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73-731: The name comes from the Arabic word jahr (جهر), referring to their practice of vocally performing the dhikr (invocation of the name of God). This contrasted with the more typical Naqshbandi practice of performing it silently, as observed by the Khufiyya or Old Teaching. The Jahriya order was founded by the Gansu Chinese-speaking Muslim scholar Ma Mingxin soon after his return to China in 1761, after 16 years of studying in Mecca and Yemen . He had studied there under

146-563: A Hui family in Hangzhou , and elsewhere), until, years later, Ma Yuanzhang managed to obtain a pardon for him. Meanwhile, Ma Yuanzhang set himself up as a leather merchant. This allowed him to visit scattered Jahriyya communities all over eastern China, gaining the respect of the surviving members of the order. He married a female relative of Ma Malaichi, thus solidifying his claim of legitimate succession. After yet another Muslim rebellion Gansu – this time, triggered by factional strife within

219-552: A Naqshbandi Sufi teacher named 'Abd al-Khāliq (known to the Chinese Muslims as "Abu Duha Halik"), who was a son of az-Zayn b. Muhammad 'Abd al-Baqī al-Mizjaji (1643/44–1725), originally from Mizjaja near Zabīd , Yemen . Az-Zayn, in turn, had studied in Medina under the famous Kurdish mystic Ibrahīm ibn Hasan al-Kūrānī (1616–1690), who was known for advocating the vocal (rather than silent) dhikr . Al-Kurani also taught

292-672: A competent commander. He served under Fuheng in the 1769 failed campaign of the Sino-Burmese War (1765–1769) . Agui soon found himself out of favor as he was not fully supportive of Fuheng's plans and the Chinese Qianlong Emperor was vocal of his dislike for this behavior. The main push occurs in December at the height of the disease period and the Chinese suffer great losses to disease. Confusion surrounds

365-632: A direct descendant of Ma Mingxin himself. Ma Shilin traveled twice to Ningxia, visiting Ma Hualong in Jinjipu, and when Du Wenxiu started the Panthay Rebellion in Yunnan, Ma Shillin became one Du's commanders. After defending the fortress of Donggouzhai for a year against the Qing forces, he chose to commit suicide rather than to become a prisoner of the Qing. After the disaster of Jinjipu, and

438-409: A method dhikr and meditation, the goal of which is to obtain a feeling of peace, separation from worldly values ( dunya ), and, in general, strengthen Iman (faith). The main purpose of dhikr is to fill the heart with spiritual meaning and not simply chant the invocations with an empty heart and absent mind. When performed with awareness, the heart then becomes receptive to the activity of the tongue and

511-450: A speaker who refers to something briefly/incidentally), or reminder, is considered a maddah who reminds the remembering of Allah (and His Dhikr) for people, and he himself should also be reciter of dhikhr; namely, not only he ought to be a recital of Dhikr, but also he should put the audience in the situation of dhikr reminding (of Allah and likewise Ahl al-Bayt ). Idiomatically the term means "praiser of God" or "professional narrator of

584-478: Is a form of Islamic worship in which phrases or prayers are repeatedly recited for the purpose of remembering God . It plays a central role in Sufism , and each Sufi order typically adopts a specific dhikr , accompanied by specific posture, breathing, and movement. In Sufism, dhikr refers to both the act of this remembrance as well as the prayers used in these acts of remembrance. Dhikr usually includes

657-454: Is a type of group ceremony that consist mostly of recited spiritual poetry and Quranic recitation. According to William Chittick , "The Koran commonly refers to the knowledge brought by the prophets as “remembrance” (dhikr) and “reminder” (dhikra, tadhkir), terms that derive from the root dh-k-r". These terms appear more than forty times in the Quran to describe the Quran itself. For example,

730-413: Is also recommended when remembering God. Since it can get difficult to keep track of the counting of the prayers, the beads are used to keep track so that the person reciting the prayer can turn all of their focus on what is actually being said - as it can become difficult to concentrate simultaneously on the number and phrasing when one is doing so a substantial number of times. Similarly, as dhikr involves

803-434: Is aware of God's presence. There are numerous conventional phrases and expressions invoking God. Reciting the Quran sincerely is also considered a kind of Dhikr. For example: "It is truly I. I am Allah! There is no god [worthy of worship] except Me. So worship Me [alone], and establish prayer for My remembrance" — Surah Taha , Ayah 14 "O believers! Always remember Allah often" — Surah Al- Ahzab, Ayah 41 "Indeed, in

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876-574: Is conducive to that, the knowledgeable person and the learning person." —Jami Al-Tirmidhi 2322 Narrated by Abdullah bin Busr that the Messenger of Allah said: "'Always keep your tongue moist with the remembrance of Allah, the Mighty and Sublime.'" — Sunan Ibn Majah 3793 Narrated by Mu'adh ibn Jabal that the Messenger of Allah said: "The People of Paradise will not regret except one thing alone:

949-454: Is said to have been shorn by government soldiers before his execution 1781, many Jahriyya members shave the sides of their beards. In 1985, over 20,000 Chinese Muslims assembled at the site of Ma Mingxin's original (destroyed) tomb near Lanzhou for a commemoration ceremony. The tomb has since been rebuilt. Dhikr Dhikr ( Arabic : ذِكْر ; / ð ɪ k r / ; lit.   ' remembrance, reminder, mention ' )

1022-484: Is understood as a call to "remember" ( dhikr ) an innate knowledge of God humans already possess. The Quran uses the term dhikr to denote the reminder from God conveyed through the prophets and messengers , as well as the human response to that reminder, signifying a reciprocal interaction between the divine and human. Muslims believe the prophets deliver God's message as a reminder to humans, who, in turn, should remember and acknowledge it. There are several verses in

1095-558: Is within today's Ningxia ) – a very different, Hui rather than Salar , region from the Xunhua County of the 1781 rebellion. It took the Qing forces several months to quell Tian Wu's rebellion. As it happens too often during suppression of rebellions, many non-combatants perished as well; it is reported that Li Shiyao's forces executed over a thousand of women and children of in Jahriyya communities of Eastern Gansu. The Jahriyya

1168-680: The Gospel . In that vein, the Jews and the Christians are thus referred to as "the people of the Reminder" (ahl al dhikr) (16:43, 21:7). The Quran justifies the sending of numerous prophets by God by stating that human beings, similar to their forefather Adam , have a propensity to forget and become heedless . The key to confronting this shortcoming is the remembrance that God conveys through his prophets. According to Islamic beliefs, prophets have

1241-536: The Qing forces led by General Zuo Zongtang . After fortifications outside of the town itself had been captured by the government troops, and starvation started inside the walls, Ma Hualong surrendered in January 1871, hoping to spare the lives of his people. However, once Zuo's troops entered Jinjipu, a massacre followed. Over a thousand people died, and the town was destroyed. According to most accounts, Ma Hualong himself

1314-495: The names of God or supplication from the Quran or hadith . It may be counted with either one's fingers or prayer beads , and may be performed alone or with a collective group. A person who recites dhikr is called a dhākir ( ذَاكِر ; [ðaːkɪr] ; lit.   ' rememberer ' ). The Quran frequently refers to itself and other scriptures and prophetic messages as "reminders" ( dhikrah , tadhkīrah ), which

1387-453: The 1990s. All people, including Muslims and Catholics, were allowed to use prayer beads inside prisons, lest their freedom of religion be violated when the prison administration forbade their possession as contraband in the penal system. The practice of carrying prayer beads became controversial when gang-members began carrying specific colors of prayer beads to identify themselves . A "dhakir" ( ذَاكِر ) or "Zaker" (literally "mentioner"'

1460-606: The 19th-century borders of Gansu had been primarily controlled by their own, essentially independent leaders – notably, Ma Zhan'ao in Hezhou (now Linxia), Ma Guiyuan in Xining , and Ma Wenlu in Suzhou ( Jiuquan ) – Jahriyya members participated in the rebellion throughout the region. Ma Guiyuan's sons were castrated after he was executed . Ma was besieged in Jinjipu in July 1869 by

1533-556: The Chinese agreed to a treaty was through the leadership of Agui and other generals, as Fuheng was vehemently opposed to a peace treaty. When the treaty was brought from the Myanmar king to Fuheng to be signed, he refused. Agui, after allying other powerful generals on his side, confronted Fuheng again. Fuheng demanded that all those allied against him and for peace, sign a statement (ganjie) to that effect. When they all did, he grew furious and threatened impeachment. This did not occur as he

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1606-579: The Department of Corrections) in the State of New York pursuant to 42 USC Section 1983. The plaintiffs argued that prisoners have a First Amendment Constitutional right to pursue Islamic healing therapy called KASM (قاسَمَهُ | qaasama | taking an oath ) which uses prayer beads . The rosary of oaths, which Alameen developed, was used to successfully rehabilitate inmates suffering from co-occurring mental health challenges and substance abuse issues during

1679-603: The Jahriyya's old rival, the Khufiyya order – blew up and was suppressed in 1895, Ma Yuanzhang returned to Gansu, and re-established the Jahriyya organization, now headquartered in Zhangjiachuan County – an area in eastern Gansu almost exclusively populated by the Hui refugees from Shaanxi, resettled there by Zuo Zongtang after the defeat of the Great Muslim Rebellion in the early 1870s. However,

1752-535: The Messenger of Allah said: "Shall I tell you about the best of deeds, the most pure in the Sight of your Lord, about the one that is of the highest order and is far better for you than spending gold and silver, even better for you than meeting your enemies in the battlefield where you strike at their necks and they at yours?" The companions replied, "Yes, O Messenger of Allah!" He replied, 'Remembrance of Allah." — Jami Al-Tirmidhi 3337 Narrated by Abu Hurairah that

1825-416: The Messenger of Allah said: "People will not sit in an assembly in which they remember Allah without the angels surrounding them, mercy covering them, and Allah Mentioning them among those who are with Him." —  Bulugh Al-Maram : Book 16, Hadith 1540 Narrated by Abu Hurairah that the Messenger of Allah said: "Lo! Indeed the world is cursed. What is in it is cursed, except for remembrance of Allah, what

1898-403: The Quran clarifies that "dhikr" as the human response to God's reminder is not limited to merely acknowledging the truth of tawhid (the oneness of God). Rather, the term "dhikr" also means "to mention." Thus, on the human side, "dhikr" involves not only being aware of God's presence but also expressing that awareness through language, whether spoken or unspoken. Therefore, "dhikr" encompasses both

1971-457: The Quran refers to itself as "The Wise Reminder" (al-dhikr al-ḥakīm) in 3:58, "a Reminder for the believers" (dhikra Lil mu'minin) in 7:2, and "The reminder for the worlds" (dhikra Lil 'alamin) in 6:90. The prophet Muhammad himself is described in 88:21 as a "reminder" ("So remind! thou art but a reminder"). The same terms are also used to refer to other prophetic messages such as the Torah and

2044-597: The Quran that emphasize the importance of remembering the will of God by saying phrases such as "God willing" "God knows best," and "If it is your will.' This is the basis for dhikr. Surah al-Kahf (18), Ayah 24 states a person who forgets to say, "God willing", should immediately remember God by saying, "Maybe my Lord will guide me to [something] more akin to rectitude than this." Other verses include Surah al-Ahzab (33), Ayah 41, "O you who have faith! Remember Allah with frequent remembrance", and Surah ar-Ra'd (13), Ayah 28, "those who have faith, and whose hearts find rest in

2117-652: The Salars from their fortified camp with his regular troops, Agui sent the "incompetent" Heshen back to Beijing, and recruited Alashan Mongols and Southern Gansu Tibetans to aid the Chinese Lanzhou garrison. After a three months' siege of the rebel camp and cutting off the Salars' water supply, Agui's joint forces destroyed the Jahriya rebels; Su and all his fighters were all killed in the final battle. The Jahriya

2190-407: The affirmation of God’s Oneness by us in our pre-eternal ontological reality. Men and women still bear the echo of this “yes” deep down within their souls, and the call of Islam is precisely to this primordial nature, which uttered the “yes” even before the creation of the heavens and the earth. The call of Islam therefore concerns, above all, the remembrance of a knowledge deeply embedded in our being,

2263-522: The authorities had Ma Mingxin arrested, even though he wasn't personally anywhere around Xunhua at the moment. While Ma Mingxin was kept in Lanzhou , the Hezhou adjutant general Xinzhu and the prefect of Lanzhou Yang Shiji went to Xunhua with a small military detachment to take care of the Jahriyya business. The Jahriyya Salars sent a "welcoming party" to meet them, led by the ahong ( imam ) nicknamed Su Sishisan ("Su Forty-three", 苏四十三). Having met

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2336-426: The best form of dhikr, where dhikr is done silently and in one position without moving the body. This method of dhikr allowed it to be done whenever one could, and it avoided showing off as it was privately done. Among the biggest advocates for silent dhikr was Baha' al-Dïn Naqshband , and his form of dhikr "...required the practitioners to force internal energy into different parts within the body through concentrating

2409-620: The confirmation of a knowledge that saves, hence the soteriological function of knowledge in Islam. The Quran also highlights that God called upon all souls to witness His lordship, so that no one can plead ignorance on the Day of Judgment : ""Lest you say on the Day of Resurrection, "As for us, we were heedless of this," or lest you say, "Our fathers associated others with God before us, and we were their offspring after them. What, wilt Thou destroy us for what

2482-519: The creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of the day and night there are signs for people of reason. [They are] those who remember Allah while standing, sitting, and lying on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth [and pray], 'Our Lord! You have not created [all of] this without purpose. Glory be to You! Protect us from the torment of the Fire'" — Surah Al 'Imran , Ayat 190-191 Narrated by Abu Al-Darda that

2555-498: The death or capture of most of Ma Hualong's family, it became the task of Ma Shilin 's son, Ma Yuanzhang (the 1850s – 1920) to restore the menhuan . Ma Yuanzhang and his brothers survived the destruction of the Jahriyya leadership in Ningxia and Yunnan because their fathers had sent them to Sichuan, away from the fighting. Now, when the dust settled, Ma Yuanzhang and his brothers, disguised as merchants, traveled to Gansu to assess

2628-439: The details of which vary between Sufi orders or tariqah . An example of this is the initiation of an applicant, where the repetition of dhikr is a necessary component in the ceremony. Each order, or lineage within an order, has one or more forms for group dhikr, the liturgy of which may include recitation , singing , music , dance , costumes , incense , muraqaba (meditation), ecstasy , and trance . Common terms for

2701-541: The emperor's opinion of him after his coming victories. Agui thought so negatively of his time in Myanmar that he had all correspondence and writings concerning this time destroyed upon his death. He put down an uprising of the Jinchuan people west of Sichuan , called the second Battle of the Jinchuan . This battle took place from 1771 until 1776. During this battle, Agui expressed the importance in shangyun which

2774-466: The emphasis that the Khufiyya members placed of the veneration of the saints, construction of grandiose elaborately decorated mosques and the enrichment of religious leaders at the expense of their adherents. "The Saw"(منشار) (Minšār) (明沙了 Mingshale "Shining Sand") was an 18th-century Jahriyya text. By the early 1780s, the Jahriyya movement had spread over much of the then province of Gansu (which at

2847-460: The following events. Some sources say that the Myanmar nation initiated peace talks and others say the Chinese did; however it happened, by December 1769 peace negotiations had started, and on December   22 the treaty was signed. However, both Agui and Fuheng were absent. The chief negotiator for the Chinese was Ha Guoxing . Documents from this era seem to support the fact that the only reason

2920-452: The forms of litany employed include "hizb" ( pl. "ahzab"), "wird" ( pl. "awrad") and durood . An example of a popular work of litany is Dala'il al-Khayrat . Another type of group dhikr ceremony that is most commonly performed in Arab countries is called the haḍra ( lit . presence). A haḍra can draw upon secular Arab genres and typically last for hours. Finally, sama ` ( lit . audition)

2993-407: The fourth shaikh , Ma Yide (late 1770s – 1849), who assumed the leadership position in 1817, was the son of the third. From this point on the leadership succession in the Jahriyya was usually on the hereditary principle, as it was common in menhuan s in general. Although the 18th-century Jahriyya was primarily based in central Gansu, by the mid-19th century the order's activity was centered in

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3066-414: The function of reminding (dhikr) people of what they already know, while humans only need to remember (dhikr) their innate knowledge of God . This knowledge is said to be present in the divine spirit that God breathed into Adam, as the Quran states that God molded Adam's clay with His own hands and blew into him His own spirit (32:9, 15:29, 38:72). [The message of Islam] is a call for recollection, for

3139-471: The government expedition at the place called Baizhuangzi, Su's people first pretended to be the friendly "Old Teaching" Muslims, but once they'd learned about the purpose of the government expedition, they pulled out their weapons, overpowered the government soldiers, and killed both Qing officials. This action immediately made the Jahriya Salars not just "subversives" but outright rebels in the eyes of

3212-400: The government. While openly confronting the government was obviously a suicidal act for Su's followers, modern researchers [Lipman (1998, p. 108)] surmise that they were motivated by the perceived threat of massacre against their menhuan . After destroying the government force at Baizhuangzi, Su's two thousand Salar fighters then rushed east, across the today's Linxia Prefecture and to

3285-465: The house that passed them by and in which they made no remembrance of Allah." —Shu'ab al-Iman: Book 1, Hadith 392 The Islamic prophet Muhammad is reported to have taught his daughter Fatimah bint Rasul Allah a special manner of Dhikr which is known as the " Tasbih of Fatimah ". This consists of: The Shia way of doing the Tasbih of Fatimah is: Like many other religions, the use of rosaries

3358-420: The inner state of being mindful of God and the outer expression of that mindfulness through verbal or nonverbal means. Agui Agui ( Chinese : 阿桂 ; pinyin : Āguì ; Wade–Giles : A¹-kuei⁴ ; Manchu : ᠠᡤᡡᡳ ,  Möllendorff : agūi ,  Abkai : agvi ; September 7, 1717 – October 10, 1797) was a Manchu noble general for the Qing dynasty . As the only son of Akdun , he

3431-450: The majority of the emperor's wrath as Fuheng was on his deathbed. The emperor in acknowledging the retreat and defeat at the hands of the Myanmar, stated that it made the Myanmar look down upon our celestial dynasty. He also blamed Agui and others for not stopping Fuheng from the foolhardy decision to invade Myanmar if they knew that it would fail. The Jinchuan uprising could not come at a better time for Agui, who would alter drastically,

3504-478: The mind and regulating the breath. This was to be undertaken while repeating the verbal formula that constitutes the Islamic profession of faith: 'there is no god but God, and Muhammad is the messenger of God'". Each word in the verbal statement was for a specific part of the body, such as the navel or the upper chest. The other form of Sufi dhikr is vocal dhikr performed using the tongue and body, where showing off

3577-467: The northern Ningxia (which in the 19th century was also part of Gansu Province), its headquarters being located in Jinjipu (金积堡), a few kilometers south from today's Wuzhong City . Under the leadership of Ma Yide and his successor, the order's fifth shaikh Ma Hualong (d. 1871), the town of Jinjipu became an important religious and commercial center, and the menhuan' s leaders grew wealthy thanks to

3650-447: The now-underground order to all Muslims discontent with the government's policies. This period was also characterized by the creation of Jahriyya literature. Written by the order's ahongs in Arabic and Persian, numerous miracle stories praised Ma Mingxin and his successors. The nineteenth century brought significant changes to the Jahriyya. While the order's second and third leaders were selected primarily based on their abilities,

3723-554: The order's profitable participation in the caravan trade across Inner Mongolia , between Baotou , Huhhot and Beijing . During the Great Northwest Hui Rebellion , which started in 1862, Ma Hualong's Jahriyya led the rebellion in the Jahriyya-heavy eastern parts of the 19th-century Gansu Province, i.e. today's Ningxia and easternmost sections of today's Gansu. While the rebels elsewhere within

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3796-458: The pardoned Ma Jinxi felt himself to be the more legitimate successor of Ma Hualong; so he set up a rival Jahriyya organization, based in northern Ningxia, not far from his grandfather's former Jinjipu headquarters. A split within the Jahriyya followed, with some members becoming followers of Ma Jinxi, and others holding for Ma Yuanzhang. The Jahriyya order continues to this day, even if in more covert forms. In remembrance of Ma Mingxin, whose beard

3869-453: The qualities they represent, cultivate a state of spiritual purity, and draw closer to God. The repetitive nature of dhikr helps to quiet the mind, focus the heart, and create a sense of inner peace and presence.To Sufis, dhikr is seen as a way to gain spiritual enlightenment and achieve annihilation of self ( fana ) in order to seek permanence in God. All Muslim sects endorse individual rosaries as

3942-645: The remembrance of Allah.' Look! The hearts find rest in Allah's remembrance!" Sufi dhikr most commonly involves the repetition of the Names of Allah. This practice is central to Sufi spiritual exercises and is intended to foster a deeper connection with the Divine. The Names of Allah , also known as Asma'ul Husna, represent various attributes of God, such as " Ar-Rahman " (The Most Merciful) and "Al-Karim" (The Generous). By invoking these names, practitioners aim to internalize

4015-414: The remembrance of a knowledge kneaded into the very substance of our being even before our coming into this world. In a famous verse that defines the relationship between human beings and God, the Quran, in referring to the precosmic existence of man, states, “‘Am I not your Lord?’ They said: ‘Yes, we bear witness’” (7:172). The “they” refers to all the children of Adam, male and female, and the “yes” confirms

4088-789: The repetition of particular phrases a specific number of times, prayer beads are used to keep track of the count. Known also as Tasbih , these are usually Misbaha ( prayer beads ) upon a string, 33, 99, or 100 in number, which correspond to the names of God in Islam and other recitations. The beads are used to keep track of the number of recitations that make up the dhikr. In the United States, Muslim inmates are allowed to utilize prayer beads for therapeutic effects. In Alameen v. Coughlin, 892 F. Supp. 440 (E.D.N.Y 1995), Imam Hamzah S. Alameen, a/k/a Gilbert Henry, and Robert Golden brought suit against Thomas A. Coughlin III, etc., et alia (Head of

4161-557: The scholar Muhammed Hayat al-Sindhi who was one of the teachers of Imam Muhammed bin Abdul Wahhab. Ma Mingxin's Jahriyya menhuan (order) was the second Naqshbandi order in China after Ma Laichi 's Khufiyya . Unlike the "silent" Khufiyya Sufis and following al-Kurani's teaching, Jahriyya adherents advocated vocal dhikr , which is reflected in the name of their school (from Arabic jahr , "aloud"). Ma Mingxin also did not agree with

4234-459: The situation. They discovered that two of Ma Hualong's grandsons, Ma Jincheng and Ma Jinxi , survived the disaster at Jinjipu. Imprisoned in Xi'an , the two boys were sentenced to be castrated upon reaching the age of 12. Too late to save the older boy from ending his days as a eunuch slave, Ma Yuanzhang managed to spirit away, intact, the younger one. This boy, Ma Jinxi , survived in hiding (with

4307-403: The third leader of the "good" Khufiyya ) were caught and sent to the southwest ( Yunnan etc.) as well. During his life, Ma Mingxin strongly criticized the competing Khufiyya order for passing its leadership from the order's founder, Ma Laichi , to his son, Ma Guobao . Ma Mingxin himself chose his own successor as the head of the Jahriyya based on his Islamic scholarship and piety; later on,

4380-467: The third leader of the order was chosen in a similar way. Ma Mingxin's death did not stop conflicts with China's Muslim community, or those between the Muslims and the government. Three years after the death of Ma Mingxin, a Jahriyya ahong (imam) named Tian Wu, started a rebellion against the imperial government. It was centered in the eastern part of the then Gansu Province (including Guyuan , which

4453-406: The time also included today's Qinghai and Ningxia ), as had the late Ma Laichi's Khufiyya menhuan . Theological arguments between members of the two menhuans , as well as the orders' claim on members' contributions, against the background of government mismanagement of the provincial revenue, often resulted in both violent conflicts and lawsuits. The escalating conflict between the adherents of

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4526-638: The tragedies of Karbala (and Ahl al-Bayt)". To some extent, it can mean Maddah/panegyrist too. The root of the word "Dhakir" ( ذَاكِر ) is "Dhikr" ( ذِكْر ) which means remembering/praising; and the word "Dhakiri" ( ذَاكِرِيّ ) is the act which is done by Dhakir, i.e. mentioning the Dhikr (of Allah, the Ahl al-Bayt, etc.) by observing its specific principles/manners. Followers of Sufism have two main ways of engaging in dhikr: silent and vocal dhikr. Silent dhikr has been considered by many Sufi practitioners to be

4599-497: The two movements eventually attracted attention of the Qing government in 1781. The apparent center of the conflict at the time was in the ethnic Salar community of Xunhua County (in today's Qinghai Province, just west of today's Gansu's Linxia Prefecture ). Considering the Jahriyya (dubbed by the government The New Teaching , in opposition to the "Old Teaching", i.e. the Khfiyya and the non-Sufi ( gedimu ) Muslims) subversive,

4672-438: The vain-doers did?"" (7:172-73). The Quran uses the term "dhikr" to refer to both the reminder that comes from God through the prophets and the response of humans to that reminder. This word reflects a two-way communication process between the Divine and the human. The prophets deliver the message of God, which is intended to serve as a reminder to humans, and humans respond to it by remembering and acknowledging it. In addition,

4745-494: The wall, and beheaded him right away. Su's Salars tried attacking the Lanzhou city walls, but, not having any siege equipment, failed to penetrate into the walled city. The Salar fighters (whose strength at the time is estimated by historians to be in 1,000–2,000 range) then set up a fortified camp on a hill south of Lanzhou. To deal with the rebels, Imperial Commissioners Agui and Heshen were sent to Lanzhou. Unable to dislodge

4818-416: The walls of Lanzhou; on the way, they had briefly besieged Hezhou and killed some "Old Teaching" followers there, to punish them for goading the government into anti-Jahriyya action. When the besieged officials brought Ma Mingxin, wearing chains, to the Lanzhou city wall, to show him to the rebels, Su's Salars at once showed respect and devotion to their imprisoned leaders. Scared officials took Ma down from

4891-694: Was (known as "the New Teaching" to the Qing administrators of the time), was now a patently dangerous organization in the eyes of the authorities. In the aftermath of the Salar revolt, Ma Mingxin's widow, whose surname was Zhang (originally, from Gansu's Tongwei County ), and his daughters were exiled to Xinjiang . It is stated elsewhere that "all his family" (excluding, presumably, his wife and daughters) were exiled to Yunnan . Other Jahriya adherents were captured and exiled as well. Occasionally, mistakes were made, when many non-Jahriyya Muslims (notably Ma Wuyi –

4964-482: Was a scion of a noble family who led a number of important Manchu military operations, including several of the " Ten Great Campaigns ". On April   14, 1768, Fuheng was appointed military commissioner (Jinglue) and Agui and Aligun , both Manchus , were appointed deputies. This occurred due to the death of the previous commander Ming Rui . Agui had already proven himself in Chinese Turkestan, as

5037-480: Was executed on Zuo's orders on March 2, 1871, along with his son Ma Yaobang and over eighty Jahriyya officials. In the western section of the Yunnan Province, Jahriyya – brought there in the 18th century by exiles from Gansu, notably by the relatives of Ma Mingxin exiled there after the suppression of the rebellion 1781 – was active as well. One of the Jahriyya leaders in Yunnan was Ma Shilin , said to be

5110-410: Was getting sicker each day. At this time a decree was received from Qianlong, demanding a complete withdrawal regardless of the circumstances. This withdrawal, may also have been attributed to Agui, as he was the one responsible for letting the emperor know of the illness affecting Fuheng. Agui took charge of the troops during the withdrawal as Fuheng was worsening. When all was said and done, Agui took

5183-617: Was not considered a primary concern. This dhikr could be done privately or within a group and like the Naqshband dhikr, it placed emphasis on having the verbal invocations ripple throughout the body. Similar to the Naqshband practice of dhikr, where specific words were for specific locations of the body, exists the 'four-beat' (chahar iarb) dhikr that is attributed the Kubravï master 'Alï Hamadanï . Sufis often engage in ritualized dhikr ceremonies that have stemmed from these two types of dhikr,

5256-418: Was proscribed again, despite objections of some government officials (notably, one Fuk'anggan ) who felt that a blanket prohibition would be counterproductive. In view of modern historians, the suppression of Jahriyya was indeed counterproductive, since the dispersion of the order's throughout the country allowed them to widely popularize their idea among China's Muslims. It also increased the attractiveness of

5329-650: Was the policy of utilizing merchants in keeping the military stocked. In 1781, Agui went to Lanzhou , in the northwestern Gansu province, to lead the suppression of the Jahriyya revolt by the Salar adherents of the Jahriyya Sufi order . along with Heshen , Li Shiyao and Fuk'anggan . Agui also led campaigns to unify the Yili area and Taiwan island (1786-1787) within the Chinese state. He served as

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