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70-477: The Tbilisi Sioni Cathedral is situated in the historic Sionis Kucha (Sioni Street) in downtown Tbilisi, with its eastern façade fronting the right bank of the Kura River . The cathedral was initially built in the 6th and 7th centuries. Since then, it has been destroyed by foreign invaders and reconstructed several times. The current structure is based on a 13th-century version, with some modifications made between

140-710: A burial ground for several notable churchmen, including the 20th-century Catholicoi-Patriarchs of Georgia , and economic and political figure Giorgi Maisashvili: Kura (Caspian Sea) The Kura is an east-flowing river south of the Greater Caucasus Mountains which drains the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus east into the Caspian Sea . It also drains the north side of the Lesser Caucasus , while its main tributary,

210-768: A central, cross-in-square, core; for example, Kalenderhane Camii in Constantinople, Çanlı Kilise in Cappadocia , and the Martorana in Palermo. One particularly common subsidiary structure, witnessed, for example, at Kalenderhane, the Chora Church, and the Martorana, was a bell-tower. On the other hand, a radically abbreviated, "compact" form of the cross-in-square existed, built without narthex and with

280-509: A cliff on the bank of the Kura covering an area of 8 hectares (20 acres), contains underground living quarters, communal chambers, places of worship, storerooms, connected by a network of passageways. It reached its peak about 1,100 years ago as the political, religious and cultural center of the region, but in the 13th century, it fell to Mongolian invaders. Even though irrigation agriculture had been well established for thousands of years, until

350-522: A cross-in-square. The influence of the Nea Ekklesia (New Church) in the Great Palace of Constantinople , built around 880, has often been described as crucial to the dominance of the cross-in-square plan in the medieval period; however, the building has not survived, its actual form is much disputed, and it is by no means certain that it was a genuine cross-in-square. Whatever the reasons,

420-466: A town southwest of Tbilisi. The façades are simple, with few decorations, although there are bas-relief carvings of a cross and a chained lion on the western side and an angel and saints on the north. All sixteen windows have carved ornamental frames. Shallow carvings indicate late decoration. North of the cathedral, within the courtyard, is a freestanding three-story bell tower dating from the 1425 reconstruction by King Alexander I . Largely destroyed by

490-466: Is Mt'k'vari (in old Georgian Mt'k'uari ), either from Georgian "good water" or a Georgianized form of Megrelian tkvar-ua "gnaw" (as in, "river that eats its way through the mountains"). The name Kura was adopted first by the Russians and later by European cartographers. In some definitions of Europe, the Kura defines the borderline between Europe and Asia . In the various regional languages,

560-467: Is also longer. However, because of the more arid conditions and equally intensive water use, the discharge of the Aras is much less than the Kura, so downstream of the confluence the river is still called the Kura. About 52% of the river's flow comes from snowmelt and glaciers, 30% comes from groundwater seepage, and roughly 18% from precipitation. Because of high water use, many of the smaller tributaries of

630-400: Is divided by four columns or piers into nine bays (divisions of space). The inner five divisions form the shape of a quincunx (the 'cross'). The central bay is usually larger than the other eight, and is crowned by a dome which rests on the columns. The four rectangular bays that directly adjoin this central bay are usually covered by barrel vaults ; these are the arms of the "cross" which

700-399: Is inscribed within the "square" of the naos. The four remaining bays in the corner are usually groin-vaulted . The spatial hierarchy of the three types of bay, from the largest central bay to the smallest corner bays, is mirrored in the elevation of the building; the domed central bay is taller than the cross arms, which are in turn taller than the corner bays. To the west of the naos stands

770-480: Is larger than those to the north and south. The term bema is sometimes reserved for the central area, while the northern section is known as the prothesis and the southern as the diakonikon . Although evidence for Byzantine domestic architecture is scant, it appears that the core unit of the cross-in-square church (nine bays divided by four columns) was also employed for the construction of halls within residential structures. The architectural articulation of

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840-539: Is limited and decreases every year. Irrigation agriculture has been one of the primary economic mainstays of the lower Kura valley since ancient times. Because of water taken out for irrigation use, up to 20% of the water that formerly flowed in the river no longer reaches the Caspian Sea. Over 70% of the water in the Iori (Gabirry) River, a major tributary of the Kura, is expended before it reaches Lake Mingachevir. Of

910-461: Is provided by the Chora Church in Constantinople. The original 11th-century cross-in-square was expanded in the 14th century through the addition of a second narthex to the west ( exonarthex , or outer narthex) and by a side chapel ( parekklesion ) to the south, used for burials. The ultimate plans of many other Byzantine churches resulted from a similar diachronic succession of additions about

980-512: Is regarded as one of the most stressed river basins in Asia. Most of the water comes from snowmelt and infrequent precipitation in the mountains, which leads to severe floods and an abundance of water for a short time of the year (generally in June and July), and a relatively low sustainable baseflow . Forest cover is sparse, especially in the Kura and Aras headwaters, and most of the water that falls on

1050-421: Is the 'picture-space' of the icons. It is the ideal iconostasis; it is itself, as a whole, an icon giving reality to the conception of the divine world order." The cross-in-square church may be said to constitute a unique artistic development of the middle Byzantine period. Early Byzantine churches were predominantly basilical or centrally planned (e.g. cruciform tetraconch churches, octagons). The question of

1120-592: Is the 14th-century church known as "Profitis Elias" in Thessaloniki. The interior decoration of the cross-in-square church, usually executed in mosaic but also sometimes in fresco , evolved in close relationship to its architecture, and a "classical" system of decoration may be discerned, represented in particular by the great monastic churches of the eleventh century (for example, Daphni Monastery outside of Athens and Hosios Loukas in Boeotia ). This system

1190-522: The Aras , drains the south side of those mountains. Starting in northeastern Turkey , the Kura flows through Turkey to Georgia , then to Azerbaijan , where it receives the Aras as a right tributary, and enters the Caspian Sea at Neftçala . The total length of the river is 1,515 kilometres (941 mi). People have inhabited the Caucasus region for thousands of years and first established agriculture in

1260-607: The Khrami , crossing the Georgia- Azerbaijan border and flowing across grasslands into Shemkir reservoir and then Yenikend reservoir . The Kura then empties into Mingachevir reservoir , the largest body of water in Azerbaijan, formed by a dam near its namesake town at the southeastern end. The rivers Iori (also known as Qabirri ) and Alazani formerly joined the Kura, but their mouths are now submerged under

1330-594: The Kura-Aras Lowland , which covers most of central Azerbaijan and abuts the Caspian Sea. The Kura is the third largest, after the Volga and Ural , of the rivers that flow into the Caspian. Its delta is the fourth largest among the rivers that flow into the Caspian Sea, and is divided into three main sections, or "sleeves", composed of sediment the river deposited during different periods of time. Before 1998,

1400-595: The cruciform churches of late antiquity (a theory first advanced by Josef Strzygowski , and later followed in various fashions by Gabriel Millet and André Grabar, among others). According to the basilical theory, the crucial intermediary buildings were the so-called "cross-domed" churches of the seventh and eighth centuries (e.g. Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki and the Church of the Koimesis in Nicaea ), while according to

1470-409: The cupola , vaults, added the southern chapel, paintings and decorations, which is written on the southern annex, but the structure was again devastated in 1668, this time by earthquake . The regent of Kartli, batonishvili (prince) Vakhtang , carried out restorations of the cupola and stone plates of the cathedral walls in 1710, as it is carved on the northern wall. Thus, the current tufa facing of

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1540-432: The narthex , or entrance hall, usually formed by the addition of three bays to the westernmost bays of the naos. To the east stands the bema, or sanctuary, often separated from the naos by templon or, in later churches, by an iconostasis . The sanctuary is usually formed by three additional bays adjoining the easternmost bays of the naos, each of which terminates in an apse crowned by a conch (half-dome). The central apse

1610-405: The tholobate is supported by the altar wall and two freely standing pillars (a more advanced design that appeared after the 11th century). Transition from the pillars to the tholobate is via pointed arches. In addition, the pillars are connected to the northern and southern walls by helm-shaped arches (probably 16th century). The yellow tuff from which the cathedral was built comes from Bolnisi ,

1680-592: The "Athonite" variation, a sign of the importance of monastic patronage in this period. The maintenance of this architectural tradition, and its resistance to Turkish and Western influences, has been seen as a means of preserving a unique identity for the Orthodox Church. Beginning in the eighteenth century, a greater variety of architectural forms were employed for church-building in the Ottoman Empire, including revivals of early Christian types (such as

1750-552: The "classic" type of the cross-in-square church, which is exhibited by a number of significant monuments (for example, by the Myrelaion in Constantinople ). However, this classic type represents only one of a number of possible variations on the cross-in-square form. Particularly in later Byzantine architecture, the core of the cross-in-square plan could be augmented through the addition of peripheral structures. An example

1820-629: The 17th and 19th centuries. The Sioni Cathedral served as the main Georgian Orthodox Cathedral and the seat of the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia until the Holy Trinity Cathedral was consecrated in 2004. According to medieval Georgian annals, the construction of the original church on this site was initiated by King Vakhtang Gorgasali in the 5th century. A hundred years later, Guaram ,

1890-495: The 1920s, wetlands were drained and reservoirs were created to facilitate development of irrigation in the lower Kura valley. In the 1950s and 1960s, when the Caucasus region was part of the Soviet Union , construction of many of the reservoirs and waterworks in the Kura basin began. Of the major reservoirs in the Kura catchment, one of the earliest was at Varvara in 1952. Large-scale construction of dams continued until

1960-416: The 1920s, humans did not have a significant effect on the ecology or hydrology of the Kura catchment area. Since then, logging , grazing and especially agriculture began to have a severe outcome on the water availability of the basin. Many forested areas in the mountains have been replaced by thin grassland because of logging. These habitat changes have been detrimental to the ecology of the Kura basin. After

2030-474: The 1970s. Cross-in-square A cross-in-square or crossed-dome plan was the dominant architectural form of middle- and late-period Byzantine churches . It featured a square centre with an internal structure shaped like a cross, topped by a dome. The first cross-in-square churches were probably built in the late 8th century, and the form has remained in use throughout the Orthodox world unto

2100-546: The 4,525,000 hectares (11,180,000 acres) of agricultural land in the lower Kura catchment area, 1,426,000 hectares (3,520,000 acres), about 31%, are irrigated. Much of the water diverted from the river for irrigation goes to waste because of leakage from the canals, evaporation, poor maintenance, and other causes. Leaking water causes groundwater to rise, in some areas so high that about 267,000 hectares (660,000 acres) of land are so waterlogged that they are no longer suitable for agriculture. About 631,000 hectares (1,560,000 acres) of

2170-613: The Byzantine world does not, however, imply the stagnation of artistic creativity, as the numerous variations on the type (described above) demonstrate. These variations seem to represent, not so much a linear evolution of forms, as a series of sensitive responses to various local factors. Already during the Middle Ages, the cross-in-square plan had spread far beyond the political borders of the Byzantine Empire. The type

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2240-685: The Caucasus in the early 4th century. King Vakhtang III gave the reliquary itself in the early 14th century. The Sioni Cathedral was where the Russian Imperial manifesto on the annexation of Georgia was first published. On April 12, 1802, the Russian commander-in-chief in Georgia, General Karl von Knorring , assembled the Georgian nobles in the cathedral, which was then surrounded by Russian troops. The nobles were forced to take an oath to

2310-476: The Kura Valley over 4,500 years ago. Large, complex civilizations eventually grew on the river, but by 1200 CE most were reduced to ruin by natural disasters and foreign invaders. The increasing human use, and eventual damage, of the watershed's forests and grasslands, contributed to a rising intensity of floods through the 20th century. In the 1950s, the Soviet Union started building many dams and canals on

2380-510: The Kura no longer reach the river, instead disappearing in the plain many kilometers from their original mouths. The following rivers are tributaries of the Kura, from source to mouth: Steppe characterizes the arid reaches of the Kura catchment, while meadows are often found in the alpine areas. The Kura catchment area is considered as part of the Kura-South Caspian Sea Drainages ecoregion . Some portions of

2450-549: The Kura-Aras lowland called the river Mother Kür , signifying the importance of the river to the region. The first irrigation agriculture began about 4,500 years ago in the eastern Azerbaijan lowlands. Trading centers were established in time, including one at Mingachevir in Azerbaijan and another at Mtskheta in Georgia. The site at Mingachevir (probably Sudagylan ), first discovered in the 1940s by archaeologist G. I. Ione, had "seven rectangular kilns ... The fuel chamber

2520-696: The Persian shah Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar in 1795, it was restored to its present condition in 1939. Across the street stands another three-story bell tower; one of the earliest examples of Russian Neoclassical architecture in the region. Complete in 1812, the bell tower was commissioned under Pavel Tsitsianov using money awarded in recognition of his conquest of Ganja for the Russian Empire . The murals, painted by G. Gagarin , and iconostasis, also designed by him in 1950s-60s, differed from traditional Georgian tradition. The Sioni Cathedral serves as

2590-413: The Russian Imperial crown; any who disagreed were taken into custody. Sioni Cathedral remained functional through Soviet times, and was partially renovated between 1980 and 1983. The Sioni Cathedral is a typical example of medieval Georgian church architecture of an inscribed cross-in-square design with projecting polygonal apses in the east façade. Main entrance is in the west side. The dome with

2660-636: The catchment is in Turkey, 29,743 square kilometres (11,484 sq mi) in Armenia, 46,237 square kilometres (17,852 sq mi) in Georgia, 56,290 square kilometres (21,730 sq mi) in Azerbaijan, and about 63,500 square kilometres (24,500 sq mi) are in Iran. At the confluence with the Aras River, the drainage area of the tributary is actually larger than the Kura by about 4%, and it

2730-456: The church comes from that period. However, the church was again damaged by the invasion of the Persians in 1795. The cathedral's interior took on a different look between 1850 and 1860, when the Russian artist and general Knyaz Grigory Gagarin (1810–1893) composed an interesting series of the murals, though a number of medieval frescoes were lost in the process. A portion of the murals on

2800-759: The church today known as Fatih Camii in Trilye , Bithynia (dated to the early ninth century) and the so-called "Church H" in Side (probably before 800). It has been suggested that the type was developed in a monastic context in Bithynia during the late eighth and early ninth centuries; for example, the church built at the Sakkudion Monastery in the 780s by Theodore the Studite and his uncle Platon, although known only from literary accounts, appears to have been

2870-461: The congregation. In the classic system, the mosaics were composed so as to be viewed from the west of the church; that is to say, they were oriented towards the lay beholder. In accordance with this line of vision, the curved spaces of the vaults were employed to create an illusion of space when viewed from the intended angle. The decoration of the cross-in-square church was therefore integrally related to its architecture: "The Byzantine church itself

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2940-406: The cross-in-square had come to dominate church-building by the later ninth century, perhaps in part because its relatively small scale suited the intrinsically "private" nature of Byzantine piety. The achievements of later Byzantine architecture have been described as "the elaboration of a type of church that was, in its own way, perfect." The near-universal acceptance of the cross-in-square plan in

3010-508: The cross-in-square is the so-called "Athonite" or "monastic" plan, in which the rectangular bays at the north and south of the naos also opened onto semi-circular apses, giving the church the appearance of a triconch . This plan, often held to be typical of monastic churches, seems to have developed on Mount Athos in the eleventh century; the lateral apses provided a space for the performance of antiphonal liturgical music by two monastic choirs. An important example of this type outside of Athos

3080-461: The distinct spaces of a cross-in-square church corresponds to their distinct functions in the celebration of the liturgy . The narthex serves as an entrance hall, but also for special liturgical functions, such as baptism , and as an honored site of burial (often, as in the case of the Martorana in Palermo , for the founders of the church). The naos is the space where the congregation stands during

3150-545: The existing structure date from this period. It was heavily damaged in 1226, when its dome was ruined on the order of Jalal ad Din Mingburnu . It was subsequently repaired, but damaged again by Timur in 1386 and repaired by King Alexander I . It was again damaged during the Persian invasions in 1522 and in the 17th century. In 1657, the Metropolitan of Tbilisi, Elise Saginashvili (died 1670), substantially restored

3220-425: The highlands becomes runoff instead of supplying groundwater . Attempts at flood control include the constructions of levees , dikes and dams, the largest of which is at Mingachevir , an 80-metre (260 ft)-high rockfill dam impounding over 15.73 cubic kilometres (12,750,000 acre⋅ft) of water. However, because of the high sediment content of rivers in the Kura basin, the effectiveness of these floodworks

3290-413: The irrigated lands have a dangerously high salt content because of mineral deposits from irrigation. Of this, 66,000 hectares (160,000 acres) are extremely salinated. Irrigation returns water, returned to the river by an extensive but outdated drainage system, contributes to severe pollution. Some of this degradation also comes from industrial and municipal wastewater discharge. The ancient inhabitants of

3360-525: The lake. After leaving the dam, the river meanders southeast where it meets its biggest tributary Tartarchay in Barda Rayon and continues across a broad irrigated plain for several hundred kilometers, turning east near Lake Sarysu , and shortly after, receives the Aras , the largest tributary, at the city of Sabirabad . At the Aras confluence it makes a large arc to the north and then flows almost due south for about 60 kilometres (37 mi), passing

3430-472: The latter theory the corners of cruciform churches were simply "filled in" (as for example at Hosios David in Thessaloniki). As the discipline of art history has moved away from an evolutionary approach, the question of the "parentage" of the cross-in-square church has receded somewhat, and attention has turned to the dating of the first fully developed examples of the type. Significant in this regard are

3500-443: The lower half, which is typically more turbid and polluted. This pattern is also apparent in most of its tributaries, especially the larger ones that span more climate zones, such as the Aras and Alazani. There are many lakes and wetlands along the Kura's lower course, most of which are formed by flooding, and some of which are formed by irrigation runoff water. Many lakes also form at the mouths of small tributaries that do not reach

3570-571: The mosaics of the central dome almost invariably represent one of three scenes: the Ascension , Pentecost , or Christ Pantocrator . The middle zone is dominated by narrative scenes representing the great Christological feasts (birth, presentation at the Temple, etc.). The lowermost zone is occupied by the "choir of saints", mostly full-length standing figures, who in Demus's words "share the space" of

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3640-500: The northwest, then into a canyon near Akhaltsikhe where it starts to run northeast in a gorge for about 75 kilometres (47 mi), spilling out of the mountains near Khashuri . It then arcs east before flowing east-southeast for about 120 kilometres (75 mi), past Gori , then near Mtskheta , flows south through a short canyon and along the west side of T'bilisi , the largest city in the region. The river flows steeply southeast past Rustavi and turns eastward at its confluence with

3710-503: The origins of the cross-in-square form has therefore engaged art historians since the latter half of the 19th century, although no single account has ever received the unanimous assent of the scholarly community. The most influential strands in the earlier research attempt to derive the cross-in-square church either from the early Christian basilica (a viewpoint advocated originally by Oskar Wulff, and followed by numerous scholars, including Alexander van Millingen and Charles Diehl) or from

3780-481: The present day. In the West, Donato Bramante 's first design (1506) for St. Peter's Basilica was a centrally planned cross-in-square under a dome and four subsidiary domes. In German, such a church is a Kreuzkuppelkirche , or 'cross-dome church'. In French, it is an église à croix inscrite , 'church with an inscribed cross'. A cross-in-square church is centered around a quadratic naos (the 'square') which

3850-480: The prince of Iberia ( Kartli ), in c. 575 began building a new structure, which was completed by his successor Adarnase in circa 639. According to legend, both princes were buried in this church, but no trace of their graves has been found. This early church was destroyed by Arabs , and was subsequently built de novo . The cathedral was completely rebuilt by King David the Builder in 1112. The basic elements of

3920-878: The river as Tord in Persian. The river should not be confused with the Kura river in Russia , a westward flowing tributary of the Malka in Stavropol Krai ; the Kur near Kursk , Russia; Kur near Khabarovsk , also in Russia and Kor River , which is located in Fars Province , Iran . It rises in northeastern Turkey in a small valley in the Kars Upland of the Lesser Caucasus . It flows west, then north and east past Ardahan , and crosses into Georgia . It arcs to

3990-410: The river flow through a semi- desert environment. Forest cover is sparse. Almost 60 species of fish inhabit the Kura and its tributaries. Some common families include loach , bleak , trout and nase , and many of these fish are endemic to the region. Among rivers of the Caucasus, the Kura has the largest number of endemic species. The upper section of the river supports much more biodiversity than

4060-558: The river flowed all the way to the tip of the delta, where it discharged into the Caspian. In that year, the river escaped its channel and started to flow off to the west, leaving the last few kilometers abandoned. The course change is believed to be the result of a rise in the level of the Caspian Sea coupled with a major flood of the Kura. About 174 kilometres (108 mi) of the river is in Turkey, 435 kilometres (270 mi) in Georgia, and 906 kilometres (563 mi) in Azerbaijan. About 5,500 square kilometres (2,100 sq mi) of

4130-526: The river is known as: Azerbaijani : Kür , Georgian : მტკვარი , Mt’k’vari , Persian : Korr, Armenian : Կուր , Kour , and Turkish : Kür . In Greek and Latin sources of antiquity, the river was known as the Cyrus river; Ancient Greek : Κῦρος ; Latin : Cyrus , as attested by Strabo and Pliny respectively. Bundahishn , a Zoroastrian source written in Book Pahlavi , refers to

4200-409: The river. Most of the elevation change in the river occurs within the first 200 kilometres (120 mi). While the river starts at 2,740 metres (8,990 ft) above sea level, the elevation is 693 metres (2,274 ft) by the time it reaches Khashuri in central Georgia, just out of the mountains, and only 291 metres (955 ft) when it reaches Azerbaijan. The lower part of the river flows through

4270-457: The river. Previously navigable up to Tbilisi in Georgia, the Kura is now much slower and shallower, having been harnessed by irrigation projects and hydroelectric power stations . The river is now moderately polluted by major industrial centers like Tbilisi and Rustavi in Georgia. The name Kura is related either to Mingrelian kur 'water, river' or to an ancient Caucasian Albanian language term for 'reservoir'. The Georgian name of Kura

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4340-480: The service. The sanctuary is reserved for the priests. The altar stands in the central bay, or bema, which is sometimes provided with a synthronon , or bench, where the clergy may sit. The prothesis is used for the preparation of the eucharist , and the diakonikon houses liturgical vestments and texts used in the celebration of the Liturgy. The architectural form and liturgical function described above correspond to

4410-511: The three apses adjoining directly onto the easternmost bays of the naos. This plan was particularly common in the provinces, for example in southern Italy, in Sicily , and in Cappadocia. In this type of church, the templon barrier was often erected along the axis of the two eastern columns, thus enclosing the three easternmost bays within the sanctuary. A particularly important variation on

4480-443: The ultimate destination in the Caspian most of the time. The local name for these lakes translate to dead lake or dead water , suggesting that these lakes do not support much biodiversity. Formerly navigable up to Tbilisi , the largest city on the river, the amount of water in the Kura has greatly diminished in the 20th century because of extensive use for irrigation , municipal water , and hydroelectricity generation. The Kura

4550-587: The vaults; and the lowest zone, composed of the lower or secondary vaults and the lower parts of the walls. The tripartite division has cosmographic significance: the uppermost zone corresponds to heaven, the middle zone to paradise or the Holy Land, and the lower zone to the terrestrial world. In the uppermost zone, only the holiest figures of Christianity are represented (e.g. Christ, the Virgin, and angels) or scenes that are directly related to heaven. For example,

4620-491: The west side of Shirvan National Park , before turning east and emptying into the Caspian Sea at Neftçala . Most of the Kura runs in the broad and deep valley between the Greater Caucasus and Lesser Caucasus Mountains, and the major tributary, the Aras, drains most of the southern Caucasus and the mountain ranges of the extreme northern Middle East . The entirety of Armenia and most of Azerbaijan are drained by

4690-493: The western wall were executed by the Georgian artist Levan Tsutskiridze in the 1980s. The stone iconostasis dates to the 1850s, and was also created according G. Gagarin's design. It replaced the wooden iconostasis burned during the Persian invasion in 1795. To the left of the altar is the venerated Grapevine cross which, according to tradition, was forged by Saint Nino , a Cappadocian woman who preached Christianity in

4760-505: Was a trapezoid. The inner walls and floor were covered with a special coating. These kilns were attributed to the third century B.C. [2,300 years ago]. The number of kilns and the quantity of raw material indicate a trade center." The settlement was probably destroyed by a fire around A.D. 600, but its demise is uncertain. But perhaps the most famous of the ancient settlements on the Kura is the "cave town" at Uplistsikhe , Georgia, first settled as early as 3,500 years ago. The city, carved into

4830-681: Was adopted and developed in Kievan Rus' , and in the various independent kingdoms of the northern Balkans (for example, in the Serbian Empire ). The cross-in-square church also outlived the political collapse of the Byzantine Empire, continuing to serve as a model for church construction both in Russia and in the Ottoman ("post-Byzantine") Balkans and Asia Minor. In the Balkans the plan remained common until c.  1700 , especially

4900-419: Was defined in a classic study published in the 1940s by Otto Demus , which is summarized in the following account. The mosaic decoration of a cross-in-square church may be divided into three zones defined by the architectural articulation of the interior: an upper zone, which embraces the cupolas, high vaults, and the conch of the apse; a middle zone, including the squinches , pendentives , and upper parts of

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