classified as a wooded bog or swamp forest , depending on other criteria. Hydrological conditions, as seen in other wetlands, are

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3172-520: The reduced layer below, undergoing oxidation and reduction reactions by the microbial communities adapted to each layer. Many important reactions take place in the reduced layer, including denitrification , manganese reduction, iron reduction, sulfate reduction, and methanogenesis . Because wetlands are hotspots for nutrient transformations and often serve as nutrient sinks, they may be constructed to treat nutrient-rich waters created by human activities. Fens are also hotspots for primary production , as

3233-573: The rest of the ecosystem. Iron is important in phosphorus cycling within fens. Iron can bind to high levels of inorganic phosphate within the fen, leading to a toxic environment and inhibition of plant growth. In iron-rich fens, the area can become vulnerable to acidification, excess nitrogen and potassium, and low water levels. Peat soils play a role in preventing the bonding of irons to phosphate by providing high levels of organic anions for iron to bind to instead of inorganic anions such as phosphate. Bogs and fens can be thought of as two ecosystems on

3294-623: The same disease, and he stayed in hospital (in France and Japan) for the greater part of three years. Among other health problems, he contracted tuberculosis , underwent thoracoplasty , and had a lung removed. While he lost the 1994 Nobel Prize in Literature to Kenzaburō Ōe , he received the Order of Culture the subsequent year. Endō died shortly thereafter from complications of hepatitis at Keio University Hospital in Tokyo on September 29, 1996. While Endō wrote in several genres, his oeuvre

3355-553: The term fen . In the Canadian Wetland Classification System, fens are defined by six characteristics: In the textbook Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation , Paul A. Keddy offers a somewhat simpler definition of a fen as "a wetland that is usually dominated by sedges and grasses rooted in shallow peat, often with considerable groundwater movement, and with pH greater than 6." This definition differentiates fens from swamps and marshes by

3416-481: The total population), 6,200 of whom are clerics, religious and seminarians. Japan has 15 dioceses, including three metropolitan archdioceses , with 34 bishops , 1,235 priests , and 40 deacons spread out across 957 churches ( parishes , quasi-parishes, mission stations , and assembly centres). The bishops of the dioceses form the Catholic Bishops' Conference of Japan , the episcopal conference of

3477-605: The word and my soul shall be healed"). In Japanese, however, the saying is 「主よ、あなたは神の子キリスト、永遠の命の糧、あなたをおいてだれのところへ行きましょう」 ( Rōmaji : shu yo, anata wa kami no ko Kirisuto, eien no inochi no kate, anata o oite dare no tokoro e ikimashō ; English: "Lord, you are the Christ, the Son of God, the bread of eternal life, to whom shall I leave thee?"), taken from quotes of Simon Peter in John 6 and Matthew 16 . Fen Fens can be found around

3538-445: The world, but the vast majority are located at the mid to high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. They are dominated by sedges and mosses , particularly graminoids that may be rarely found elsewhere, such as the sedge species Carex exilis . Fens are highly biodiverse ecosystems and often serve as habitats for endangered or rare species, with species composition changing with water chemistry. They also play important roles in

3599-648: The world. In the United States, fens are most common in the Midwest and Northeast, but can be found across the country. In Canada, fens are most frequent in the lowlands near Hudson Bay and James Bay , but can also be found across the country. Fens are also spread across the northern latitudes of Eurasia, including Britain and Ireland, as well as Japan, but east-central Europe is especially rich in fens. Further south, fens are much rarer, but do exist under specific conditions. In Africa, fens have been found in

3660-460: Was among the first Japanese university students to study in France. His studies at the University of Lyon over the 1950–1953 period deepened his interest in and knowledge of modern French Catholic authors, who were to become a major influence on his own writing. Upon his return to Japan, his success as a writer was almost immediate. In 1954, a year after completing his studies in France, he won

3721-640: Was born in Tokyo in 1923, his family moved to Dairen , then part of the Kwantung Leased Territory in Manchuria . When his parents divorced in 1933, Endō's mother brought him back to Japan to live with an aunt in Kobe . Endō was baptized as a Catholic at the age of 11 or 12 in 1934. Some say this was brought on by his mother, who had converted to Catholicism after her divorce, while others state

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