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79-406: Although Greek folk etymology connects skolion with δύσκολος 'difficult', the likeliest connection is with σκέλος 'bent limb, part' as joined verse or repartee. This use is comparable to Japanese renga 'linked verse'. Skolia are often referred to as 'banquet songs', 'convivial songs", or 'drinking songs'. The term also refers to poetry composed in the same form. In later use, the form was used in

158-544: A katauta poem, how many nights he had slept since passing Nabari and Tsukuba , to which the old man responds by way of another kata-uta poem, which combined form a single sedōka . Later medieval renga poets, out of reverence for this exchange, would refer to their art as "the Way of Tsukuba", and the first imperial renga anthology, the Tsukubashū , alludes to it in the title. The earliest extant renga appears in

237-441: A chōrenga form more formal than games like iroha renga, in which 47 stanzas beginning with each of the 47 characters of the hiragana writing system were linked. Around the same time, a more straightforward style of linking developed, which also helped to spur the lengthening of the form. Eventually, this 100-stanza renga, which alternated 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora verses (known as tanku 短句 and chōku 長句 respectively), became

316-497: A different word upon removal of the middle mora, and even verses to include four-mora phrases that became a different word upon removal of the first and last mora. In the Nanboku-cho Period , renga began to take form and establish itself as a literary genre, largely owing to the efforts of Nijō Yoshimoto ( 二条良基 , 1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthology Tsukubashū ( 菟玖波集 ) in 1356. As reflected in

395-483: A list of the most common formats in which renga have been written, both ushin (orthodox) renga , and mushin ( renku ) Waka (poetry) Waka ( 和歌 , "Japanese poem") is a type of poetry in classical Japanese literature . Although waka in modern Japanese is written as 和歌 , in the past it was also written as 倭歌 (see Wa , an old name for Japan), and a variant name is yamato-uta ( 大和歌 ) . The word waka has two different but related meanings:

474-410: A maximum of three verses and no minimum, as could reminiscence—here, the subtopic of transiency fell under reminiscence, although it did not for other rules. There were also many conventions governing the flow of movement throughout the sequence. The term for the proper flow of rhythm, which was also used in other art forms such as Noh theatre, was jōhakyū ( 序破急 ), or "prelude, development, presto" in

553-416: A more stately manner for chorus poetry in praise of the gods or heroes. Terpander is said to have been the inventor of this poetic form, although that is doubtful. Instead, he may have adapted it for musical accompaniment. That these skolia were written, not only by poets like Alcaeus , Anacreon , Praxilla , Simonides , but also by Sappho and by Pindar , shows in what high esteem skolia were held by

632-541: A way of providing "traditional feeling expressed in genuine Japanese way". He wrote waka, and waka became an important form to his followers, the Kokugaku scholars. In Echigo Province a Buddhist priest, Ryōkan , composed many waka in a naïve style intentionally avoiding complex rules and the traditional way of waka. He belonged to another great tradition of waka: waka for expressing religious feeling. His frank expression of his feeling found many admirers, then and now. In

711-441: Is due to the association made by the scholiast to Plato's Gorgias 451e between the epigram and the skolion. Renga Renga ( 連歌 , linked poem ) is a genre of Japanese collaborative poetry in which alternating stanzas, or ku ( 句), of 5-7-5 and 7-7 mora (sound units, not to be confused with syllables) per line are linked in succession by multiple poets. Known as tsukuba no michi ( 筑波の道 The Way of Tsukuba ) after

790-526: Is even worse.   Where do they come from, Flickering before my eyes.   Making me helpless Endlessly night after night. Not letting me sleep in peace? The chōka above is followed by an envoi ( 反歌 , hanka ) in tanka form, also written by Okura: 銀も 金も玉も 何せむに まされる宝 子にしかめやも   Shirokane mo Kugane mo tama mo Nanisemu ni Masareru takara Koni shikame yamo   What are they to me, Silver, or gold, or jewels?   How could they ever Equal

869-457: Is known as the greatest haikai poet. The most favored form of renga in the Edo period was the kasen ( 歌仙 ) , a chain consisting of 36 verses. As a rule, kasen must refer to flowers (usually cherry blossoms ) twice, and three times to the moon. These references are termed hana no za ( 花の座 , "the seat of flowers") and tsuki no za ( 月の座 , "the seat of the moon") . The first stanza of

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948-434: Is sometimes called Misohitomoji ( 三十一文字 ) , meaning it contains 31 syllables in total. The term waka originally encompassed a number of differing forms, principally tanka ( 短歌 , "short poem" ) and chōka ( 長歌 , "long poem" ) , but also including bussokusekika , sedōka ( 旋頭歌 , "memorized poem" ) and katauta ( 片歌 , "poem fragment" ) . These last three forms, however, fell into disuse at

1027-611: The Man'yōshū and other ancient sources exist. Besides that, there were many other forms like: Waka has a long history, first recorded in the early 8th century in the Kojiki and Man'yōshū . Under influence from other genres such as kanshi , novels and stories such as Tale of Genji and even Western poetry, it developed gradually, broadening its repertoire of expression and topics. The literary historian Donald Keene used four large categories The most ancient waka were recorded in

1106-468: The Edo period , as more and more ordinary citizens became familiar with renga , shikimoku were greatly simplified. The 36-verse Kasen became the most popular form of renga , and commonly spoken words as well as slang and Chinese words were allowed. With this relaxation of the rules, renga were able to express broader humor and wit. This style of renga came to be called haikai no renga ("comical linked verse") or simply haikai , and Matsuo Bashō

1185-694: The Five Men of the Pear Chamber to compile the Gosen Wakashū , in addition to preparing kundoku readings for the Man'yōshū , which by that time was already difficult for even educated Japanese to read. In 1005 Emperor Ichijō commanded the compilation of the Shūishū . The above three court anthologies, in addition to the five following anthologies, are known as the "Collections of Eight Ages" ( 八代集 , Hachidai-shū ) , and were all compiled during

1264-746: The Heian period . After the Heian period, during the Kamakura period and later, renga , a form of collaborative linked poetry, began to develop. In the late Heian period, three of the last great waka poets appeared: Fujiwara no Shunzei , his son Fujiwara no Teika , and Emperor Go-Toba . Emperor Go-Toba ordered the creation of a new anthology and joined in editing it. The anthology was named Shin Kokin Wakashū . He edited it again and again until he died in 1239. Teika made copies of ancient books and wrote on

1343-722: The Jōkyū Disturbance (1221), it served as an important foundation for the further development of hyakuin renga, which placed more emphasis on the skill of poets, and stanzas by many major renga participants of the Go-Tōba court such as Fujiwara no Teika (1162–1241) were later anthologized in the Tsukubashū . After the Jōkyū Disturbance, renga moved out of the courts. In the popular hana no moto renga ( 花の下連歌 "renga under flowers"), commoners would gather for renga sessions under

1422-499: The Manyoshu ( 万葉集 ), with its 5-7-5 mora jōku ( 上句 first stanza) written by Ōtomo no Yakamochi ( 大伴家持 , 718-785) and its 7-7 mora geku ( 下句 last stanza) written by a Buddhist nun ( 尼 ama ) in an exchange of poems. This two-stanza form is now called tanrenga ( 短連歌 ) to differentiate it from chōrenga ( 長連歌 ), the hyakuin renga ( 百韻連歌 100-stanza renga ) to which the general term renga refers. The tanrenga form

1501-556: The Muromachi period , renga became popular in the court and people around it. It spread to the priestly classes and thence to wealthy commoners. In much the same way as waka, renga anthologies were produced under the imperial aegis. As momentum and popular interest shifted to the renga form, the tanka style was left to the Imperial court. Conservative tendencies exacerbated the loss of life and flexibility. A tradition named Kokin-denju,

1580-409: The hiraku ( 平句 ). The final verse was called the ageku ( 挙句 ). During a renga session, the verses were transcribed onto a paper known as kaishi ( 懐紙 ), using four sheets, or eight sides of paper, total. The first side ( 初折 sho-ori ) and last side ( 名残折 nagori-no-ori ) contained 8 verses each, and the rest of the sides contained 14 verses each. There were various structural rules based on

1659-490: The hokku ( 発句 ), a 5-7-5 mora verse which was the origin of the late haiku genre. Unlike the following verses, the hokku in a renga session was expected to reflect the reality of the ba —its geographical location, season, etc.—and was also the only verse expected to be able to stand independently as a poem. The composition of the hokku was usually left to a skilled poet, and professional renga poets would sometimes be commissioned to write them during their travels. Often,

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1738-479: The hokku would be written by the guest of the session, with the host responding with the second verse. Two technical conventions that carried over to haiku were the seasonal word kigo ( 季語 ) and a "cutting word" kireji ( 切字 ). The hokku was followed by the wakiku ( 脇句 ), daisan ( 第三 ), the names for the second and third verses respectively. Including these two, the rest of the linked verses were called tsukeku ( 付句 ), and verses 4-99 together were called

1817-452: The renga chain, the hokku , is the forebear of the modern haiku . The stand-alone hokku was renamed haiku in the Meiji period by the great Japanese poet and critic Masaoka Shiki . Shiki proposed haiku as an abbreviation of the phrase " haikai no ku " meaning a verse of haikai . For almost 700 years, renga was a popular form of poetry, but its popularity was greatly diminished in

1896-633: The Aratamashū ( 新玉集 ), which he worked on with the priest Sōzei ( 宗砌 ). However, the anthology was lost and the creation of the next major anthology was completed instead by Sozei’s disciple, Sōgi. Sōzei was one of the "seven sages," a group of poets all active around that time. They consisted of Priest Chiun ( 智蘊法師 , 1448–1471), Priest Sōzei ( 宗砌法師 , ??–1455), High Priest Gyōjo ( 法印行助 , 1405–1469), Priest Nōa ( 能阿法師 , 1397–1471), Clergyman Shinkei ( 権大僧都心敬 ; 1406–1475), High Priest Senjun ( 法眼専順 1411–1476), and Priest Sōi ( 宗伊法師 , 1418–1485). Their work

1975-498: The Greeks. "The gods of Olympos sang at their banquets". The Epitaph of Seikilos , dated to the first century AD , found with the original music in the ancient Greek notation, is the oldest complete example of ancient Greek music. Although often referred to as a skolion, its context as a short tombstone inscription scarcely suggests such a characterisation. It is, rather, an epigram. The confusion about this piece in modern scholarship

2054-563: The Meiji period. Masaoka Shiki, although himself a participant in several renga , claimed that "( Renga is) not literature" ( 「文学に非ず」 , Bungaku ni arazu ) . The renga' s appeal of working as a group to make a complete work was not compatible with the European style of poetry gaining popularity in Japan, where a single poet writes the entire poem. The hyakuin renga sequence begins with

2133-468: The Sōgi line of disciples after the poet’s death. Sōhoku ( 宗牧 , ??–1545) was a disciple of Sōchō and Sōseki, and after their deaths rose to the forefront of the renga world. Like his predecessors, he spent much of his time travelling and wrote many works on renga theory in addition to his compositions. His son Sōyō ( 宗養 , 1526–1563) was raised renga poet as well and continued the tradition of travel. He became

2212-686: The Tsukubashū, Yoshimoto elevated renga to the status of an independent literary genre, setting a crucial foundation for its golden age. The golden age of renga is widely regarded as the Muromachi Period, during which many of the greatest renga masters were active. The era is epitomized by the poet Sōgi ( 宗祇 , 1421–1502) and his compilation of the renga anthology Shintsukubashū ( 新菟玖波集 , lit. "New Tsukubashū). Prior to Sōgi, Ichijō Kaneyoshi ( 一条兼良 , also Kanera; 1402–1481) aimed to succeed his grandfather Nijō Yoshimoto with his compilation of

2291-410: The audience’s attention, while ji verses were relatively plainer and inconspicuous verses serving to bring out the vividness of the mon . A good flow required skilled but subtle control of the pattern of the two types of verses. Because in renga each verse is only related to its immediate neighbors, the sequence as a whole does not have very much semantic, stylistic, or thematic unity. Thus, what held

2370-762: The basis for what we know as renga today. The vocabulary of hyakuin renga was largely limited to the standard poetic diction ( 歌言葉 , utakotoba ) that had been established in the Kokinshū . At this time, poets considered the use of utakotoba as the essence of creating a perfect waka , and use of any other words was considered to be unbecoming of true poetry. A comparable, though less evolved, tradition of 'linked verse' ( lián jù 連句 —the same characters as ' renku ')—evolved in Qin dynasty China, and this Chinese form may have influenced Japanese renga during its formative period. However, there are major differences between

2449-789: The beginning of the Heian period , and chōka vanished soon afterwards. Thus, the term waka came in time to refer only to tanka . Chōka consist of 5-7 on phrases repeated at least twice, and conclude with a 5-7-7 ending The briefest chōka documented is Man'yōshū no. 802, which is of a pattern 5-7 5-7 5-7 5-7-7. It was composed by Yamanoue no Okura in the Nara period and runs: 瓜食めば 子ども思ほゆ 栗食めば まして偲はゆ 何処より 来りしものそ 眼交に もとな懸りて 安眠し寝さぬ Uri hameba Kodomo omohoyu Kuri hameba Mashite shinowayu Izuku yori Kitarishi monoso Manakai ni Motona kakarite Yasui shi nasanu   When I eat melons My children come to my mind;   When I eat chestnuts The longing

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2528-510: The cities, a comical, ironic and satiric form of waka emerged. It was called kyōka (狂歌), mad poem, and was loved by intellectual people in big cities like Edo and Osaka . It was not precisely a new form; satirical waka was a style known since ancient times. But it was in the Edo period that this aspect of waka developed and reached an artistic peak. Still, most waka poets kept to ancient tradition or made those reformation another stereotype, and waka

2607-404: The collection, aesthetic and linguistically polished hyakuin renga that embodied the spirit of the renga session became the foundation for the genre as it is known today. Yoshimoto was a disciple of Gusai ( 救済 , also Kyūsei or Kyūzei; 1281–1376), who was taught by Zen’a. Gusai, a commoner priest, was a leading jige renga poet and key collaborator in the compilation of the Tsukubashū. Yoshimoto

2686-669: The country that did not adhere to the strict rules. As a whole, however, the renga session and its conventions played a crucial role in renga composition, and many extant renga today are products of those sessions where sequences were carefully recorded and preserved. An early attempt at renga in English appeared in 1968 in Haiku Magazine, and the same magazine published an issue in 1976 devoted to renga and haibun . Since then, many English-language haiku journals have published renga, renku, and other linked poetry. Here follows

2765-463: The court to cultivate native talent and look inward, synthesizing Chinese poetic styles and techniques with local traditions. The waka form again began flourishing, and Emperor Daigo ordered the creation of an anthology of waka, where the waka of ancient poets and their contemporaries were collected; the anthology was named " Kokin Wakashū ", meaning Collection of Ancient and Modern Japanese Poems . It

2844-441: The courts, ushin mushin renga ( 有心無心連歌 ) sessions were held in which poets and non-poets were divided into ushin and mushin respectively to link stanzas. The ushin side would offer orthodox elegant stanzas while the mushin side would offer comical or aesthetically "wilder" stanzas ( 狂歌 kyōka ), and while submissions from both sides were accepted as appropriate links, the ushin were favored. While this practice ended with

2923-412: The early Edo period, waka was not a fashionable genre. Newly created haikai no renga (of whose hokku , or opening verse, haiku was a late 19th-century revision) was the favored genre. This tendency was kept during this period, but in the late Edo period waka faced new trends from beyond the court. Motoori Norinaga , the great reviver of the traditional Japanese literature, attempted to revive waka as

3002-470: The famous Tsukuba Mountain in the Kantō region , the form of poetry is said to have originated in a two-verse poetry exchange by Yamato Takeru and later gave birth to the genres haikai ( 俳諧 ) and haiku ( 俳句 ). The genre was elevated to a literary art by Nijō Yoshimoto ( 二条良基 , 1320–1388), who compiled the first imperial renga anthology Tsukubashū ( 菟玖波集 ) in 1356. The most famous renga master

3081-574: The flowering trees in spring, a tradition that is estimated to have been around for about 100 years by the start of the Nanboku-chō Period . Some of the later resulting works were anthologized in the Tsukubashū. Jige renga ( 地下連歌 "underground renga") was born out of hana no moto renga and was pervasive through the Mongol invasions of Japan (1274–1281) and after. The jige renga poets were led by Priest Zen’a ( 善阿法師 , ??–1312), who built upon

3160-444: The form of more literary pedagogical events or more informal competitions that drew crowds of spectators. The scribe sat at a low writing desk ( 文台 bundai ), with the poets sitting facing the desk and the master beside it. The role of the scribe was not only to transcribe the renga sequence, but also to act as an enforcer of the rules of the genre. Once a poet was ready to offer a verse, he would make eye contact with and recite it to

3239-416: The genre. Sōgi’s death in 1502 was followed by a peak in popularity and then decline of renga as the new genre haikai developed. Sōgi’s lineage of disciples continued the renga tradition that ended with the death of Jōha ( 紹巴 , 1524–1602), who is considered to be the final major renga poet. One of Sōgi’s final disciples and also a previous disciple of Sōchō, the priest Sōseki ( 宗碩 , 1474–1533), continued

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3318-589: The greater treasure That is a child? They can not. [English translation by Edwin Cranston ] In the early Heian period (at the beginning of the 10th century), chōka was seldom written and tanka became the main form of waka. Since then, the generic term waka came to be almost synonymous with tanka. Famous examples of such works are the diaries of Ki no Tsurayuki and Izumi Shikibu , as well as such collections of poem tales as The Tales of Ise and The Tales of Yamato . Lesser forms of waka featured in

3397-450: The heritage of Kokin Wakashū, was developed. It was a system on how to analyze the Kokin Wakashū and included the secret (or precisely lost) meaning of words. Studying waka degenerated into learning the many intricate rules, allusions, theories, and secrets, so as to produce tanka that would be accepted by the court. There were comical waka already in the Kojiki and the Man'yōshū , but

3476-405: The historical record the Kojiki and the 20 volumes of the Man'yōshū , the oldest surviving waka anthology. The editor of the Man'yōshū is anonymous , but it is believed that the final editor was Ōtomo no Yakamochi . He was a waka poet who belonged to the youngest generation represented in the anthology; indeed, the last volume is dominated by his poems. The first waka of volume 1

3555-531: The lexicon of waka , which used a limited number of words, there was a complex but clear system of what words fell under what category. For instance, ikkumono ( 一句物 ) was a category of specific phrases could only be used once in the entire sequence due to their particularly strong impression, or because they were considered unrefined. Some of the most important topics were the four seasons, love, reminiscence ( 述懐 jukkai ; included topics like grief and nostalgia), travel, and Buddhism. Topics like these had to follow

3634-512: The manner of music. The jō contained the first ten verses, which should be graceful, smooth, and subtle. The ha encompassed the 11th to 78th verses, which should be dynamic and exciting. The last 22 verses were the kyū , which should move quickly and easily, particularly the final 8 verses for a clean-cut finish. Another convention regarding the flow of the sequence was the alternation of mon ( 紋 "pattern") and ji ( 地 "background") verses. Mon verses contained more striking imagery that drew

3713-453: The most prominent haikai poet and was later also famous for his haiku. Renga was a popular form of poetry even in the confusion of Azuchi–Momoyama period . Yet by the end of this era, the shikimoku had become so complicated and systematic that they stifled the active imagination that had been a part of the renga ' s appeal. During the medieval and Edo periods, renga was a part of the cultural knowledge required for high society. In

3792-487: The noble style of waka in the court inhibited and scorned such aspects of waka. Renga was soon in the same position with many codes and strictures reflecting literary tradition. Haikai no renga (also called just haikai (playful renga)) and kyōka, comical waka, were a reaction to this seriousness. But in the Edo-period waka itself lost almost all of its flexibility and began to echo and repeat old poems and themes. In

3871-421: The number of "blossom" verses, which were considered more important and were usually composed by senior poets or those of higher social status. In addition to the "four blossoms eight moons" rule, which served as a major structural pillar for the sequence, there were many other rules regarding topics or lexical categories and their usage in the context of the whole verse. As the vocabulary of renga largely followed

3950-451: The occasion of someone's death), and other miscellaneous topics. During the Nara period and the early Heian period, the court favored Chinese-style poetry ( kanshi ) and the waka art form largely fell out of official favor. But in the 9th century, Japan stopped sending official envoys to Tang dynasty China . This severing of ties, combined with Japan's geographic isolation, essentially forced

4029-625: The original meaning was "poetry in Japanese" and encompassed several genres such as chōka and sedōka (discussed below); the later, more common definition refers to poetry in a 5-7-5-7-7 metre . Up to and during the compilation of the Man'yōshū in the eighth century, the word waka was a general term for poetry composed in Japanese, and included several genres such as tanka ( 短歌 , "short poem") , chōka ( 長歌 , "long poem") , bussokusekika ( 仏足石歌 , " Buddha footprint poem") and sedōka ( 旋頭歌 , "repeating-the-first-part poem") . However, by

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4108-420: The paper layout, the most important being the "four blossoms eight moons" rule ( 四花八月 ). Each sheet should include one verse that used the word hana ( 花 ), or blossoms, and each side should include one verse that used the word tsuki ( 月 ) to mean moon specifically (as opposed to "month"). Sometimes the "moon" on the last page would be omitted, leaving seven "moons," making that half of rule more flexible than

4187-467: The rules of hana no moto renga but also deviated from them, creating new versions of forms such as 1-day 1000-stanza renga ( 一日千句連歌 ichi nichi senku renga )—telling of the genre's wide scale. Renga continued to flourish in the courts as well, and the era saw splendid renga gatherings of even 10,000 verses a day, as well as prominent women poets such as the Buddhist nun Nijō ( 二条尼 nijō no ama ). It

4266-510: The rules of rinne ( 輪廻 recurrence), which dictated the maximum and/or minimum number of verses each topic could appear in a row. For instance, spring and autumn verses must repeat for at least three and at most five verses in a row. Love originally followed the same rule, but by Sōgi’s era the minimum had dropped to two, and a single verse was allowed by the Edo Period. Summer, winter, travel, and Buddhism, among many others, could repeat for

4345-540: The scribe, the master was mainly in charge of the aesthetic progression of the sequence, maintaining the jōhakyū tempo, ji and mon pattern, the yukiyō , and other aspects of the flow by both judging verses and offering his own. He served as the senior poet who contributed many verses and helped other poets refine theirs, exercising a certain amount of authority over their compositions. Professional renga poets ( 連歌師 rengashi ) such as Sōgi and his disciples would often be in high demand as masters during their travels. At

4424-459: The scribe, who would then check to make sure that there were no infractions and write it down. The scribe was usually a younger, aspiring renga poet who would be able to gather experience and recognition through the session. The job required a remarkable memory, as he was required to not only remember all of the rules, but also to instantly recall all the previous verses in order to check the newest verse against them without wasting time looking through

4503-465: The sequence together was the link between each verse, or tsukeai ( 付合 ). The most important rule of linking was that links could only exist between two adjacent verses, i.e. a verse could not be connected with any verses aside from the one it was being linked to. There was a wide range of types of links, from linguistic to semantic and direct to indirect; Nijō Yoshimoto listed thirteen types in his poetic treatise on renga, Renri Hishō ( 連理秘抄 ). Renga

4582-419: The start of the session, the scribe would receive the hokku and write it alongside the fushimono to its right. Then he would continue to receive verses; a poet would recite his verse, the scribe would recite it back, and each verse approved by the master and him would be written and recited again. Once the scribe wrote the final verse, he would count the number of verses each participant had contributed and write

4661-460: The successor to the Tsukubashū , and he also composed many other major works, the two most famous being "Three Poets at Minase" ( 水無瀬三吟百韻 Minase Sangin Hyakuin ) and "Three Poets at Yuyama" ( 湯山三吟百韻 Yuyama Sangin Hyakuin ). Both sequences were composed by Sōgi and two of his disciples, the priests Shōhaku ( 肖柏 , 1143–1527) and Sōchō ( 宗長 , 1448–1532), in 1488 and 1491 respectively. The former

4740-460: The tallies at the end of the last page. Finally, he bound the four pages with a string. Many treatises and handbooks delineated the proper etiquette and conventions for renga sessions, covering everything from behavior and preparation of individual poets to the setup and dynamic of the ba . There was some variation between time periods and treatises regarding the ideal conditions of a renga session, and there were no doubt many amateur sessions across

4819-518: The theory of waka. His descendants, and indeed almost all subsequent poets, such as Shōtetsu , taught his methods and studied his poems. The courtly poetry scenes were historically dominated by a few noble clans and allies, each of which staked out a position. By this period, a number of clans had fallen by the wayside, leaving the Reizei and the Nijō families; the former stood for "progressive" approaches,

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4898-567: The time of the Kokinshū ' s compilation at the beginning of the tenth century, all of these forms except for the tanka and chōka had effectively gone extinct, and chōka had significantly diminished in prominence. As a result, the word waka became effectively synonymous with tanka , and the word tanka fell out of use until it was revived at the end of the nineteenth century (see Tanka ). Tanka (hereafter referred to as waka ) consist of five lines ( 句 , ku , literally "phrases") of 5-7-5-7-7 on or syllabic units. Therefore, tanka

4977-467: The top renga master after the death of all of the previous generation. His own death marked the end of the Sōgi tradition of renga, and his contemporary Satomura Jōha rose by default to the top position in the renga world. Jōha came from another branch of the Sōgi lineage; he studied under Sōseki’s disciple Shūkei ( 周桂 , 1470–1544), and then Shūkei’s disciple Satomura Shōkyū ( 里村昌休 , 1511–1552) after Shūkei’s death, taking Satomura as his family name. Jōha

5056-445: The transcription. In addition, the scribe needed both poetic and social skills in order to maintain the pace of the session. He had to decide when to enforce the rules and when to let infractions go for artistic or social reasons. Because renga sessions often gathered people from different social statuses, the scribe needed to facilitate the social dynamic and reject or accommodate verses without offending those of higher standing. Unlike

5135-552: The two, the Chinese having a unity of subject and a general lightheartedness of tone, neither of which characteristic is present in Japanese renga ; furthermore, the history of Japanese poetry shows renga as an apparently natural evolution. Around the time of the Shin Kokin Wakashū ( 新古今和歌集 , 1205) during the rule of Emperor Go-Tōba , hyakuin renga developed enough to gain its first real independence from waka. In

5214-564: The varied use of the "ten styles" and novelty, while the latter conservatively hewed to already established norms and the "ushin" (deep feelings) style that dominated courtly poetry. Eventually, the Nijo family became defunct, leading to the ascendancy of the "liberal" Reizei family. Their innovative reign was soon deposed by the Asukai family, aided by the Ashikaga shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshinori. In

5293-556: Was Sōgi ( 宗祇 , 1421–1502), and Matsuo Bashō ( 松尾芭蕉 , 1644–1694) after him became the most famous haikai master. Renga sequences were typically composed live during gatherings of poets, transcribed oral sessions known as rengakai ( 連歌会 ), but could also be composed by single poets as mainly textual works. The "origin" of renga is traditionally associated with a passage in the Kojiki , wherein Prince Yamato Takeru speaks to an old man and inquires, by way of

5372-559: Was an aristocrat who served in the Northern Court of the Ashikaga Shogunate. He was originally a waka poet, and his relationship with Gusai, who also had training in courtly literature, brought together common and courtly renga traditions. Yoshimoto was the first to write extensively on renga theory, creating many works laying out the genre’s structure, aesthetic standards, shikimoku , and more. One major change he made

5451-412: Was by Emperor Ōjin . Nukata no Ōkimi , Kakinomoto no Hitomaro , Yamabe no Akahito , Yamanoue no Okura , Ōtomo no Tabito and his son Yakamochi were the greatest poets in this anthology. The Man'yōshū recorded not only the works of the royalty and nobility, but also works of soldiers and farmers whose names were not recorded. The main topics of the Man'yōshū were love, sadness (especially on

5530-490: Was compiled by Ki no Tsurayuki , Ki no Tomonori , Ōshikōchi no Mitsune and Mibu no Tadamine on the orders of Emperor Daigo in 905. It collected roughly 1,100 waka that had not appeared in the Man'yōshū into 20 volumes, arranged by theme. The Kokinshū poems are generally considered to be reflective and idealistic. Roughly half a century after the compilation of the Kokinshū , in 951, Emperor Murakami commanded

5609-525: Was created as an offering for Emperor Go-Toba , the compiler of the Shinkokinshū, making it a formal piece with ceremonial grandeur. "Three Poets at Yuyama," on the other hand, was created in a more relaxed setting and enjoyed greater popularity in its time. It did, however, maintain also many conventions of renga despite its greater flexibility. The two are now considered the most canonical renga sequences and were widely used pedagogically as standards for

5688-557: Was during the Kamakura Period that the rules ( 式目 shikimoku ) of renga began to develop. At the time, one of the most important rules was fushimono ( 賦物 ), titular prompts that had to be followed by every stanza in the entire sequence. For instance, a white-black fushimono would call for each verse to alternate between including a white object and a black object. Others fushimono might be more linguistic, such as requiring odd verses to include three-mora phrases that became

5767-401: Was heavily involved with major political figures of his time, establishing connections with important people from various factions. His renga moved toward easy understandability and away from the depth and aesthetic standards of the previous tradition. After his death, renga’s period of widespread popularity ended as it was overtaken by haikai , its child genre. Matsuo Bashō (1644–1694) became

5846-475: Was later anthologized by Sōgi in his anthology Chikurinshō ( 竹林抄 ), for which Kaneyoshi wrote the preface. Sōgi, a commoner priest, studied literature extensively, learning renga from Sōzei and classical literature from Kaneyoshi among others. He spent much time travelling the country as a professional renga poet despite the tumultuous political context of his era. His works often feature the relationship between humans and nature. His anthology Shintsukubashū became

5925-560: Was popular from the beginning of the Heian Period until the end of cloistered rule ( 院政 insei ) and would sometimes appear in imperial anthologies of waka , which it closely resembled at a glance. It was during the insei period that the form began take shape and evolve into chōrenga . The Kin'yōshū ( 金葉集 ) was the first imperial waka anthology to include an explicit section on renga thanks to its compiler Minamoto no Toshiyori ( 源俊頼 , also Minamoto no Shunrai; ~1055–1129), who

6004-645: Was presented to the emperor in 905. This was the first waka anthology edited and issued under imperial auspices, and it commenced a long and distinguished tradition of imperial anthologies of waka that continued up to the Muromachi period. The first three imperially-commissioned waka anthologies ( 三代集 , Sandai-shū ) were the Kokin Wakashū , the Gosen Wakashū and the Shūi Wakashū . The Kokinshū

6083-401: Was the first to write about renga theory in his poetic treatise Toshiyori Zuinō ( 俊頼髄脳 ). As tanrenga gained traction and began to feature more intricate and technically complex links between its two stanzas, the genre gained popularity as a game, and events were held to create the best links. Participants began going beyond the original two stanzas of tanrenga , leading to the creation of

6162-477: Was to the fushimono , which remained part of the title but now only applied to the first verse rather than the whole sequence. Other important rules delineated the maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear in a row, and maximum numbers of stanzas in which certain topics could appear across the whole sequence. Many of his aesthetic treatises became important pedagogical artifacts for future renga poets. Through his theoretical work and compilation of

6241-427: Was typically composed in sessions attended by a group of poets known as the renju ( 連衆 , also renjū )—usually 7-8, though the number could range widely—, a scribe ( 執筆 shuhitsu ), and a master ( 宗匠 sōshō ). The setting of the session was called the ba ( 場 ), and was an integral part of the poetic sequence, providing aesthetic inspiration and often serving as the basis for the hokku . These sessions could take

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