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76-529: Sha Chau is composed of four islets including Sheung Sha Chau ( 上沙洲 ; 'Upper Sand Island'), Tai Sha Chau ( 大沙洲 ; 'Big Sand Island'), Ha Sha Chau ( 下沙洲 ; 'Lower Sand Island') and Siu Sha Chau ( 小沙洲 ; 'Small Sand Island'). Sha Chau was a shelter for British merchant ships carrying opium during the Qing era . A Tin Hau Temple is located on Siu Sha Chau. According to inscriptions,

152-675: A revolt in 1646 , aiming to drive the Qing out and restore as emperor the Ming Prince of Yanchang, Zhu Shichuan. The Muslim Ming loyalists were supported by Sa'id Baba, the Sultan of Hami, and the Sultan's son Prince Turumtay. Additionally, Han Chinese and Tibetans joined the Muslim Ming loyalists in the revolt. After fierce fighting and negotiations, a peace agreement was formulated in 1649. Milayin and Ding nominally pledged allegiance to

228-753: A Mandarinate. He acquired estates which were large. Reinforced by the Dungan people of Hezhou, Zuo Zongtang planned to advance westward along the Hexi Corridor toward Xinjiang. However, he felt it necessary to first secure his left flank by taking Xining , which not only had a large Muslim community of its own, but also sheltered many of the refugees from Shaanxi. In the eleventh year of the Tongzhi reign (August 1872), Liu Jintang led his army deep into enemy territory, adopting strategies of steady advancement and dividing forces to encircle and suppress, to confront

304-491: A combination of massacres, migration, famine, and corpse-transmitted plague. Due to the conflict, Gansu lost 74.5% (14.55 million) of its population, Shaanxi lost 44.6% (6.2 million) of its population, and Northern Xinjiang lost 72.6% (0.34 million) of its population. The population reduction of Hui in Shaanxi was particularly severe. According to research by modern historians, at least 4 million Hui were in Shaanxi before

380-431: A few thousand surviving. Large numbers of Han people were also relocated to Inner Mongolia after the war. Modern Ningxia and eastern Qinghai regions such as Xining, Hualong and Xunhua used to be a part of Gansu province before the 20th century. Harsh punishments were meted out against Hui in Shaanxi by Manchus over communal disputes at this time since they regarded Hui as the aggressors. The Qing governor of Shaanxi put all

456-509: A predominantly Muslim, Chinese -speaking ethnic group in China. They are sometimes called "Chinese Muslims" and should not be confused with the "Turkestanis" or " Turkic " people mentioned, who are Uyghurs , Kazakhs , Kyrgyzes , Tatars and Uzbeks amongst others. The ethnic group now known as Uyghur people was not known by that name before the 20th century. In prior times, the Uyghurs of

532-515: A result of the wars, though the Taiping Rebellion and Dungan Revolt had a much larger economic effect. The First Opium War broke out in 1839 between China and Britain and was fought over trading rights (including the right of free trade ) and Britain's diplomatic status among Chinese officials. In the eighteenth century, China enjoyed a trade surplus with Europe, trading porcelain , silk , and tea in exchange for silver . By

608-726: A second phase of fighting which included the sack of the Old Summer Palace and the occupation of the Forbidden City palace complex in Beijing , the treaty was confirmed by the Convention of Peking in 1860. In February 1860, the British and French imperialist authorities again appointed Elgin and Grotto as plenipotentiaries respectively, leading more than 15,000 British troops and about 7,000 French troops to expand

684-405: Is connected to twin 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) submarine pipelines which carry the fuel to Chek Lap Kok . Sha Chau was initially intended to be a temporary location for the facility. Tai Sha Chau is the site of an approach surveillance radar (ASR) and of a Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) for air traffic control. Since 1996, the island, together with Lung Kwu Chau and Pak Chau fall within

760-509: Is that the revolt was directed against the Qing dynasty , but evidence does not show that the rebels intended to overthrow the Qing government or attack the capital of Beijing. Instead it indicates that the rebels wished to exact revenge on personal enemies for injustices. In the aftermath of the conflict, mass emigration of the Dungan people from Ili to Imperial Russia ensued. In this article " Dungan people " refers to Hui people , who are

836-593: The Pearl River forts on the approach to Canton and proceeded to bombard Canton itself, but had insufficient forces to take and hold the city. On 15 December, during a riot in Canton, European commercial properties were set on fire and Bowring appealed for military intervention. The execution of a French missionary inspired support from France. The United States and Russia also intervened in the war. Britain and France now sought greater concessions from China, including

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912-700: The Tarim Basin were known as "Turki". Uyghur immigrants from the Tarim Basin to Ili were called "Taranchi". The modern name "Uyghur" was assigned to this ethnic group by the Soviet Union in 1921 at a conference in Tashkent, with the name "Uyghur" being derived from the old Uyghur Khaganate . As a result, sources from the period of the Dungan Revolt make no mention of Uyghurs. Although " Hui "

988-684: The "Eighteen Great Battalions" in eastern Gansu, intending to fight their way back to their homes in Shaanxi. While the Hui rebels were preparing to attack Gansu and Shaanxi, Yaqub Beg , who had fled from Kokand Khanate in 1865 or 1866 after losing Tashkent to the Russians, declared himself ruler of Kashgar and soon managed to take complete control of Tarim Basin in Xinjiang . In 1867 the Qing government sent one of its most capable commanders, General Zuo Zongtang —who had been instrumental in putting down

1064-470: The "New Teaching" ( 新教 ; xīn jiào ). Disagreements between adherents of Khufiyya and Jahriya, as well as perceived mismanagement, corruption and the anti-Sufi attitudes of Qing officials, resulted in uprisings by Hui and Salar followers of the New Teaching in 1781 and 1783, but these were promptly suppressed. Hostilities between different groups of Sufis contributed to the violent atmosphere before

1140-605: The 20,000 chests (1,300 metric tons) over to Lin, who had them destroyed at Humen . Elliott then wrote to London advising the use of military force to resolve the dispute with the Chinese government. A small skirmish occurred between British and Chinese warships in the Kowloon Estuary on 4 September 1839. After almost a year, the British government decided, in May 1840, to send a military expedition to impose reparations for

1216-640: The Battalion leaders surrendered and defected to the Qing dynasty, six were killed, and one, Bai Yanhu, fled to Russia) Jahriyya order under Ma Hualong in Gansu The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) , also known as the Tongzhi Hui Revolt ( simplified Chinese : 同治回乱 ; traditional Chinese : 同治回亂 ; pinyin : Tóngzhì Huí Luàn , Xiao'erjing : تُ‌جِ خُوِ لُوًا, Dungan : Тунҗы Хуэй Луан ) or Hui (Muslim) Minorities War ,

1292-580: The Chinese character 堡 ') in what was then north-eastern Gansu in September 1870, bringing Krupp siege guns with him. Zuo and Lai Ch'ang themselves directed the artillery fire against the city. Mines were also utilized. After a sixteen-month siege, Ma Hualong was forced to surrender in January 1871. Zuo sentenced Ma and over eighty of his officials to death by slicing . Thousands of Muslims were exiled to other parts of China. Zuo's next target

1368-695: The Confucian Hui Muslim scholar Ma Zhu (1640–1710) served with the southern Ming loyalists against the Qing. During the Qianlong era (1735–1796), scholar Wei Shu ( 魏塾 ) commented on Jiang Tong's ( 江统 ) essay Xironglun ( 徙戎论 ), stating that if the Muslims did not migrate, they would end up like the Five Hu , who overthrew the Western Jin and caused an ethnic conflict to break out between

1444-677: The Dungan Revolt between 1862 and 1877. In the Jahriyya revolt sectarian violence between two suborders of the Naqshbandi Sufis, the Jahriyya Sufi Muslims and their rivals, the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims, led to a Jahriyya Sufi Muslim revolt which the Qing dynasty in China crushed with the help of the Khafiyya Sufi Muslims. As Taiping troops approached southeastern Shaanxi in the spring of 1862,

1520-1019: The Five Hu and the Han Chinese . During the Qianlong Emperor's reign, there were clashes between the Qing authorities and the Jahriyya Sufi sect, but not with the majority non-Sufi Sunnis or the Khafiyya Sufis . Chinese Muslims had traveled to West Asia for many years prior to the Hui Minorities' War. In the 18th century several prominent Muslim clerics from Gansu studied in Mecca and Yemen under Naqshbandi Sufi teachers. Two different forms of Sufism were brought back to northwest China by two charismatic Hui sheikhs : Khufiyya, associated with Ma Laichi (1681–1766), and

1596-538: The Han and other Hui people who had not joined them in revolt. It was this seemingly trivial and unimportant dispute over bamboo poles that set off the full-scale revolt. However, according to historical records from the era, bamboo poles were bought in large quantities by the Hui to make spears as weaponry. Moreover, there had already been attacks on Han counties prior to the Shengshan bamboo incident. Historical records from

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1672-530: The Hui Muslim forces, killing large numbers of enemy soldiers, and several times lured the enemy deep to encircle and annihilate them. During the battles, Liu Jintang skillfully maneuvered and utilized the terrain to counterattack the rebels' sieges. Coordinating with artillery superiority, he continuously broke through the Hui Muslim defensive lines, ultimately forcing the main enemy forces to retreat and burning their strongholds. Through several days of combat,

1748-801: The Hui Muslims were aiding the Taiping Rebels. It was also said that the Hui Ma Hsiao-shih claimed that the Shaanxi Muslim revolt was connected to the Taiping. Many Green Standard Army troops of the Imperial army were Hui. According to some historians, one of the incidents which led to the revolt was caused by a fight over the price of bamboo poles that a Han merchant was selling to a Hui. After this fight, Hui mobs attacked

1824-412: The Hui forces abandoned their positions and fled. The next day, the government troops set up ambushes, lured the Hui forces down from the mountain, and routed them. On August 28, the government troops continued to set up ambushes, and the Hui forces did not dare to come out. Liu Jintang dispatched troops at night to Yancaigou. On the 29th, the government troops feigned defeat to lure the Hui forces deeper;

1900-472: The Hunan, Sichuan, Anhui and Henan Armies, along with thousands of cavalry. The Hunan soldiers were expert marksmen and excelled in battlefield maneuvers under the command of Gen. Liu Songshan. Western military drill was experimented with, but Zuo decided to abandon it. The troops practiced "twice a day for ten days" with their western made guns. The Lanzhou Arsenal was established in 1872 by Zuo Zongtang during

1976-550: The Muslims" ( 洗回 ; Xǐ Huí ) approach that had been long advocated by some officials), in Hezhou, the non-Muslim Han were the ones Zuo chose to relocate as a reward for Ma Zhan'ao and his Muslim troops helping the Qing crush Muslim rebels. Hezhou (Linxia) remains heavily Muslim to this day, achieving the status of Linxia Hui Autonomous Prefecture under the PRC . Other Dungan generals including Ma Qianling and Ma Haiyan also defected to

2052-613: The Qing military in Xinjiang during the Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) and allegedly planned to help the Hui rebels before the Hui rebels were crushed. The conflict initially erupted on the western bank of the Yellow River in Shaanxi, Gansu and Ningxia, excluding Xinjiang Province. A chaotic affair, it often involved diverse warring bands and military leaders with no common cause or a single specific goal. A common misconception

2128-412: The Qing side along with Ma Zhan'ao. Ma's son Ma Anliang also defected, and their Dungan forces assisted Zuo Zongtang's Qing forces in crushing the rebel dungans. Dong Fuxiang also defected to the Qing. He was in no sense a fanatical Muslim or even interested in revolt, he merely gained support during the chaos and fought, just as many others did. He joined the Qing army of Zuo Zongtang in exchange for

2204-424: The Qing, and they were given ranks as members of the Qing military. However, when the Qing withdrew their forces from Gansu to fight resurgent Ming loyalists in southern China, Milayin and Ding once again took up arms and rebelled with the support of Turumtay against the Qing. They were ultimately crushed by the Qing and 100,000 of them—including Milayin, Ding Guodong, and Turumtay—were killed in battle. Additionally,

2280-561: The Shaanxi Han populace fled the Hui or hid underground in cellars. Given the low prestige of the Qing dynasty and its armies being occupied elsewhere, the revolt that began in the spring of 1862 in the Wei River valley spread rapidly throughout southeastern Shaanxi. By late June 1862, organized Muslim bands laid siege to Xi'an , which was not relieved by Qing general Dorongga  [ zh ] (sometimes written To-lung-a) until

2356-709: The Shaanxi Hui rebels until general Zuo Zongtang defeated the Nian in the province by 1868 and the Hui rebels in Shaanxi fled to Gansu in 1869. The Hunan Army was extensively infiltrated by the anti Qing, Han Gelaohui secret society, who started several mutinies during the Dungan Revolt, delaying crucial offensives. Zuo put down the mutinies and executed those involved. Hubei Gelaohui soldiers mutinied in Suide in Zuo Zongtang's army in 1867. The Han Gelaohui had infiltrated

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2432-477: The Taiping Rebellion—to Shaanxi. Zuo's approach was to pacify the region by promoting agriculture, especially the growing of cotton and grain, as well as supporting orthodox Confucian education. Due to the region's extreme poverty, Zuo had to rely on financial support from outside Northwestern China. Zuo Zongtang called on the government to "support the armies in the northwest with the resources of

2508-529: The afternoon also joined the robbery, and the most precious things in the Old Summer Palace were looted. All twelve bronze statues of animal heads began to be lost overseas. On 18 October, the Old Summer Palace was burned down by British soldiers, and France refused to provide aid. The fire burned for three days and nights, razing the buildings of the Old Summer Palace to the ground and destroying nearby royal properties. As of December 2020, seven of

2584-401: The area and used his wealth to purchase guns. Zuo Zongtang became suspicious of Ma's intentions, thinking that he wanted to seize control over the whole of Mongolia. Liu Songshan died in combat during an offensive against the hundreds of rebel forts protected by difficult terrain. Liu Jintang, his nephew, took over his command whereupon a temporary lull in the offensive set in. After suppressing

2660-583: The blame of the rebellion on the Shaanxi Hui and said the Gansu Hui were not to blame and were forced to join the rebellion and that they had good relations with Han unlike Shaanxi Hui who he accused of committing massacres so he told Gansu officials Shaanxi would not let deported Shaanxi Hui in Gansu back in. Officials in Shaanxi wanted military force to be used against Hui rebels while officials in Gansu wanted leniency for Hui rebels. Han Nian rebels worked with

2736-686: The boundaries of the Sha Chau and Lung Kwu Chau Marine Park . The three island have been listed as a Site of Special Scientific Interest since 1979. It is known as a dolphin sanctuary where is the habitat for the Chinese white dolphin . 22°20′42″N 113°53′23″E  /  22.3449°N 113.8897°E  / 22.3449; 113.8897 Opium Wars The Opium Wars ( simplified Chinese : 鸦片战争 ; traditional Chinese : 鴉片戰爭 ; pinyin : Yāpiàn zhànzhēng ) were two conflicts waged between China and Western powers during

2812-472: The companies prepared to hand over a token amount to placate him. Charles Elliot , Chief Superintendent of British Trade in China, arrived 3 days after the expiry of Lin's deadline, as Chinese troops enforced a shutdown and blockade of the factories. The standoff ended after Elliot paid for all the opium on credit from the British government (despite lacking official authority to make the purchase) and handed

2888-470: The destroyed opium, with six million to be paid immediately, and the rest through specified installments thereafter. Another treaty the following year gave most favoured nation status to Britain and added provisions for British extraterritoriality , making Britain exempt from Chinese law. France secured several of the same concessions from China in the Treaty of Whampoa in 1844. In 1853, northern China

2964-401: The enemy multiple times, defeating and killing several hundred Hui Muslim soldiers and capturing enemy leaders. The Hui forces under Bai Yanhu and Yu Deyan divided their troops to attack, relying on dangerous terrain to set up fortifications and stubbornly resist. Liu Jintang ordered ambushes along different routes and bombarded the enemy fortifications, successfully capturing Shika. Subsequently,

3040-516: The era show that prior to the conflict over the price of bamboo poles, there had already been plans among the Hui community to set up an Islamic State in the west of China . Organized through mosques and mullahs, the Hui people in Shaanxi started purchasing bamboo poles in large volumes. These poles were then used to make spears. Before the Shengshan bamboo incident, there had already been attacks on Han in Dali county and Weinan county. Fearing persecution,

3116-611: The fall of 1863. Dorongga was a Manchu bannerman in command of the army in Hunan . His forces defeated the Muslim rebels and completely destroyed their position in Shaanxi province, driving them out of the province to Gansu. Dorangga was later killed in action in March 1864 by Taiping rebels in Shaanxi. The Governor-general of the region, En-lin, advised the Imperial government not to alienate Muslims. He officially made it clear that there

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3192-473: The financial losses experienced by opium traders in Canton and to guarantee future security for the trade. On 21 June 1840, a British naval force arrived off Macao and moved to bombard the port of Dinghai . In the ensuing conflict, the Royal Navy used its superior ships and guns to inflict a series of decisive defeats on Chinese forces. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing) in 1842,

3268-521: The first of the Unequal treaties between China and Western powers. The treaty ceded the Hong Kong Island and surrounding smaller islands to Britain, and established five cities as treaty ports open to Western traders: Shanghai , Canton, Ningbo , Fuzhou , and Xiamen (Amoy). The treaty also stipulated that China would pay a twenty-one million dollar payment to Britain as reparations for

3344-528: The first wave, and then in Xinjiang in the second wave, between 1862 and 1877. The uprising was eventually suppressed by Qing forces led by Zuo Zongtang . The conflict began with riots by the Hui and massacres of the Han Chinese , followed by the revenge massacres of the Hui by the Han. It resulted in massive demographic shifts in Northwest China , and led to a population loss of 21 million people from

3420-623: The free-trade port of Canton , and sold it to Chinese smugglers. In 1834, the EIC's monopoly on British trade with China ceased, and the opium trade burgeoned. Partly concerned with moral issues over the consumption of opium and partly with the outflow of silver, the Daoguang Emperor charged Governor General Lin Zexu with ending the trade. In 1839, Lin published in Canton an open letter to Queen Victoria requesting her cooperation in halting

3496-507: The government troops heavily damaged the Hui forces at Gaojianggou, annihilating a large number of enemies. The government troops fortified their camps, repelled multiple joint attacks by Hui Muslim infantry and cavalry, and intercepted and killed fleeing enemies at river crossings. By late August, they had killed or captured over two thousand Hui Muslim soldiers. At this time, Hui Muslim leader Ma Guiyuan conspired with his associates to mobilize Hui Muslims, planning to unite in resistance against

3572-427: The government troops set up ambushes, but the Hui forces did not come out again. On August 25, over a thousand Hui Muslim troops from Yangjiaowan attacked Tan Shanglian's camp. He Zuolin and others assisted in repelling the Hui forces. Liu Jintang ordered the construction of fortifications and artillery positions for defense. On August 26, the Hui forces did not come out. The government troops bombarded their camp, and

3648-418: The government troops won successive victories in various locations, severely damaging the backbone of the Hui Muslim forces. They gradually drove the enemy away from important strongholds and ultimately secured control of the war zone. In early August, Liu Jintang led his troops to launch encirclement and suppression of the Hui Muslim forces in places like Guanyintanggou and Xiakou. Yu Huen and He Zuolin engaged

3724-605: The government troops. Han Chinese in Xining city took the opportunity when he led the Hui troops out of the city to seal the city and defend it, appointing Guo Xiangzhi and others to take charge of defense. Upon learning this, Liu Jintang was determined to resolutely eliminate the rebels to prevent them from taking advantage of the autumn harvest to expand the rebellion and to stabilize the situation in Xining. On August 24, several thousand Hui Muslim infantry divided into two groups: one directly attacked Li Shuangliang's defensive camp, and

3800-920: The late 18th century, the British East India Company (EIC) expanded the cultivation of opium in the Bengal Presidency , selling it to private merchants who transported it to China and covertly sold it on to Chinese smugglers. By 1797, the EIC was selling 4,000 chests of opium (each weighing 77 kg) to private merchants per annum . In earlier centuries, opium was utilised as a medicine with anesthetic qualities, but new Chinese practices of smoking opium recreationally increased demand tremendously and often led to smokers developing addictions. Successive Chinese emperors issued edicts making opium illegal in 1729, 1799, 1814, and 1831, but imports grew as smugglers and colluding officials in China sought profit. Some American merchants entered

3876-450: The legalization of the opium trade, expanding of the transportation of coolies to European colonies, opening all of China to British and French citizens and exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties . The war resulted in the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin (Tianjin), in which the Chinese government agreed to pay war reparations for the expenses of the recent conflict, open a second group of ten ports to European commerce, legalize

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3952-444: The local Han Chinese, encouraged by the Qing government, formed Yong Ying militias to defend the region against the attackers. Afraid of the now-armed Han, the Muslims formed their own militia units as a response. According to some historians, the Dungan Revolt began in 1862, not as a planned uprising but as a succession of local brawls and riots triggered by trivial causes. There were also rumors—false, as it turned out—spread that

4028-426: The mid-19th century. The First Opium War was fought from 1839 to 1842 between China and Britain . It was triggered by the Chinese government 's campaign to enforce its prohibition of opium , which included destroying opium stocks owned by British merchants and the British East India Company . The British government responded by sending a naval expedition to force the Chinese government to pay reparations and allow

4104-418: The more radical Jahriyya, founded by Ma Mingxin (1719?–1781). These coexisted with the more traditional, non-Sufi Sunni practices, centered around local mosques and known as gedimu (qadim, 格底目 or 格迪目 ). The Khufiyya school and non-Sufi gedimu tradition—both tolerated by Qing authorities—were referred to as "Old Teaching" ( 老教 ; lǎo jiào ), while Jahriyya, viewed by authorities as suspect, became known as

4180-463: The old Hunan Army troops commanded by General Zeng Guofan , were dispatched by him under Gen. Liu Songshan to Shaanxi to help General Zuo, who had already raised a 55,000-man army in Hunan before he began the final push to reconquer Gansu from the Dungan rebels. They participated along with other regional armies (the Sichuan, Anhui and Henan Armies also joined the battle). Zuo's forces consisted of

4256-495: The opium trade, and grant foreign traders and missionaries rights to travel within China. This also included China being required to bend to Western diplomatic behaviors instead of their normal way of conducting business through a tribute system. This treaty led to the era in Chinese history known as the " Century of Humiliation ", this term referring to how China lost control of many territories to its enemies after being forced into treaties which were unfair in their own regard. After

4332-509: The opium trade. The Second Opium War was waged by Britain and France against China from 1856 to 1860, and consequently resulted in China being forced to legalise opium. In each war, the superior military advantages enjoyed by European forces led to several easy victories over the Chinese military , with the consequence that China was compelled to sign the unequal treaties to grant favourable tariffs, trade concessions, reparations and territory to Western powers. The two conflicts, along with

4408-622: The opium trade. The letter never reached the Queen. It was later published in The Times as a direct appeal to the British public for their cooperation. An edict from the Daoguang Emperor followed on 18   March, emphasising the serious penalties for opium smuggling that would now apply henceforth. Lin ordered the seizure of all opium in Canton, including that held by foreign governments and trading companies (called factories), and

4484-402: The other moved out from Yancaigou to block the government troops. Liu Jintang led Xiong Longming and others to meet the enemy, defeating the Hui forces outside the camp. Tan Heyi and other units arrived; realizing they were outmatched, the Hui forces withdrew back into the valley. The government troops took the opportunity to press the pursuit, causing a major rout among the Hui forces. That night,

4560-492: The rebel forces commanded by Bai Yanhu and Bi Dacai. Facing harassment and defenses from the Hui Muslim armed forces, he split his troops to set up camps, strengthened defenses, continuously adjusted deployments, and commanded multiple units to successively attack hills, fortresses, and mountain passes. The government troops engaged in several fierce firefights with the enemy, relying on artillery and coordinated infantry and cavalry to suppress enemy positions. They repeatedly defeated

4636-452: The revolt and staffed by Cantonese. The Cantonese officer in charge of the arsenal was Lai Ch'ang, who was skilled at artillery. The facility manufactured "steel rifle-barreled breechloaders" and provided munitions for artillery and guns. The Muslim Jahriyya leader Ma Hualong controlled a massive Muslim trading network with many traders, having control over trade routes to multiple cities over various kinds of terrain. He monopolized trade in

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4712-450: The revolt in Shaanxi and building up enough grain reserves to feed his army, Zuo attacked Ma Hualong. General Liu Jintang led the siege, bombarding the town over its walls with shells. The people of the town had to cannibalize dead bodies and eat grass roots to survive. Zuo's troops reached Ma's stronghold, Jinjibao ( 金积堡 ; Jinji Bao ; 'Jinji Fortress', 'sometimes romanised as Jinjipu', 'using an alternative reading of

4788-399: The revolt, but only 20,000 remained in the province afterwards, with most of the Hui either killed in massacres and reprisals by government and militia forces, or deported out of the province. For example, on one occasion where 700,000 to 800,000 Hui from Shaanxi were deported to Gansu, most were killed along the way from thirst, starvation, and massacres by the militia escorting them, with only

4864-426: The revolt. After successfully repulsing Zuo Zongtang's initial assault in 1872 and inflicting heavy losses on Zuo's army, Ma Zhan'ao offered to surrender his stronghold to the Qing, and provide assistance to the dynasty for the duration of the war. He managed to preserve his Dungan community with his diplomatic skill. While Zuo Zongtang pacified other areas by exiling the local Muslims (with the policy of " washing off

4940-430: The southeast", and arranged the finances of his planned expedition to conquer Gansu by obtaining loans worth millions of taels from foreign banks in the southeastern provinces. The loans from the banks would be paid back by fees and taxes levied by Chinese authorities on goods imported through their ports. Zuo also arranged for massive amounts of supplies to be available before he would go on the offensive. Ten thousand of

5016-451: The temple was initially built in 1846 by fishermen from Castle Peak Bay off Sha Chau. The temple was destroyed by a fire in the 1970s and was rebuilt in 1998. It was a Grade II Historic Building from 1981 to 2010, when its listing was revised to "no grade". An aviation fuel receipt facility (the Receipt Jetty) is located at Sheung Sha Chau. The Receipt Jetty is where bulk intake of fuel for Hong Kong airport takes place. The Receipt Jetty

5092-400: The trade by smuggling opium from Turkey into China, including Warren Delano Jr. , the grandfather of twentieth-century American President Franklin D. Roosevelt , and Francis Blackwell Forbes ; in American historiography this is sometimes referred to as the Old China Trade . By 1833, the Chinese opium trade soared to 30,000 chests. British and American merchants sent opium to warehouses in

5168-667: The twelve bronze statues have been found and returned to China. The whereabouts of the remaining five are still unknown. Dungan Revolt (1862%E2%80%931877) [REDACTED] Qing dynasty Supported by : Hui Muslim loyalists Khufiyya order under Ma Zhan'ao in Gansu (1872–1877) Eleven Gedimu Battalions of Shaanxi (1872–1877) [REDACTED] Kashgaria (Kokandi Uzbek Andijanis under Yaqub Beg) Supported by : Taranchi Sultanate of Ili Dungan rebels in Yarkand Kingdom of Islam Khotanese rebels Dungan rebels of Kashgar Kyrgyz rebels Hui Muslim rebels Gedimu Eighteen Shaanxi Battalions (Eleven of

5244-410: The various treaties imposed during the century of humiliation , weakened the Chinese government's authority and forced China to open specified treaty ports (including Shanghai ) to Western merchants. In addition, China ceded sovereignty over Hong Kong to the British Empire , which maintained control over the region until 1997 . During this period, the Chinese economy also contracted slightly as

5320-433: The war against China. The British and French forces invaded Beijing, and the Qing emperor fled to Chengde. The British and French forces broke into the Old Summer Palace, looted jewelry, and burned it. Among the cultural relics that were looted were the well-known Old Summer Palace bronze heads . On the morning of 7 October, the French army broke into the Old Summer Palace and began to rob it. British soldiers who arrived in

5396-499: Was (and can still be) a Chinese name broadly referring to Muslim people, the term refers specifically to the community of Chinese-speaking Muslims in China, who share many cultural similarities with the Han . Europeans commonly referred to these people as "Dungan" or "Tungan" during the Dungan Revolt. The people referred to as " Andijanis " or " Kokandis " include the subjects of the Kokand Khanate — Uzbeks , Sarts , Southern Kyrgyzes , Ferghana Kipchaks and Tajiks . The Kokand army

5472-582: Was Hezhou (now known as Linxia ), the main center of the Hui people west of Lanzhou and a key point on the trade route between Gansu and Tibet . Hezhou was defended by the Hui forces of Ma Zhan'ao . As a pragmatic member of the Khafiya (Old Teaching) sect, he was ready to explore avenues for peaceful coexistence with the Qing government. When the revolt broke out, Ma Zhan'ao escorted Han Chinese to safety in Yixin, and did not attempt to conquer more territory during

5548-646: Was a war fought in 19th-century western China , mostly during the reign of the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875) of the Qing dynasty . The term sometimes includes the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan , which occurred during the same period. However, this article refers specifically to two waves of uprising by various Chinese Muslims , mostly Hui people, in Shaanxi , Gansu and Ningxia provinces in

5624-593: Was convulsed by the Taiping Rebellion , which established its capital at Nanjing . In spite of this, a new Imperial Commissioner, Ye Mingchen , was appointed at Canton, determined to stamp out the opium trade, which was still technically illegal. In October 1856, he seized the Arrow , a ship claiming British registration, and threw its crew into chains. Sir John Bowring , Governor of British Hong Kong, called up Rear Admiral Sir Michael Seymour 's East Indies and China Station fleet, which, on 23 October, bombarded and captured

5700-502: Was predominantly formed from Uzbeks and the nomadic Kyrgyz and Kipchaks. The Dungan Revolt occurred partly because of ethnic antagonism and class warfare , not only because of religious strife (as is sometimes mistakenly assumed). Chinese Muslims played a major role in resisting the early Qing dynasty in the wake of its victory over the Ming . For example, in 1646, Muslim Ming loyalists in Gansu led by Milayin and Ding Guodong organized

5776-407: Was to be no mistreatment of or discrimination against Muslims, resulting in the implementation of a "policy of reconciliation". Muslim rebels tried to seize Lingzhou (present-day Lingwu ) and Guyuan in several attacks as a result of false rumors spread by some Muslims that the government was going to kill all Muslims. A vast number of Muslim refugees from Shaanxi fled to Gansu. Some of them formed

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