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39-526: Shaganappi , from the Cree word shâkanâpiy , meaning a "thin-narrow cord", describing the shape of a rawhide thong or lacing. Red River ox carts were held together by bison hide lacings known as shaganappi. The word may also refer to: Cree language Endonyms are: Cree is believed to have begun as a dialect of the Proto-Algonquian language spoken between 2,500 and 3,000 years ago in

78-428: A consonant , can be written four ways, each direction representing its corresponding vowel . Some dialects of Cree have up to seven vowels, so additional diacritics are placed after the syllabic to represent the corresponding vowels. Finals represent stand-alone consonants. The Cree language also has two semivowels . The semivowels may follow other consonants or be on their own in a word. The following tables show

117-502: A long vowel . In the International Phonetic Alphabet , the macron is used to indicate a mid-tone ; the sign for a long vowel is instead a modified triangular colon ⟨ ː ⟩. The opposite is the breve ⟨˘⟩ , which marks a short or light syllable or a short vowel. In Greco-Roman metrics and in the description of the metrics of other literatures, the macron was introduced and

156-465: A complex polysynthetic morphosyntax. A common grammatical feature in Cree dialects, in terms of sentence structure, is non-regulated word order. Word order is not governed by a specific set of rules or structure; instead, "subjects and objects are expressed by means of inflection on the verb". Subject, Verb, and Object (SVO) in a sentence can vary in order, for example, SVO, VOS, OVS, and SOV. Obviation

195-805: A full-stop glyph ( ⟨᙮⟩ ) or a double em-width space has been used between words to signal the transition from one sentence to the next. For Plains Cree and Swampy Cree , Standard Roman Orthography (SRO) uses fourteen letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet to denote the dialect's ten consonants ( ⟨p⟩ , ⟨t⟩ , ⟨c⟩ , ⟨k⟩ , ⟨s⟩ , ⟨m⟩ , ⟨n⟩ , ⟨w⟩ , ⟨y⟩ and ⟨h⟩ ) and seven vowels ( ⟨a⟩ , ⟨i⟩ , ⟨o⟩ , ⟨ā⟩ , ⟨ī⟩ , ⟨ō⟩ and ⟨ē⟩ ). Upper case letters are not used. For more details on

234-593: A work. The vowel ē /eː/ , used in southern Plains Cree, is always long and the grapheme ⟨e⟩ is never used. In northern Plains Cree the sound has merged with ī , and thus ⟨ē⟩ is not used at all. The use of unmarked ⟨o⟩ and marked ⟨ō⟩ for the phonemes /u/ and /oː/ emphasizes the relationship that can exist between these two vowels. There are situations where o can be lengthened to ō , as for example in ᓂᑲᒧ! nikamo! 'sing (now)!' and ᓂᑲᒨᐦᑲᐣ! nikamōhkan! 'sing (later)!'. In alphabetic writing,

273-464: Is also a key aspect of the Cree language(s). In a sense, the obviative can be defined as any third-person ranked lower on a hierarchy of discourse salience than some other (proximate) discourse-participant. "Obviative animate nouns, [in the Plains Cree dialect for instance], are marked by [a suffix] ending –a , and are used to refer to third persons who are more peripheral in the discourse than

312-569: Is also used in Hermann–Mauguin notation . In music, the tenuto marking resembles the macron. The macron is also used in German lute tablature to distinguish repeating alphabetic characters. The Unicode Standard encodes combining and precomposed macron characters: Macron-related Unicode characters not included in the table above: In TeX a macron is created with the command "\=", for example: M\=aori for Māori. In OpenOffice , if

351-504: Is not phonologically transparent, which means gender must be learned along with the noun. As is common in polysynthetic languages, a Cree word can be very long, and express something that takes a series of words in English. For example: kiskinohamātowikamikw know. CAUS . APPL . RECP .place kiskinohamātowikamikw know.CAUS.APPL.RECP.place 'school' ( lit. 'knowing-it-together-by-example place') This means that changing

390-399: Is still widely used in dictionaries and educational materials to mark a long (heavy) syllable . Even relatively recent classical Greek and Latin dictionaries are still concerned with indicating only the length (weight) of syllables; that is why most still do not indicate the length of vowels in syllables that are otherwise metrically determined. Many textbooks about Ancient Rome and Greece use

429-444: Is used for the velar stop /ɡ/ , but g without macron is the voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ . In Marshallese , a macron is used on four letters – ā n̄ ō ū – whose pronunciations differ from the unmarked a n o u . Marshallese uses a vertical vowel system with three to four vowel phonemes, but traditionally their allophones have been written out, so vowel letters with macron are used for some of these allophones. Though

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468-539: Is used in Eastern dialects where s and š are distinct phonemes. In other dialects, s is used even when pronounced like [ʃ] . ⟨l⟩ and ⟨r⟩ are used natively in Moose and Attikamek Cree, but in other dialects only for loanwords. The stops, p , t , k , and the affricate, c , can be pronounced either voiced or unvoiced, but the symbols used for writing these sounds all correspond to

507-512: Is used to represent complex conjugation : z = a + b i ; z ¯ = a − b i {\displaystyle z=a+bi;\quad {\overline {z}}=a-bi} and to represent a line segment in geometry (e.g., A B ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {AB}}} ), sample means in statistics (e.g., X ¯ {\displaystyle {\overline {X}}} ) and negations in logic . It

546-519: Is used. John John cî Q kî-mîciso-w PST -eat- 3SG Macron (diacritic) A macron ( / ˈ m æ k r ɒ n , ˈ m eɪ -/ MAK -ron, MAY - ) is a diacritical mark : it is a straight bar ¯ placed above a letter, usually a vowel . Its name derives from Ancient Greek μακρόν ( makrón ) 'long' because it was originally used to mark long or heavy syllables in Greco-Roman metrics . It now more often marks

585-409: Is very difficult to make definite statements about how different groups emerged and moved around, because there are no written works in the languages to compare, and descriptions by Europeans are not systematic; as well, Algonquian people have a tradition of bilingualism and even of outright adopting a new language from neighbours. A traditional view among 20th-century anthropologists and historians of

624-499: The Banks Islands , including Mwotlap , the simple m stands for /m/ , but an m with a macron ( m̄ ) is a rounded labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡mʷ/ ; while the simple n stands for the common alveolar nasal /n/ , an n with macron ( n̄ ) represents the velar nasal /ŋ/ ; the vowel ē stands for a (short) higher /ɪ/ by contrast with plain e /ɛ/ ; likewise ō /ʊ/ contrasts with plain o /ɔ/ . In Hiw orthography,

663-644: The fur trade posits that the Western Woods Cree and the Plains Cree (and therefore their dialects) did not diverge from other Cree peoples before 1670, when the Cree expanded out of their homeland near James Bay because of access to European firearms. By contrast, James Smith of the Museum of the American Indian stated, in 1987, that the weight of archeological and linguistic evidence puts

702-551: The macron below is typically used to mark the begadkefat consonant lenition . However, for typographical reasons a regular macron is used on p and g instead: p̄, ḡ . The macron is used in the orthography of a number of vernacular languages of the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu , particularly those first transcribed by Anglican missionaries . The macron has no unique value, and is simply used to distinguish between two different phonemes. Thus, in several languages of

741-472: The original Algonquian homeland , an undetermined area thought to be near the Great Lakes. The speakers of the proto-Cree language are thought to have moved north, and diverged rather quickly into two different groups on each side of James Bay . The eastern group then began to diverge into separate dialects, whereas the western grouping probably broke into distinct dialects much later. After this point it

780-469: The proximate third person". For example: Sam Sam wâpam- ew see- 3SG Susan- a Susan- 3OBV Sam wâpam- ew Susan- a Sam see-3SG Susan-3OBV "Sam sees Susan." The suffix -a marks Susan as the obviative, or 'fourth' person, the person furthest away from the discourse. The Cree language has grammatical gender in a system that classifies nouns as animate or inanimate. The distribution of nouns between animate or inanimate

819-492: The syllabaries of Eastern and Western Cree dialects, respectively: Speakers of various Cree dialects have begun creating dictionaries to serve their communities. Some projects, such as the Cree Language Resource Project, are developing an online bilingual Cree dictionary for the Cree language. Cree syllabics has not commonly or traditionally used the period ( ⟨.⟩ ). Instead, either

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858-440: The velar nasal /ŋ/ . Also, in some instances, a diacritic will be written like a macron, although it represents another diacritic whose standard form is different: Continuing previous Latin scribal abbreviations , letters with combining macron can be used in various European languages to represent the overlines indicating various medical abbreviations , particularly including: Note, however, that abbreviations involving

897-488: The y dialect, refer to their language as nēhi y awēwin , whereas Woods Cree speakers say nīhi th awīwin , and Swampy Cree speakers say nēhi n awēwin . Another important phonological variation among the Cree dialects involves the palatalisation of Proto-Algonquian *k : East of the Ontario–Quebec border (except for Atikamekw), Proto-Algonquian *k has changed into /tʃ/ or /ts/ before front vowels. See

936-577: The Cree as far west as the Peace River Region of Alberta before European contact. The Cree dialect continuum can be divided by many criteria. Dialects spoken in northern Ontario and the southern James Bay, Lanaudière, and Mauricie regions of Quebec differentiate /ʃ/ (sh as in sh e ) and /s/ , while those to the west have merged the two phonemes as /s/ and in the east the phonemes are merged as either /ʃ/ or /h/ . In several dialects, including northern Plains Cree and Woods Cree,

975-778: The Plains Cree [j] that is [ð] in Rocky Cree as ⟨ý⟩ . Similarly, in dictionaries focused on Western Swampy Cree, Woods Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩ , while materials accommodating Woods Cree will indicate the Western Swampy Cree [n] that is [ð] in Woods Cree as ⟨ń⟩ . Atikamekw uses ⟨c⟩ [ ʃ ], ⟨tc⟩ [ t͡ʃ ], and ⟨i⟩ [ j ] (which also serves as ⟨i⟩ [ i ]). Eastern James Bay Cree prefers to indicate long vowels (other than [eː] ) by doubling

1014-485: The consonant r̄ stands for the prestopped velar lateral approximant /ᶢʟ/ . In Araki , the same symbol r̄ encodes the alveolar trill /r/ – by contrast with r , which encodes the alveolar flap /ɾ/ . In Bislama (orthography before 1995), Lamenu and Lewo , a macron is used on two letters m̄ p̄ . m̄ represents /mʷ/ , and p̄ represents /pʷ/ . The orthography after 1995 (which has no diacritics) has these written as mw and pw . In Kokota , ḡ

1053-508: The dialects which use syllabics as their orthography (including Atikamekw but excluding Kawawachikamach Naskapi), the term Montagnais then applies to those dialects using the Latin script (excluding Atikamekw and including Kawawachikamach Naskapi). The term Naskapi typically refers to Kawawachikamach (y-dialect) and Natuashish (n-dialect). The Cree dialects can be broadly classified into nine groups. Roughly from west to east: This table shows

1092-407: The language phonetically. Cree is always written from left to right horizontally. The easternmost dialects are written using the Latin script exclusively. The dialects of Plains Cree, Woods Cree, and western Swampy Cree use Western Cree syllabics and the dialects of eastern Swampy Cree, East Cree, Moose Cree, and Naskapi use Eastern Cree syllabics . In Cree syllabics, each symbol, which represents

1131-456: The letter h take their macron halfway up the ascending line rather than at the normal height for unicode macrons and overlines: ħ . This is separately encoded in Unicode with the symbols using bar diacritics and appears shorter than other macrons in many fonts. The overline is a typographical symbol similar to the macron, used in a number of ways in mathematics and science. For example, it

1170-457: The long vowels /eː/ and /iː/ have merged into a single vowel, /iː/ . In the Quebec communities of Chisasibi , Whapmagoostui , and Kawawachikamach , the long vowel /eː/ has merged with /aː/ . However, the most transparent phonological variation between different Cree dialects are the reflexes of Proto-Algonquian *l in the modern dialects, as shown below: The Plains Cree, speakers of

1209-493: The macron, even if it was not actually used at that time (an apex was used if vowel length was marked in Latin). The following languages or transliteration systems use the macron to mark long vowels : The following languages or alphabets use the macron to mark tones : Sometimes the macron marks an omitted n or m , like the tilde , in which context it is referred to as a " nasal suspension": In romanizations of Hebrew ,

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1248-494: The phonetic values of these letters or variant orthographies, see the § Phonology section above. The /ð/ sound of Woods Cree is written ⟨th⟩ , or ⟨ð⟩ in more recent material. Plains and Swampy material written to be cross-dialectical often modify ⟨y⟩ to ⟨ý⟩ and ⟨n⟩ to ⟨ñ⟩ when those are pronounced /ð/ in Swampy. ⟨š⟩

1287-511: The possible consonant phonemes in the Cree language or one of its varieties. In dictionaries focused on Eastern Swampy Cree, Western Swampy Cree may readily substitute ⟨sh⟩ with ⟨s⟩ , while Lowland Moose Cree may readily substitute ⟨ñ⟩ with their ⟨l⟩ . In dictionaries focused on Southern Plains Cree, Northern Plains Cree may readily substitute ⟨ē⟩ with ⟨ī⟩ , while materials accommodating Rocky Cree will indicate

1326-414: The standard diacritic involved is a macron, there are no other diacritics used above letters, so in practice other diacritics can and have been used in less polished writing or print, yielding nonstandard letters like ã ñ õ û , depending on displayability of letters in computer fonts . In Obolo , the simple n stands for the common alveolar nasal /n/ , while an n with macron ( n̄ ) represents

1365-493: The table above for examples in the * kīla column. Very often the Cree dialect continuum is divided into two languages: Cree and Montagnais. Cree includes all dialects which have not undergone the *k > /tʃ/ sound change (BC–QC) while Montagnais encompasses the territory where this sound change has occurred (QC–NL). These labels are very useful from a linguistic perspective but are confusing as East Cree then qualifies as Montagnais. For practical purposes, Cree usually covers

1404-444: The unvoiced pronunciation, e.g. ⟨p⟩ not ⟨b⟩ , ⟨t⟩ not ⟨d⟩ , etc. The phoneme /t͡s/ is represented by ⟨c⟩ , as it is in various other languages . Long vowels are denoted with either a macron , as in ⟨ā⟩ , or a circumflex , as in ⟨â⟩ . Use of either the macron or circumflex is acceptable, but usage should be consistent within

1443-418: The use of punctuation has been inconsistent. For instance, in the Plains Cree dialect, the interrogative enclitic cî can be included in the sentence to mark a yes–no question such that this is sometimes considered to be sufficient without including a question mark (?). However, in many modern publications and text collections ( cf. The Counselling Speeches of Jim Kâ-Nîpitêhtêw (1998) ) full punctuation

1482-466: The vowel, while the western Cree use either a macron or circumflex diacritic; as [eː] is always long, often it is written as just ⟨e⟩ without doubling or using a diacritic. While Western Cree dialects make use of ⟨o⟩ and either ⟨ō⟩ or ⟨ô⟩ , Eastern Cree dialects instead make use of ⟨u⟩ and either ⟨uu⟩ , ⟨ū⟩ , or ⟨û⟩ . Cree features

1521-471: The word order in Cree can place emphasis on different pieces of the sentence. Wolfart and Carroll give the following example by transposing the two Cree words: Cree dialects, except for those spoken in eastern Quebec and Labrador , are traditionally written using Cree syllabics , a variant of Canadian Aboriginal syllabics , but can be written with the Latin script as well. Both writing systems represent

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